Lectures for Exam 1

cancer natural selection

Why do human genetic variations occur? • The prevailing theory-darker skins evolved to protect against skin _______. • The recent theory-skin color is the product of _______ ________ to regulate UV radiation crucial to reproductive success.

disease

• Typically, _______ refers to the clinical manifestations of altered physical function or infection. • However, anthropologists define ________ in the context of social problems such as malnutrition, economic insecurity, industrial and motor-vehicle pollution, bad housing, and political powerlessness that contribute to the susceptibility to disease.

80 prior grassroots Bottom-up

1973-19__ • Due to the failure of development projects, the US congress responded. • The new legislation requires that research need to be carried out in communities _____ to project planning to match the local needs. • The new development discourses shift toward more ________ planning. • Many anthropologists started working with development organizations again. (_______)

foreign private NGOs policy

1981-1993 • During the Reagan-Bush era, the US _____ assistance replaced the government to government aid and supported for _______ organizations and industries. (Us gov to local gov) • Many anthropologists who were working with government organizations left their positions. • Many anthropologists started working with ____, multilateral organizations (UN, World Bank), and _____ institutes. (grassroots programs) • Some set up their own private foundations and consulting firms.

not

A quote "the US travel ban and the distorted portrayal of Cuba in both popular and scholarly media ensure that the majority of North Americas do ___ learn that a poor third world country gripped by economic crisis and under constant attack from the most powerful nation in the world is still able.

parents

AIDS GLOBALLY -In India - HIV is mostly concentrated among poor and marginalized groups, such as commercial sex workers, truck drivers, and migrant laborers, homosexuals, and injection drug users. But infection is spreading rapidly to the general populations. -Women were blamed by their ______ for infecting their husbands or for not controlling their partners' desires to have sex with other women. -In Caribbean - Bahamas and Cuba have considerable success to AIDS prevention. -In former Soviet States - high rates of commercial sex, and injection drug use are developing the AIDS epidemic. -In China - remains a sleeping giant. Floating populations are mostly vulnerable.

HIV

AIDS IN THE USA -Scientists tried to find the cause of AIDS among gay men, injection drug users, blood transfusion recipients and heterosexuals in Africa. -The breakdown of the immune system and the connection of blood transfusion made it clear that the pathogen had to be found in the blood. -In the 1990s, news stories reported that AIDS is the major public health threat in the Century. Yet, the virus of ___ is unknown.

women crack circumcision

AIDS and Inequality -The poor are mostly affected by AIDS. -Gender inequality placed ______ as mostly vulnerable to the transmission of AIDS. -The poor women often have to trade sex-for-____. -Domestic violence impede their ability to negotiate sexual behavior. -Social inequality is the social engines driving the global pandemic. It is not about lifestyle change and individual responsibility. Anthropologists on AIDS - -Understanding AIDS - Private sexual encounters and risky behavior among drug-users (Bolton and Leonard's study). -- narratives can unfold the meaning of their experiences -- Define natural social categories and actual social identities. -Culturally appropriate prevention program. i.e., harm reduction approach or benefits of _________. -Anthropologists understand AIDS not only through the biotic aspects of pathogens, hosts, and environment, but through biopolitical economic approach to AIDS.

floating global

AIDS is not merely a pathological entity - It is also a social creation. What are the relationship between AIDS and social inequality? Why AIDS is pandemic? -The issue of globalization, i.e., youth culture who are travelling and the flow of Internet, movie, popular music, television put the youth to have sex in dating relationship while condoms may not be available, and drinking and drug use reduce the likelihood of their use. In addition, _______ populations, (120 million workers from rural to urban economic migrants) a product of Chinese growth, who may contribute to risky sexual practice or drug use. -Pandemics, which are epidemics (nonexplosive, entrenched diseases of everyday life in particular communities) on a _____ scale.

1981 lifestyle 1985

-AIDS first discovered in the US in 19__. During 1980, 45 young men, primarily gay men were diagnosed with HIV infection. -Researchers asked: Is it a result of diet, environment, gay lifestyle, or inhalers to enhance sexual arousal? -The popular media tied it up with gay _______. Soon, the Castro street in San Francisco being labeled as "AIDS City, USA." -The term "gay plague" or GRID (Gay Related Immune Deficiency) came out in 1981-198_.

60 5,000 30 16.6

-In 2009, more than __ million people have been infected with HIV around the world. -Almost _,000 people die each day from AIDS, caused __ million death so far. -As of 2009, approximately __.6 million children has lost one or both parents from HIV.

97%, 67% 7,200, Half Asia, Eastern

-_7% people living with HIV/AIDS live in low and middle income countries. _7% are them in Sub Saharan Africa. -Almost 7,200 newly HIV infection are occurred each day. ___ of them are 15-24 years old. -AIDS is fastest growing in parts of ____, Latin America, and ______ Europe.

Racism

Do you think that drug addiction is a question of availability or it is a political problem? Why the War on Drugs continues to fail at achieving its goal, but its budget increases from 1 to 9 billions in the last decade. What are the secondary gains of the war? -The US government spokespersons are deeply involved. -Individual blaming -_____ - the war produced another war: it is between police and minority -Super-exploited workers, private prison.

Navarro's Critical Medical

Early CMA • 1973 symposium at the 9th international congress of anthropological and ethnological sciences • Vincente _______'s (1976) "medicine under capitalism" • Hans A. Baer and Merrill Singer coined "_____ ______Anthropology' at the 1982 AAA meeting.

economic trade social

Emerging infectious disease • According to Paul Farmer's article Social Inequalities and Emerging Infectious Diseases, outbreaks have been tied to: o 1) e______ policies o 2) t___ networks o 3) s_____ practices o 4) poverty and homelessness

Field Dual-degree biocultural

Graduate Schools • Medical Anthropology Program with _____ Concentrations or Theoretical Orientations. • _________ (programs with school of medicine, nursing, public health, and epidemiology). • Some work in International Health and others in public health and community health in the US. • Examine the past and the present (the ______ synthesis), as well as the political and the cultural dimensions of health.

universal competition

HEALTH AS HUMAN RIGHTS -Human rights - political rights vs. social and economic rights. -Human rights can be declared _______, but the risk of having one's rights violated are not universal - the poor are most likely to be victims of AIDS. The managed _______ care model constitutes a system-correcting praxis while the single payer model has much potential to serve as system-challenging praxis.

health

The World Health Organization defines ________ as not merely the absence of disease, but a state of physical, mental, and social-well being. • General well-being of a person. • Mental, Physical, and Social well-being of a person. • Not purely biological.

The big Pharma

The ____ _________ -The most profitable industry in the US for over two decades. -The important drugs came out mostly based on taxpayer-funded research at academic institutions, small biotechnology companies, or the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The others are not innovative.

correction challenging involvement

Singer proposes two transformations: o A) system-_________ praxis- the implantation of minor material improvements that avoid any alteration of the social system. o B) system-_________ praxis- it unmasks the causes of suffering, the sources of exploitation, and more concerned with the origin of social inequality. "Some things are easy quick fixes and some things take more persistence and time." • No anthropologists can escape __________.

200 neoliberalism 74

THE BIG PHARMA -The sales of prescription drugs now stand at more than $____ billion a year. -The wave of ________ - all parties cash in on the public investment in research. -Patenting and lobbying to Congress -Marketing and advertising the drugs -In 2001, the ten American drug companies in the Fortune 500 list. A CEO made $__,890,918 in 2001.

equal

THE EFFECTS -Stigma towards sufferers or assumed sufferers - Does it different than other diseases? -Individual blame and punishment - I have AIDS and I am AIDS -The social and mental damage are _______, if not more painful than the medical consequences. -Stigma - "People who got AIDS through sex or drug use have gotten what they deserve" or HIV transmitted from sharing a glass with someone who is HIV infected or by coughing or sneezing by an infected individual. -Some argue that the GRID was a barrier for the Church to accept homesexuality.

Haiti tourists

THE ORIGIN MYTH -The Press circulated an exotic account from 1981 that ____ was the source and their homosexual practice is the cause of AIDS. -Haitian homosexuals have passed it on to homosexuals in the US through prostitution. -But data shows that AIDS was introduced into Haiti by ______ or by returning Haitians coming from US or Europe.

1924

THE ORIGIN REALITY -Recent study (Worobey et al. 2008) shows that the disease moved into human populations between 1884 and 19_4, when urbanization took off in west central Africa. Dense city populations primarily sexually active adults spread the disease at the transition of Colonial Africa to Urbanized cities. -HIV likely originated from nonhuman animal, i.e., the original host of HIV-1 was chimpanzees in the late 19th century, the HIV-2 was came from mangabey monkeys, and a recent type of HIV came from SIV gorilla. -The recent case of SIV chip shows that the virus transferred as a result of chimps being killed and eaten (called bush meat) or their blood getting into cuts or wounds on the hunter. This is not uncommon, for example, hunting deer for meat in the US.

me-too seventeen

THE PROFIT -Americans pay much more for prescription drugs than Europeans and Canadians. -The great majority drugs are "__-___" drugs. -Of the seventy-eight drugs approved by the FDA in 2002, only ________ contained new active ingredients, and only seven of these were classified by the FDA as improvements over older drugs. Americans now spend a staggering $200 billion a year on prescription drugs, and that figure is growing at a rate of about 12 percent a year.

welfare

THE TASK -Anthropologists can contribute to meaningful discussion of democratic socialism - people's _____, democracy, and survival. =Action and applied work: system-correcting praxis and system-challenging praxis.

light foragers brains

The Earliest Human • The earliest human had a ____ skin covered with hair. • Presumably hair loss occurred first, then skin color changed. • The earliest human _______- they probably walked long distances for food (hunter gatherer). • They faced the problem of staying cool and protecting their ______ from overheating • When the hair loss occurred, they faced challenges to protect their skin from UV radiation.

Vitamin B folate

The Folate Connection • Light skin people= exposed to strong sunlight = low level of ______ __ _______ in their blood. • It leads to spinabifida, fertility problem, and skin cancer

Portugal 1560, 1561 1600

The History of Tobacco • Christopher Columbus discovered tobacco in Caribbean and brought to ______. • It diffuses to France in 15_0, Italy in 156_, and later throughout Europe. • It was used as medicine but later used as recreational, mood-altering substance. • By _____, smoking was a common practice among working class people in England. Why? Stress reliever and it was quick while they were at work with their five minute breaks.

10,000 1970s

The Homelessness • In New York city in 1975, the Task Force counted only 30 homeless families, whereas by the 1980s, the figure had risen to __,000. • The term homelessness came into popular use in the late 19__s to describe people who were sleeping in the streets and public spaces. • The homeless are affected by poor nutrition; TB, HIV, and other infectious diseases; lack of access to medical support and substance abuse. Death rates and rates of disease are all higher among them.

melanin absorbs

The Importance of Melanin • Humans became hairless, _______=nature's sunscreen, assumed new importance. • Melanin ______ UV rays and protect the skin from radiation.

hand 200 1912 17,000

The Industrial Production • Prior to 1881, cigarettes were rolled one-by-one by ____. • In that year, a machine was invented and produced more than ___ cigarettes per minute. • 19__, the safe match was invented. • In 1991, Philip Morris has produced ______ cigarettes per second, 24 hours a day.

4000 black

The Role of States • Tobacco was also criticized as harmful to health. • In 1604, King James of England raised the state tax by _____% on tobacco. • Russia imposed harsh legislation including deportation to Siberia and even death. • Eventually, a _____ market emerged.

cash 17

The State Tax • Tobacco offered a large amount of revenue to the States. • It emerged as North Americas ___ crop. • By the __th century, British government convinced other nations to remove bans on tobacco, import British tobacco, and then tax it. • The tobacco revenue helped to fund the transformation from feudalism to capitalist production.

Malnutrition waste measles malaria foragers

Agrarian Society • Due to limited access to resources and food, peasants in agrarian societies subsist on a limited number of cultivated crops. • The ultimate result is more food supply for the elites and chronic food shortage for poor, peasants, and slaves. • These crops were vulnerable to droughts, floods, and pests. • ________ and greater susceptibility of diseases among the poor increase. • The Neolithic Revolution would undoubtedly increase parasitic and infectious diseases spread by contact with human ______. For example, cholera, chicken pox, syphilis, as well as tuberculosis and respiratory disease increase. • Due to population density, ________ (which originated from a virus of dogs or cows) spread out. • Due to large irrigation systems, vector borne diseases such as ________ and schistosomiasis increased. • The herding of animals would also increase the frequency of contact with zoonotic diseases, i.e., wound infections, transmit of anthrax fever and tuberculosis (due to animal products such as milk, hair, and skin), as well as insect bites increase. • Slash and burn agriculture in west Africa exposed populations to malaria which was absent among ________.

altering

Alcohol is mind _______/affecting drugs.

anxiety working male

Alcohol: The Cultural Approaches • Alcohol plays an integrative role—a ritualized group activity—its primary function is the reduction of _______. • Does it mean that would the society have fallen apart without alcohol? No. CMA on Alcohol • Social condition shape drinking behavior—the ______ class are mostly affected. • Economic disruption—social stress—heavy drinking—health problems. • It enhances class solidarity, _____ identity, and alleviate personal suffering. • Political factors—the corporate Profit—advertisement—tension to establish whether it is a drug and the role of the state. -Increase availability enforces increased consumption.

psychological

As the cocaine-using woman in Atlanta proposed -- "We need a harm reduction approach, which included low-threshold programs that do not penalize drug users who have not quit totally or who re-lapse, that provide __________ services to help them cope with their past experience as well as practical services such as basic education, life-skills training, job preparation, and employment opportunities."

Critical

Beyond the Ivory Tower • _______ medical anthropology (CMA) recognizes that health itself is a profoundly political issue (Navarro 1984).

Hegemony 16 high allopathic Imperial

Biomedical _______ • Biomedicine is an outgrowth of capitalism that emerge in the __th century Europe. • Evidently, biomedicine achieved over alternative medical system such as homeopathy in Europe and eventually throughout the globe. • While homeopathy treats disease by small dosage of drugs and altering environmental condition, biomedicine treats with ___ dosage drugs. • During European colonization, physicians were employed by trading companies and provided medical treatment to the colonizers. • Christian missionaries also introduced ______ medicine to the native. • Schools of Tropical medicine were established to promote ________ policies.

Ayurveda

Biomedicine and ethnomedicine • Although biomedical practitioners view ethnomedicine is filled with "superstitions" and "faulty medical practice" they serve as antecedents of biomedicine as well as other contemporary medical systems, such as ______ and Chinese medicine.

macro

CMA • The _____ perspective of World Capitalist System • Academic and applied medical anthropologists • The Hegemony of biomedicine • We have to look at the larger picture of disease and illness at different levels such as the microbe, the individual, the societal, the national, or the international even the world Bank.

warfare Colonialism 79, 5.1

Capitalist World System • Massive malnutrition and economic inequality. • Susceptibility to infectious diseases increases. • Social mortality resulting from ______. • ________ brought new diseases. • Capitalist industrial revolution resulted in global ecological destruction. It increased water and air pollution, and peasants pushed off the land and migrated to horribly unsanitary and overcrowded slums (Marx and Engles). • Certain countries such as Cuba have a better healthcare, as It has eradicated malnutrition improving sanitation, and providing both preventative and curative medicine. The life expectancy is 7__ years in Cuba and infant mortality rate is __.1 per 1,000 live births.

international 1970s local

Career Path • Many medical anthropologists work in _________ development • It has a long history after world war II • Up until _____, they work with international organizations, but criticize bureaucratic behavior and institutional culture of those organizations. • These organizations believe that development projects fail because of the _____ culture.

worst 81, 76, 33 6, 40 30% 8,000

Health in the US • The US has the _____ health statistics among the developed countries due to part of an absence of national health plan. Americans consume junk food, overwork, and live hectic lives. Some Statistics • Life expectancy is __ years for women and ___ years for men in the US, which ranks __rd among the 193 reporting nations of the WHO. • For decades, the US has experienced the highest infant mortality rate on high-income countries. In 2011, the infant mortality rate was __ deaths per 1,000 live births, ranking __th among WHO nations. • In the US, death among young adults, unintentional injuries claim about 3_ percent of the years lost before age 50. • Per capita health care spending in the US continues to be highest in the world. The median expenditure among OECD (organization for economic cooperation and development) countries is around $3,000 per person, while in the US, it is more than $_,000 per person • The US has one of the highest inequalities in health compared to other developed nations. • Physical inactivity, smoking, dietary choice, stress, combined with inequalities result in poor health in the US, even though it spends most of the healthcare but that does not translate not better care for everyone.

mortality

Health is usually defined by how long people live. (based on _______).

demand

Homelessness and health • Rats and roaches live by competition under the law of supply and ______; it is the privilege of human beings to live under the laws of justice and mercy—Wendell Berry

40

Homelessness in the Recent US • The great depression in US (1930s)—unemployment rate was 4_%--the beginning of homelessness. • The new words, hobos became popular • 1940-1970, high employment, and social programs keep the poor in their homes. The social security act was being implemented. • The neoliberalism in late 1970s, the deindustrialization in the 1980s, and the globalization since 1990s correspond to massive inequality and increasing homelessness—a beginning of wounded cities.

oldest colonial urban

In China • Chinese medicine is probably the worlds _______ medical system, however, biomedicine expanded there through _______ power. • In pre-capitalist China, biomedicine tended to be ______ based and curative in orientation. • Overall, biomedicine finds ethnomedicine as witch practice, backward, and ineffective.

sanitation food birth spacing

McKeown argued that ________, better _____ and ____ ______ are more significant factors than therapeutic intervention in the context of health.

purification sewage pasteurization

McKeown showed that deaths from common infectious diseases fall due to basic hygiene, such as __________ of water, ______ disposal, food hygiene, and __________ of milk.

social

Medical Anthropology: • Health is not primarily a biological condition. • Understand the _____ origins of disease. • The cultural contexts of patients and healers. • The interactions between biology, society, and culture. • A diverse discipline.

insider's holistic contextualized applied

Medical Anthropology: • Immersing into the day to day lives rather than conducting studies in laboratories. • Learn the ______ point of view. • Use qualitative methods, rather than numbers. • Inclined to take ______ approach. • Develop detailed, but highly _________ accounts of health and its interrelated issues. • Promotes ______ aspect of medical research.

India 150,000 ; 400,000

Medical Pluralism • In ______ - biomedicine exists with Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha medical systems. In the early 1970s, there were ___,000 biomedical physicians in India, while about ____,000 practitioners of these three medical systems. • In Japan, biomedicine exists with Kanpo, Shamanism, Shintoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.

histories Egyptians 3,000

Medical Pluralism in Pre-Capitalist Society • In ancient Sumerian civilization, most physicians diagnosed symptoms by taking health _____, while some performed direct physical examination. • The ancient _______ have the healthiest population in the world. Every physicians treats one disease, not many. • Medical pluralism in China based on different therapies and healers. About _,000 years ago Chinese state established medical schools almost every province in the empire.

Pluralism

Medical ______ • In contrast to simple preindustrial societies, state societies manifest the coexistence of an array of health care systems that is called medical pluralism. • For example, in the US, we can find biomedicine, as well as chiropractic, naturopathy, Christian science, evangelical faith healing, and various ethnomedicine.

Nutrition Primary Global

Medical anthropologists Involved In • Academic and Applied Field • AIDS • Poverty and _______ • ______ Health Care • Family Planning • Infectious Diseases • _______ Health • Medical Ethics and many more...

Wandering 16th mercantile increased

Poverty in the Affluent West • _______ poor of pre-Industrial Europe (people who would walk door to door asking for money) • The number of beggars grew through the __th century in Britain • Friedrich Engel's book, the condition of the Working Class in England, (1845)—the cause of death and illness among working class during the ________ capitalism. • In the 19th century, unemployment ________ due to industrial capitalism. • Public poor house residence and assistance were implemented.

4 masculinity

Poverty in the Third World • For example, Puerto Rico • The Spanish conquest and colonization—gold mine, sugar plantation, and rum. • The US acquisition of Puerto Rico—_ out of 5 Puerto Ricans were landless just in 3 decades. • 1930—the financial crash in US—Sugar factories are sold to local capitalist. • The new wave of industrialization—migration from rural to urban. • The post WWII—the economic boom in the US—the labor migration from the third world • In the late 1970s—unemployment rate increases again, and so does homeless and their suffering from diseases. • Alcohol and crack cocaine serve as tranquilizers to cope with economic recession and express _________.

foragers prehominid zoonotic industrial half

The ________ • Richard Lee found among the San in Kalahari Desert that they worked fewer hours per day, were better nourished and healthier, and enjoyed cleaner environment than their horticultural neighbors. • Marshall Sahlins refereed to foragers as the "original affluent society". • Epidemiologist Frederick Dunn stated that malnutrition, starvation, and chronic diseases are rare among foragers • Foragers probably acquired diseases such as head and body lice, pinworms, and yaws from ________ populations • They also suffered from ________ diseases, such as insect bites, eating contaminated flesh, and wound infection by animals. • Physician Eaton and anthropologist Shostak and Konner argue that for "A Paleolithic Prescription" based on the comparison among late Paleolithic and contemporary diets in the U.S. What are their arguments? Why do they suggest that modern people adopt a "stone age diet"? food intake and exercise are very important for good health. They didn't have alcohol. They didn't have carbohydrates. • The life expectancy of San Adults exceeds that of adults of many ________ societies. • However they didn't live in the garden of Eden. They were more vulnerable to infant mortality nearly ___ of the children died before adulthood.

rent

The biobehavioral Disorder • Homeless people suffer from mental problem and substance abuse. • Blaming the poor—not taking medication—individual problem. We don't see that, it is a product of low pay for work and the high cost of ____. • Yet, biobehavioral approach understands disease through biology and behavior—the social factor does not fully factored—CMA expands on it.

13

Tobacco causes chronic illness, respiratory problems, lung cancer - children are exposed to smoke inhalation - third hand smoking - The long term environmental and health costs associated with tobacco - an enormous amount of firewood is necessary to cure tobacco leaves - 2.5 millions hectares of trees are cut worldwide every year for tobacco curing - higher pesticides use has direct exposure to farmer and contamination of water WHO estimates that approximately one death in every ___ seconds are related to tobacco induced diseases.

fatty

Women break down alcohol more slowly than men do. If a woman and a man drink identical glasses of wine with the same meal, she will have a higher blood level of alcohol, and for a longer time. This means her tissues are exposed to more alcohol per drink than a man's. Results from a study in Japan suggest that too much alcohol is bad for a woman's heart and arteries, and earlier work shows it can be hazardous to breast tissue too. Several biological factors make women more vulnerable to the effects of alcohol than men. Body fat. Women tend to weigh less than men, and—pound for pound—a woman's body contains less water and more _____ tissue than a man's. Because fat retains alcohol while water dilutes it, alcohol remains at higher concentrations for longer periods of time in a woman's body, exposing her brain and other organs to more alcohol. Enzymes. Women have lower levels of two enzymes—alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase—that metabolize (break down) alcohol in the stomach and liver. As a result, women absorb more alcohol into their bloodstreams than men. Hormones. Changes in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle may also affect how a woman metabolizes alcohol. These biological factors explain why women become intoxicated after drinking less and are more likely to suffer adverse consequences after drinking smaller quantities and for fewer years than men.

Medical anthropology

______ ______ studies health, disease, illness, and sickness in human individuals and populations in holistic perspectives.

Neolithic

_______ Revolution: the transition • refers to the domestication of plants and animals, which began about 10,000 years ago.

Brain Drain 200

_______ _______ • Political and Economic forces determine the underdevelopment of health. • The saving for the US as a result of the inflow of 5756 physicians from developing countries in 1971 was equivalent to the yearly output from fully half of the 120 US medical school. • The annual loss for the whole of Latin America due to the flow of physicians to the united states is $_00 million, a figure that is equal to Chile's education budget for 1970.

Horticultural

________ Society • The nutritional quality of food in horticultural societies tend to be inferior to that of foraging societies. • The major food (i.e. cassava, sweet potatoes, yams, banana) are high in bulk, but low in nutrients. • These starchy tropical crops are good source of food energy, but poor source of protein. • They work harder than foragers, Slash and burn techniques need considerable time and energy to clear land, tend, and harvest.

Illness

________ is an individual perception of a medical problem, as informed by cultural systems (the sufferer's experience)

Ethnomedicine

_________ • Anthropologists define this to the multiplicity of medical systems associated with indigenous societies as well as peasant communities and ethnic minorities in complex or state societies. • Ethnomedicine did not derive from the conceptual system of modern medicine.

small

immunization would account for only a ______ part of the deaths protected from infectious disease before 1935.