Lifelong Learning
What is Lifelong Learning?
A simple definition of lifelong learning is "development after formal education: the continuing development of knowledge and skills that people experience after formal education and throughout their lives" (Encarta, 2008). Lifelong learning implies development and continuity. Development is learning that builds on prior learning, expanding knowledge and skills in depth and breadth. Marsick (1987, p. 4) defined workplace learning as "...the way in which individuals or groups acquire, interpret, reorganize, change or assimilate a related cluster of information, skills, and feelings. It is also primary to the way in which people construct meaning in their personal and shared organizational lives" (as quoted in Matthews, 1999, p. 19). Workplace learning is task focused, collaborative, often stems from problem solving experiences, and occurs in a political and economic environment of behavior expectations and consequences (Matthews, 1999). Of course people learn unwittingly from all their experiences. Lifelong learning refers to people's acquisition of knowledge and skills throughout their lives. Lifelong learning is collaborative rather than competitive. Also, people belong to multiple communities that encourage learning and provide resources (e.g., employers, professional organizations, governments, religious organizations, athletic groups, etc.; Sharples, 2000).
Van Velsor & Guthrie, 1998 Taxonomy of Learning
Another taxonomy of learning identified four learning tactics (Van Velsor & Guthrie, 1998): Thinking, taking action, asking others, and dealing with ones feelings, for instance, overcoming a fear of failure and the anxiety of trying new behaviors. People usually prefer one learning style, but may use two or more during a given learning process. Unless constrained by a structured learning task, they will likely start learning using their preferred style and continue in that mode unless that fails to work. "Blocked" learners keep trying one approach without changing it (Bunker & Webb, 1992). Effective learners are able to alter they style and tactic of learning to meet the needs of the situation. Training professionals need to recognize that adults use a variety of learning styles but they do have preferences. As such, learning experiences (whether formal training programs, informal on-the-job assignments, or on-line training) should provide an opportunity for people to apply different styles, perhaps choosing different ways of learning the same constructs. For example, a training program could give learners the option of reading about and discussing concepts and ideas, collecting and interpreting data, trying new modes of behavior and receiving feedback, and participating in unstructured problem-solving tasks. Engaging in a variety of learning styles will help individuals be less dependent on one style and help them learn how to learn in different ways (Van Velsor & Guthrie, 1998).
Selective Optimization with Compensation
As some abilities decline with age, people learn to compensate for the abilities they lose by optimizing their abilities that remain. This is the mechanism of selective optimization with compensation (cf., Baltes, Dittman-Kohli, & Dixon, 1984, cited in Sternberg, 1997a). The meaning of loss and gain will depend on the resulting consequences and the individual's adaptive capacity (Baltes, 1987). People learn to adapt to and shape their environmental contexts as they select and to some extent create the environment in which they feel most comfortable. This environment may change over time relative to people's abilities, sometime motivating a career or job change.
Adaptive Learning
Adaptive learning is an almost automatic reaction to shifts in the environment. This learning stems from behavioral learning theories (Guthrie, 1952; Thorndike, 1932; Tolman, 1932; Watson, 1924). Stimuli in the environment, including reinforcements (or sometimes punishments or withholding positive or negative reinforcement) indicate the need for individuals to alter their behavior from habitual patterns. Adaptations occur without much through as the individual encounters unexpected demands and nonroutine situations (Berry & Dienes, 1993; Reber, 1993). This is a reactive learning process. People may not even realize what they are learning, at least not right away until they have time to reflect on events. They do something that "works" (has positive outcomes) and so they repeat it.
The Four Learning Styles from the modes of experience and transformation
Convergent—Preference for abstract conceptualization (comprehension) and transforming experience through active experimentation (extension); strength in problem solving, decision making, and the practical application of ideas. Convergent learners prefer dealing with tasks and problems rather than social and interpersonal issues. Divergent—Preference for concrete experience (apprehension) and transforming experience through reflective observation (intension); strength in imagination and awareness of meaning and values. Divergent learners understand events from different perspectives and organize them into it into a whole "gestalt;" they learn by generating alternative ideas and exploring their implications. Assimilation—Preference for abstract conceptualization (comprehension) and transforming experience reflective observation (intension); strength in inductive reasoning and the ability to create theoretical models. They learn by forming abstract ideas and concepts that are sound theories but not necessarily worthwhile applications. Accommodation—Preference for concrete experience (apprehension) and transformation of experience through active experimentation (extension); strength in doing things, carrying out plans and tasks, and getting involved in new experiences. People who learn using accommodation solve problems in an intuitive trial-and-error ways.
Generative Learning
Generative learning is proactive. Individuals challenge themselves to become masters of a field or discipline. It is intentionally learning new behaviors, skills, and knowledge (Senge, 1990). The concept of generative learning arose from cognitive learning theorists (Ausubel, 1968; Bruner, 1960; Gagné, 1978). Generative learners strive toward mastery, not learning for its instrumental value (Bunderson & Sutcliffe, 2003; Dweck, 1986; VandeWalle, 1997). They believe themselves able to change and learn. That is, they are high in self-efficacy and the ability to learn from others (social learning; Bandura, 1997). They recognize that they are responsible for their own learning (Knowles, 1975, concept of andragogy). As people try new behaviors, they discover new, constructive ways to work with others and accomplish tasks (Kasl, Marsick, & Dechant, 1997; Lawrence, Mauws, Dyck, & Kleysen, 2005; Senge, 1990). People who learn generatively are likely to be prepared for current and future challenges. They don't resist change or adapt to it in minor ways, but seek and embrace learning and change through continuous explorations, questioning, challenging assumptions, seeking different viewpoints, evaluating alternatives, and thinking about outcomes (Van der Vegt & Bunderson, 2005). They use feedback to revise their self-perceptions. Generative learners actually learn how to be better generative learners in the future. Generative learners seek the knowledge they need when they need it and before they need it. They are constantly on the lookout for new ideas and information as well as opportunities to acquire new skills and knowledge. Then they are creative in applying this learning, taking initiative rather than waiting for events to make the knowledge useful.
Learning can sometimes result in mixed signals
However, adult education later in life may not send the same signal to employers. For instance, the experienced manager who undertakes a law degree may be seen as preparing for a second career or a part-time job or hobby after retirement (Jenkins et al., 2003).
Matthews (1999) Holistic View
Individual differences that affect motivation to learn including needs, desires, interests, self-esteem, and self-worth. Conditions for learning, such as encouragement and support, also affect involvement in learning. Learning outcomes include better competencies, higher qualification, improved productivity, and higher qualifications. Learning outcomes include increased potential, rewards (e.g., promotion), and increased commitment to learning. Development requires opportunities to learn, the ability and will to learn (a combination of motivation, personal orientation, and skills), and organizational support for development, including contextual factors such as feedback, coaching, and rewards for development (McCauley, 2001).
Levinson's Life Cycle Model
Levinson (1979, 1986, 1997)
Readiness to Learn
Readiness to change requires being open to new ideas and experiences (Barrick & Mount, 1991). London and Smither (1999a) identified a number of personal characteristics that influence an individual's tendency to be involved in career-related continuous learning. These include self-efficacy and internal locus of control, extraversion, mastery learning orientation, cognitive ability, conscientiousness, self-monitoring, feedback seeking, openness to new experiences, and public self-consciousness.
Three ways people change and learn
Sessa and London (2006; London & Sessa, 2006; 2007) conceptualized three ways people change and learn: adaptive, generative, and transformative learning.
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky (1978) extended the idea of an individual's level of development by contrasting the person's current level of ability and accomplishment with the person's potential level. The difference is the zone of proximal development. This refers to the functions that are in the process of maturation. Learning creates the zone of proximal development by stimulating an awareness of potential in the individual and awakening more mature, internal development processes. People learn how to learn in a more complex way that requires increased cognitive complexity and exposure to richer ways of thinking and learning.
Examples of Career-Related Learning Opportunities from Maurer, Pierce, and Shore (2002)
· Job-related challenging activities: Most learning comes about through ob-related activities that are challenging or difficult (Maurer, Pierce, & Shore, 2002; McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988) · Job-related courses or programs that enhance current job performance · Community projects that are challenging, interesting, and not required (i.e., done on a volunteer basis); the activities are likely to bear unrelated to job or organizationally valued competencies · An undesired but challenging and important role · A task force addressing a challenging or difficult issue (probably requires being absent from the department for a time, costing the supervisor) · Developing skill or knowledge specific to the organization to help the supervisor or organization even though the skill or knowledge will probably not be useful in other organizations if the employee wants to change jobs · Continuing education courses required to maintain professional accreditation
Wisdom
Baltes (cf. Baltes & Smith, 2008) developed a family of five metacriteria of knowledge, which together characterize wisdom. These are factual and strategic knowledge about the fundamental pragmatics of life, knowledge that considers the relativism of values and life goals, knowledge about context and how these change over time, and knowledge about fundamental uncertainties of life and ways to manage. Together they form wisdom, a system of exceptional knowledge and expertise that motivates an individual to further expansion of learning Adults progress toward wisdom but rarely achieve it. The question is whether the environment supports higher-level cognitive processing or focuses mainly on factual knowledge, comprehension, and adaptive applications rather then transformative syntheses. The latter are needed for novel uses of emerging technologies, going beyond accumulation and reactive adaptations to discover, experiment (test), and apply creative uses of technologies to generate new methods and processes
Bloom's (1956) classic typology of multilevel thinking
Bloom's (1956) classic typology of multilevel thinking skills includes (a) knowledge and comprehension, including reading, memorizing, and repeating information in one's own words, (b) transfer and application of knowledge and use of information in new and different ways, (c) analyzing complex information and breaking it into sub elements, (d) synthesizing discrete pieces of knowledge and information to produce new concepts and ideas, and (e) evaluating information, judging newly synthesized concepts, and placing a value on the results. Krathwohl (2002) revised the taxonomy to encompass factual knowledge (knowledge of terminology, specific details, and elements), conceptual (knowledge of classifications, theories, models, principles, and generalizations), procedural (skills, techniques, and criteria for applying different methods of analysis), and metacognitive knowledge (strategic knowledge, knowledge about context and condition, and self-knowledge).
Career Growth Curve
Career growth curve. Hall (1976) suggested a simply model of career growth throughout the life cycle. He called it the "career growth curve." It consists of several distinct stages: Exploration and trial (between ages 15 and 30. Establishment and advancement, 30-45. After age 45, continued growth, maintenance, or decline and disengagement.
Career Motivation Affects how Older Workers Respond to Career Barriers
Career motivation is important to how older workers respond to career barriers. Organizational transitions can cause severe stress, including long-term unemployment and premature retirements for those who lose their jobs, and resentment and insecurity for those who remain (London, 1996). Wolf, London, Casey, and Pufahl (1995) studied 72 displaced engineers Participants who were high in career motivation, prior successful career experiences in technology management were positively related to their engaging in productive training behaviors during the program. For participants who were low in career motivation, prior career experiences were negatively related to productive behavior during the program. The more these individuals had experience with technology management, the less they were able to absorb new information and ideas. They had difficulty overcoming their disappointment and believing that they could bring about renewed opportunities for themselves
Career-Related Continuous Learning
Career-related continuous learning is a pattern of formal and informal activities that people sustain over time for the benefit of their career development (London & Smither, 1999a). Acquiring new knowledge is self-initiated, discretionary, planned, and proactive. Individuals first recognize the need for learning, they then engage in activities to acquire new skills and knowledge and monitor their learning. Career-related continuous learning benefits career growth, performance improvement, and/or readiness for more responsible positions or transitions in different career directions. An organization that supports employees' career-related continuous learning is likely to become a learning organization that is able to form new interactions and work routines quickly to meet changing needs or at least to increase the core competencies available in the organization to meet changing work demands (Senge, 1990).
What is Career-Related Continuous Learning Driven by?
Career-related continuous learning is driven by a combination of individual and situational conditions. People are pressured by their changes in their profession and organization as well as their personal desires to learn. Consider, for instance, the software developer who must continuously be on the lookout for advances in the field, learn them, and apply them in developing new products (London & Smither, 1999b). Learning is affected by an individual's relationship to the environment, including co-workers, work expectations, and support for learning. These include the following conditions proposed by Holliday (1994; cited in Matthews, 1999): Self—the need for positive feelings about oneself Personal meaning—how one's self-perceptions are affected by learning Action—one's ability to develop, apply, and measure ones own and other's ideas and to learn from experience Collegiality—one's capacity to learn with and from colleagues directly and indirectly Empowerment—one's ability to feel a sense of ownership, autonomy, and self-direction over the processes and outcomes of learning
Hall (2002) Model of Organizational Culture and Life Long Learning
Components of an environment that supports learning include a culture of discussing performance requirements, assessing performance, providing in-the-moment coaching and feedback about performance in specific tasks and events (e.g., discussing how well a presentation went and how it could be improved the next time). Another component is a learning culture, one that includes training resources, whether in the form of on-line material and/or in-person training. The available training resources are tied to the needs of the organizations.
Continuous Learning as Core Competence
Continuous learning has come to be viewed as a core competency for employees at all career stages (Hall & Mirvis, 1995). Businesses based on emerging technologies (the dot coms, for instance) face fast-paced, competitive, global pressures that depend on employees with energy, vision, and the ability to learn continuously (Kanter, 2001). These organizations encourage and reward experimentation and innovation. Think about research and development labs, business incubators, and organizations that place a premium on design and constant improvement of its products (London & Maurer, 2004). People in rapidly evolving disciplines such as medicine, engineering, and the sciences face pressures to maintain, expand, and apply their knowledge and skills (Kozlowski & Hults, 1987). Employers view lifelong learning as keys to maintaining the capability of its workforce.
Corporate Philosophy
Corporate philosophy is another element of support for development. Some organizations have the philosophy of hiring talented people when they're needed. Others have the philosophy of developing their people to meet changing needs. Some organizations focus on developing younger people, promoting those who show promise early in their careers and showing the door to those who don't. Other organizations provide developmental opportunities for employees of all ages, recognizing differences in capabilities, career goals, and life priorities as people age. Employees may make different contributions at different career stages and in different levels of the organization. Some mid level managers whose careers have plateaued may be challenged by new assignments, perhaps moving from line to staff or into different job functions. Older managers may make excellent coaches and trainers. Still others are as ambitious as ever, seek increased responsibilities, and want to continue their career advancement.
Empowered Self Development
Environments that provide learning resources but leave it to individuals to use them or not are likely to increase self-detrermination for individuals who are high in learning orientation (Deci & Ryan, 1991; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). London and Smither (1999b) called this empowered self-development. Elements of empowered self-development include nonthreatening performance feedback, ensuring behavioral choices for learning, encouraging feedback seeking, and rewarding participation in learning activities, whether formal or informal. For instance, supervisors can be encouraged to support and reward employees who "(1) anticipate learning requirements, by, for instance, identifying areas for future job requirements and implications for needed skill updates, (2) set development goals that reflect needed knowledge and skill structures, (3) participate in learning activities, (4) ask for feedback to test goal relevance, and (5) track progress" (London & Smither, 1999b, p. 11). Ultimately, this is an environment in which employees are responsible for recognizing their own developmental needs. They assume responsibility for their own learning. For instance, they actively seek performance feedback, compare their self-assessments to current and future skill requirements, investigate opportunities for development, and set development goals, evaluate their progress, and adjust their goals (London & Smither, 1999b).
Expectancy Value Cognitions
Expectancy-value cognitions that participation in learning experiences will produce positive outcome are strongly related to the intention to participate the in future employee development activities (Birdi, Allan, & Warr, 1997; Facteau, Dobbins, Russell, Ladd, & Kudisch, 1995; Fishbein & Stasson, 1990; Garofano & Salas, 2005; Hurtz & Williams, 2009; Maurer &Tarulli, 1994; Noe & Wilk, 1993). Hurtz and Williams (2008) conceptualized one aspect of the intention to participate as a felt responsibility or obligation to develop oneself as an employee. They suggested that the feeling of obligation to help the organization realize beneficial outcomes, regardless of (or in addition to) any personal benefits or costs the employee would expect from participation, plays a key role in predicting intentions and participation in training and development.
Experiential Learning
Kolb (1984) distinguished between reflective/passive learners who learn by watching and listening and experiential/active learners learn by doing. Experiential learning entails a concrete experience, reflective observations, conceptualization, and active experimentation (Boyatzis & Kolb, 1991; Kolb, 1984; Mainemelis, Boyatzis, & Kolb, 2002). Experiential learning on the job is a powerful vehicle for continuous development. People often learn most from events and assignments that are unexpected and pose challenges. These may be tough assignments, failures, mistakes, disappointment (being passed over for a promotion), difficult personnel issues (overcoming subordinates' performance problems), or simply new responsibilities and functions. Executives learn most from assignments that are start-ups, turnarounds, changes in job scope, re-assignments from line to staff or vice versa, and being a member of a cross-functional, geographically dispersed team (Lindsey, Homes, & McCall, 1987). Also, executives learn by modeling others who have exceptional skills or faults
Formal Learning
Formal learning methods teach new behavior, cognitive understanding, and skills and knowledge with practice and feedback in a nonthreatening environment. Methods may include coaching, simulations, and personal growth challenges (e.g., outward bound wilderness events). Also developmental experiences occur naturally in work settings, for instance assignments that require making transitions, handling new experiences, building relationships, and facing barriers (McCauley, 2001). These experiences require setting agendas, managing relationships, showing basic values, including sensitivity to others, and becoming more aware of owns own strengths and weaknesses. People learn by participating in new, unfamiliar tasks and uncertain decision making situations. Challenging assignments include creating change, handling high levels of responsibility, influencing others, and managing diversity (Maurer, 2002; McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988; McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott, & Morrow, 1994). Formal learning emphasizes individual work and assessment (Johnson, 1997). Study groups may be encouraged, but individual work is assessed and joint work may be viewed as cheating. The content is taught in standardized ways, meaning that students are given the same tasks and time frames for completion regardless of their ability levels and prior experience. Formal learning is structured and inflexible. There is a structured curriculum that outlines learning objectives and required competencies for entry. It is directed by the instructor and generally draws on the concept of transmitted or transferring knowledge. There is usually more emphasis on thought than action and experience.
Self Monitoring Individual Differences that May be Related to Learning
High self-monitors constantly compare and adjusts their behavior to their perceptions of what others expect of them or others reactions to them. People who are low in self-monitoring have fairly stable behavior related to their personal characteristics. A good example is cultural sensitivity (Albert, 1996; Dunbar, 1996). Expatriates are able to learn the host country's customs, values, and perspectives more readily than those who are not as culturally sensitive. A related concept is emotional or interpersonal intelligence (Gardner, 1993; Salovey & Mayer, 1990), which includes self-awareness (accurately recognizing ones own feelings), managing emotions (discovering how to cope with stress, fears, and anxiety), self-motivation (self-regulation of emotions to accomplish goals), empathy (sensitivity to others' feeling), and human relationships (social competence and social skills. People who are generative learners are self-driven. Knowles (1975) called this concept andragogy. This captures the idea that adults are responsible for their own decisions and learning. They are problem and task centered and ready to learn those things that they need to cope with life. They learn best when they understand why they need to know something. Although they have a rich base of knowledge and experience already, they have habits and biases that sometimes limit their learning. Also, internal motivation is more potent than external rewards or pressures for learning.
Declines in Cognitive Ability With Age due Sensory functioning
In a study of old and very old individuals (mean age = 85 years), age-related declines in cognitive abilities (speed, reasoning, memory, knowledge, and fluency) are mediated by differences in visual and auditory acuity (Lindenberger, 1994). A further study of more than six hundred people ranging in age from 15 to 103 years found that visual and auditory acuity accounted for larger proportions of variance in intelligence as people aged (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997). In particular, sensory acuity accounted for 11% of variance in intelligence in adulthood (25 to 69 years) to 31% in older age people. These studies suggest the importance of maintaining individuals' sight and hearing through regular exams and medical advances and treatments that maintain and in some cases improve these functions (e.g., cataract and laser surgery).
Self-Regulation
Individual differences (cognitive abilities, skills, dispositions, and motives) and the elements of training (its design, how information is presented, use of technology) produce learning outcomes and performance improvement through active, self-regulatory processes, such as engaging in practice, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation; Bell & Kozlowski, 2009; Kozlowski et al., 2001). Metacognition is exerting control over learning processes and helps learner engage actively in their learning rather than being passive recipients of instruction (cf., Bell & Kozlowski, 2009; Cannon-Bowers, Rhodenizer, Salas, & Bowers, 1998; Keith & Frese, 2005). Training that incorporates active learning involves exploration, experimentation, and inductive learning, inductions to motivate mastery learning, and support for processing feedback and controlling emotions in dealing with, and making appropriate attributions, for errors. Self-regulatory processes, such as metacongition, mental models, goal orientation, self-efficacy, and emotion, produce learning outcomes., especially when individual have the requisite cognitive ability, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and traits that help them cope with anxiety and focus on mastery rather than possible positive consequences from performance improvement or negative consequences from making mistakes (Bell & Kozlowski, 2009).
Informal Learning
Informal learning is (a) learner-directed and self-guided, not controlled by a supervisor, trainer, or the organization, (b) motivated by an intention for learning or improvement, (c) entails action or doing (i.e., not just treading or attending a program), and (d) does not occur in a formal setting such as a classroom or on-line (Tannenbaum, Beard, McNall, & Salas, 2009). informal learning entails receiving feedback and engaging in reflection to understand ones experiences. Experience, feedback, action, and reflection are influenced by the dynamic interchange of organizational/situational characteristics (e.g., learning opportunities and support for learning) and individual characteristics (motivation, self-awareness, feedback orientation). Together, they produce both individual outcomes (e.g., learning, performance improvement, self-efficacy) and organizational outcomes (learning culture, agility, capacity for performance, and readiness to support learning in the future; Tannenbaum et al., 2009).
Formal Learning may be More Effective if it Incorporates Elements of Informal Learning
Johnson (1997) suggested the formal learning would be more effective if it incorporated elements of informal learning. In particular, formal learning should (1) adopt a rich learning environment with authentic problems and realistic situations with expertise created by interaction with the environment, not isolation from it. (2) Formal learning should be peer-based, with cognitive activity socially defined, interpreted, and supported through interactions, mentoring, observation, and tutoring. (3) Formal learning should incorporate activity-based practice. Knowing and doing should be integrated to gain a rich understanding of how to function in a complex, continuously changing environment. This can be accomplished through discovery, project-based learning, including structure-on-the-job training, internships, project-based or problem-based tasks, goal-based tasks, and action learning, all of which emphasize learning from experience. (4) Formal learning should include reflective practice. People need to think about their experiences in order to learn. This is easier said than done since people shy away from self-evaluation. It often requires feedback, coaching, and facilitation to encourage seeking and using feedback. People need to be encouraged and rewarded for reviewing their strengths and weaknesses, recognizing gaps in abilities and performance, setting goals for improvement, taking actions to learn and apply this learning, and evaluating their improvement in an on-going cycle. Reflective practice is needed for continuous learning for continuous improvement (Marsick & Watkins, 1992, 2001).
Order of Mind
Kegan's model of life span development recognizes the importance of self-awareness in relation to understanding organizational and interpersonal conditions (Kegan, 1982, 1994; Kegan & Lahey, 2001; described by London & Maurer, 2004, and Day, 2002). These stages of mind represent qualitatively different levels of social construction. The first stage represents the cognitive processes of a young child. The second represents older children, teens, and some adults. It centers on others' feelings in which ones own feelings are inseparable from those of others. These individuals operate with a schema of fixed role behaviors. The third stage, "traditionalism," is again represented in teens and many adults. They distinguish between their own and others' viewpoints. However, they feel responsible for others' feelings. They are excellent team players who hare a sense of identity, which, in adulthood, is tied to their profession. More than half of all adults do not proceed beyond the third stage. The fourth stage, "modernism," is having a sense of self that is separate from a connection to others. These individuals are autonomous and self-driven. Individuals who reach this stage are fourth self-governing and principled, but yet do not quite comprehend the limits of self-governing systems. Even fewer people reach the "post-modern," fifth stage. If they do achieve this stage of cognitive development, it down's happen before midlife. These individuals recognize the limits of their own system of principles. An individual's movement through these stages is a function of their experiences.
Mode of Experience and Mode of Transforming Experience
Kolb (1984; Boyatzis & Kolb, 1991; Mainemelis et al., 2002) Learning styles are a function of mode of experience and mode of transforming experience. Both modes can be expressed as doing or thinking. One mode of experience is apprehension—a preference for concrete experiences (doing) and real feelings and sensing rather than thinking. People who are high in apprehension orientation are open-minded and want to understand the uniqueness and complexity of situations rather than form theories that generalize across situations. Another mode of experience is comprehension—a preference for abstract conceptualizations and focusing on thinking (using logic, ideas, and concepts) rather than feelings to understand information. People who are high in comprehension value precision, rigor, quantitative analysis, and analyzing ideas. One mode of transforming experience is extension—a preference for active experimentation and practical applications rather than reflective understanding. People who are high in extension are open to new experiences and understanding how things work. Another mode of transformation experience is intension—a preference for reflective observation and understanding the meaning of ideas and situations through careful observation and impartial description. People who are high in intension focus on understanding rather than practical application. These form four learning styles
Kozlowski and Farr (1988) Interactionist Framework
Kozlowski and Farr (1988) Innovation, adaptation to innovative change, and effective performance require up-to-date technical skills and knowledge obtained through participation in professional activities, continuing education, and new work assignments. Individual characteristics (e.g., technical curiosity and interest, readiness to participate in professional and continuing education activities) and contextual features (e.g., support for continued training, work characteristics that allow autonomy, and on-the-job support for learning, including feedback, the need to work with others, having a range of job functions, encountering novel problems, and uncertainty of outcomes) jointly affect individuals' perceptions and interpretation of pressures for learning, which in turn relate to participation in updating. Training motivation is an important antecedent to participation in training.
Societal Goals
Lifelong learning is the result of a complex interplay among three societal goals: economic development, personal development, and social inclusion (Aspin & Chapman, 2000). These goals contribute to the development of a highly skilled work force and democratic policies and institutions. The goal is "The best possible match between the learning opportunities open to people and the skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours which will strengthen Scotland's economy and society" Lifelong learning is about "personal fulfilment and enterprise; employability and adaptability; active citizenship and social inclusion...Lifelong learning encompasses the whole range of learning: formal and informal learning, workplace learning, and the skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that people acquire in day-to-day experiences." Economic development is only one benefit of lifelong learning. More broadly, it contributes to "the development of society through the achievement of other social goals such as civic participation, sustainable development, improved health and wellbeing, reduced crime and greater social cohesion." MIT's Open Courseware is a good example of a university recognizing the societal value of knowledge and giving learning away. Available on the Web to anyone, course materials include video taped lectures, Powerpoint presentations, and readings. Although the courses do not lead to degrees, they give access to anyone and serve as an archive of knowledge and learning available to anyone with a computer and access to the Internet.
Increased Job and Organizational Complexity
London & Maurer, 2004 for Org Factors Driving Development Changing nature of work resulting from: flatter organizational structures requiring increased communications between leaders and subordinates about organizational direction and monitoring and controlling performance; matrix management imposing interdependencies; virtual organizations and geographically dispersed work team creating looser confederations of employees and the need for cultural understanding and sensitivity; and temporary organizational structures that require increased understanding of organizational purpose and performance goals while valuing others' input, welcoming newcomers, and being flexible; prevalence of teams to accomplish work (project teams and task forces) requiring increased communication, coordination, and cooperation; and continuous quality improvement demanding attention to customer needs and customer-supplier relationships. New ventures requiring employees to learn as they go, monitoring the environment, maintaining high energy, garnering resources, seeking new ideas, seeking feedback, and taking risks. E-commerce requires creative thinking, knowledge of an ever-changing (highly competitive and uncertain) marketplace, and continuous tracking of operations, customers, and outcomes. Similarly, mergers and joint ventures require managing and learning from change as conflicts are resolved, different cultures clash, and new shared missions emerge. Such dynamic environments provide little time for experimentation. Decisions need to be made on the spot and actions taken immediately. Employees in this context are continuously learning about emerging technologies, trying to stay ahead of the competition, compared to employees in more stable organizations who learn continuously to increase their performance.
Three Dimensions of Career Motivation
London (1983, 1985, 2002; London & Noe, 1997) conceptualized three domains of career motivation. Career insight is the motivational spark. It consists of awareness of owns own strengths and weaknesses and the resources, opportunities, and barriers in the environment. Career identity is the direction of ones motivation. It is an awareness of the potential rewards in the environment as well as possible losses. Career resilience consists of the self-oriented personality characteristics that provide strength for overcoming career barriers. Resilience encompasses self-efficacy, the feeling of internal control, self-regulation, and self-esteem (cf., Greenberg, 2008). Established early on in life Career resilience sets the stage for gaining career insight and establishing a meaningful and realistic career identity.
Individual Differences Affecting Motivation to Learn
Self Direction Employee Learning and Development Orientation Expansiveness Career Motivation Career Insight Career Identity Career Resilience Feedback Orientation Mastery Learning Goals and Self-Regulation Expectancy-Value Cognitions
How Organizations can Support the Careers of Older Workers
London (1996, p. 76; also see London, 1990) To Build Career Resilience: · Reward older workers for mentoring younger employees (enhancing the mentor's sense of accomplishment and personal value). · Make organizational structures flatter to give all managers more responsibility (giving individuals more control over their work and generating new opportunities for achievement). · Provide stress coping workshops that focus on the needs of older workers (reducing their vulnerability in the face of major changes, and increasing their understanding of the job search process and ways to react constructively). To Build Career Insight: · Provide self-assessment methods and workbooks to guide older workers' thinking about their career objectives in relation to other life concerns · Join a consortium with other firms and/or government agencies to hold job fairs targeted to older workers (enhancing insight by informing retirees and older workers about the range of job possibilities open to them). · Transfer older workers between departments (helping them learn new skills and maintaining their job interest by offering a new job setting and new challenges). · Provide older workers with training to enhance their marketability outside as well as inside the firm in anticipation of organizational change or in preparation for retirement. · Offer guidance for career-end management (recognizing diminished capabilities and/or interests). Retirement workshops and counseling can suggest ideas for expanding identification outside work and shift motivation to nonwork pursuits (e.g., by identifying employees who are ready for retirement planning and pairing successfully retired individuals with employees who are planning retirement). To Build Career Identity: · Rehire retirees for temporary full- or part-time work. · Look to older workers to be sources of quality control and ideas for quality improvement. · Offer retirement planning workshops. · Offer financial incentives to encourage retirement or job change. · Phase retirement jobs (encouraging incremental change in career identity without the stress and self-doubt that accompanies a sudden and forced change).
Expansiveness
London and Diamante (2002; Diamante & London, 2002) They conceptualized expansiveness as demonstrating self-directed energy, showing a continuous quest to learn and generate new ideas, and having a desire to apply newly acquired knowledge and novel ideas. Expansive individual sustain a deep focus on their area of expertise while they simultaneously challenge conventional thought and understanding. They are driven to be successful and to strive for continuous growth and innovation (Kaplan, Drath, & Kofodimos, 1991; MacDonald, Gagnier, & Friedman, 2000). They engage in learning both for its own sake and for how it can be used for personal and organizational gain.
Individual Characteristics that Affect Lifelong Learning (Building off of Career Motivation)
London and Maurer (2004) identified four groups of individual characteristics that affect lifelong learning: (1) self-insight, recognizing the need for change, setting learning goals, and evaluating progress; (2) being ready to change ones behavior in relation to changing organizational needs; (3) stage of cognitive/emotional development; and (4) self-monitoring and self-regulation. Self-insight is understanding ones own strengths and weaknesses, recognizing organizational needs (including behaviors needed for improved job performance and shifting goals at the departmental, organizational, and industry level), and using this insight to set development goals.
London and Maurer (2004), Leaders and Continuous Learning Model
London and Maurer (2004), focusing on leaders, presented a model to assess continuous learning needs, processes, and outcomes. Organizational conditions and employee characteristics determine learning needs. Conditions of the organization and its situation include challenges and demands faced by the organization, the behaviors and performance expected of employees, and the organization's development strategy and competency requirements related to each position. These variables determine the goals for development and methods and processes for learning in the organization. Employee characteristics include the individual's readiness to change, learning and development orientation (proclivity to engage in learning), goals to achieve mastery or specific levels of performance, beliefs that he or she can learn and apply the learning for performance improvement (learning self-efficacy), and standards, conscientiousness, expansiveness, and learning style. These individual difference variables also influence development goals and methods. The congruence of individual and organizational characteristics is important to effective learning outcomes. For instance, the organization's and a given employee's development goals may coincide, perhaps for different reasons. The employee may want to learn to attain a promotion or maintain job security. The organization may want to retain talented, innovative employees. If the individual and organizational goals are not congruent, developmental efforts and investments on the part of the individual or the organization would be wasted or at least limited.
Life Development Through a Variety of Life Stages
London and Sessa (2006) summarized how career development progresses throughout the life cycle as a person progresses from initial career-related learning, becoming and being an adult, and reflecting on adulthood. Career development is both external (outward signs of career success, stagnation, or failure) and internal (self-satisfaction from meeting challenges, for instance). Inner-life elements beyond one's career are also important, such as autonomy, self-worth, and commitment to primary relationships.
Practices in Org Culture that Promote Involvement in Continuous Learning
London and Smither (1999a) described organizational practices and characteristics of organizational culture that promote involvement in career-related continuous learning. These include the availability of feedback (from the supervisor and/or survey feedback data, such as 360 degree feedback), learning resources, rewards for learning (e.g., increased pay), and supervisors evaluating employees' participation in development as part of the annual performance appraisal.
More in depth info on London and Smither 1999's empowered self-development suggestions
London and Smither (1999b) summarized the ingredients of environments that support empowered self-development. The organization and supervisors provide employees with information feedback in a way that is not threatening or controlling. The feedback focuses on behaviors that can be improved, not on personal characteristics that make a person defensive and weaken self-esteem. The company is likely to have a 360-degree feedback process and perhaps an assessment center that gives participants a chance to get feedback from a variety of different perspectives. The organization may pay to have a professional coach provide the feedback to ensure that the individual understands it and spends time thinking about what it means for development. Another element of support is information about organizational goals, directions, and implications for future performance. If the organization is changing strategy, supervisors should be prepared to provide that information and discuss the implications for the talent and competencies that employees will need to be effective in the changing environment. Supervisors can help employees evaluate their talents relative to these changing goals, determine training gaps, and find ways for the employees to acquire the experiences and skills they need for future success with the company or, if not with this company, then other jobs or career paths that may be more satisfying and productive for them. Employees are provided with resources for assessment and development, given choices and resources for development, and the freedom to make decisions about their own development. The company may offer a tool kit of self-paced assessment and training methods. On-line technology gives a wide array of options, some publicly available, and others that are proprietary and available for a fee. Even assessment centers are available on-line with employees participating in simulations, sometimes talking to real people (role players) on the phone or instant messaging to demonstrate their communications, interpersonal, and problem solving capabilities, receiving immediate feedback from observers who "tune in" to the interactions.
Feedback Orientation
London and Smither (2002) conceptualized feedback orientation as "an individual's overall receptivity to feedback and the extent to which the individual welcomes guidance and coaching" (pp. 82-83). People who are high in feedback orientation like feedback (have positive feelings about it and a low level of apprehension about being evaluated). They believe that feedback provides useful information to direct ways to improve their performance. So they have a propensity to seek feedback and process it consciously and conscientiously. They are sensitive to, and care about, others' perceptions and reactions to their performance. Moreover, they feel accountable to use the feedback. Such individuals have a general desire to learn about themselves, verify their self-image, and enhance their self-esteem (Baumeister, 1999). They are open to new experiences (Barrick & Mount, 1991) and ready to take action to change (Prochaska, Prochaska, & Levesque, 2001). Even when feedback is not forthcoming, people who are high in feedback orientation seek feedback from supervisors and other coworkers. The also seek objective data about task progress and accomplishment (Brink, 2002).
Learning Organizations
Marsick, Cederholm, Turner, and Pearson (1992, p. 298) defined a learning organization as "one in which learning is a continuous, strategically used process—integrated with, and running parallel to, work—that may yield changes in individual and collectively held perceptions, thinking, behaviors, attitudes, values, beliefs, mental models, systems, strategies, policies and procedures." In learning organizations, people continually expand their capacity, develop expansive patterns of thinking, and continuously learn how to learn together (Senge, 1990). Learning organizations support learning at three levels: (a) individual through continuous opportunities, inquiry, and dialog, (b) team, through action learning and collaboration, and (c) organization, through systems that capture learning, empower participants, and link to the environment" (Marsick & Watkins, 1996, p. 18). Feedback promotes learning when it provides information about behaviors without threatening self-image or character (DiNisi & Kluger, 2000).
Mastery Learning Goals
Mastery learners diagnose their own abilities and gaps in knowledge and skills, observe their own performance, and evaluate what they need to do to achieve their goals (Bandura, 1986). Mastery learners focus less on comparing themselves to others or to external standards and more on their on-going learning (Dweck, 1986). Nevertheless, their motivation rests on setting specific, challenging, and realistic goals (Locke & Latham, 1990) and perceiving a gap between current levels of skills, knowledge, and performance, and potential levels of skills, knowledge, and performance (Carver & Scheier, 1990; Scherbaum & Vancouver, 2002).
Employee Learning and Development Orientation
Maurer (2002) defined learning and development orientation the tendency to feel favorably about learning experiences and be continually and persistently involved in such experiences in the pursuit of one's own development. These individuals believe that they are constantly changing and evolving. Dweck and Leggett (1988) called this subscribing to an implicit incremental theory of traits—a belief that indeed they can change. They are mastery learners who acquire skills and knowledge for its own sake, not for any immediate benefits it might bring. They have a conception of what they might become (Wurf & Markus, 1991). People who subscribe to an entity theory of traits believe that their personal characteristics are fixed. They are motivated to avoid failure or to use their abilities to maximize their performance.
Trend Toward Contract Employees
Permalancers - These are people who work full-time for several years with duties, hours, and responsibilities very similar to regular employees (Kamenetz, 2007). However, they are classified as temporary employees or independent contractors. As a result, they don't receive the same benefits (e.g., health care, retirement, entitlement to severance). Employers are unlikely to invest in these employees' development. Overall, they may be cheaper to have. The disadvantage is that employees give up having a dedicated work force with valuable experience and history about how the organization operates. Even if most employees are still full-time, permanent staff, having others come and go is likely to undermine permanent employees' loyalty. Unless they invest in their own training and development, their skills and experiences may be limited to their current position requirements. Recognizing these disadvantages and the growing number of contract employees, the Freelancers Union (2008) provides options for mutual support and advocacy
Self-Direction
Self-directed learning requires that individuals have acquired broad self-management competencies, are familiar with the subject matter, and have a sense of their competence to learn (self-learning efficacy). Self-direction in learning involves (1) personal autonomy, (2) willingness and ability to manage one's overall learning efforts, (3) independent pursuit of learning without formal institutional support or affiliation, and (4) learner-control of instruction (Candy, 1991).
Sharples (2000) Theory of Learning Mediated by Technology
Sharples (2000) outlined a theory of lifelong learning mediated by technology. In particular, he suggested requirements for the software, hardware, communications and design interfaces for handheld learning resources that provide support for learning from anywhere. In the future, learners will not be tied to particular locations. They will be able to study anywhere at any time, interacting with people and data bases to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. Technologies for lifelong learning need to be portable, adaptable to individual needs, unobstrusive, available anywhere, transferable as technology advances so that earlier information and uses will not be lost, useful for everyday needs, and usable with no prior experience (intuitive). Technologies need to be personal, user centered, mobile, networked, ubiquitous, and durable to mach lifelong learning requirements. Sharples's (2000) model of lifelong learning proposes that technology needs to support meta-learning (learning how to learn) through reflection and action. Technology provides computer-based teachers, tutors, and mentors, who may be people, software systems, or a combination. Software for teaching and problem solving may be virtual learning environments, problem solving tools, and simulations. Software for reflection (idea generation, creativity, and knowledge sharing) that promotes collaborative learning may be synchronous and asynchronous communication tools, search engineers, and systems for sharing knowledge. Software for meta-learning (learning to learn and organizing knowledge) may be concept maps, timelines, and notes networks. Software and hardware will allow people to develop personal area networks that support communication (similar to social networking internet sites). Technology will integrate pen, keyboard, and speech while combining handheld units, peripherals (e.g., miniature cameras, microphones, and earpieces), allow a mix of direct manipulation and voice, and provide secure and efficient information storage of multimedia over time. Research is needed to match systems and software interfaces to learners' cognitive and social capabilities, manage and support resources that will be transferable cross time and technology development, take advantage of expanding bandwidths to distribute resources, support easy and unobtrusive capturing of data and events, and foster collaboration between mobile learners (Sharples, 2000).
How does Kegan's Order of Mind relate to the workplace?
Since most people are third order thinkers, consider how they react to challenging situations. They recognize diverse perspectives and others' viewpoints. However, they don't have a sense of self-ownership. Situations that challenge third order individuals are ill-defined roles, conflicting demands from work and family, and being in a minority position (Van Velsor, 2002). Fourth order thinkers see themselves as role models who are able to take argue for a minority perspective. They see challenge of conveying a vision and motivating others to work collaboratively.
Social Support is Important for lifelong learning
Social support and social networks are important for lifelong learning (Molloy & Noe, 2009). Social networks vary in size, diversity, and strength of relationships (Higgins & Kram, 2001) in generative and transformative environments (Sessa & London, 2006). For instance, diverse, strong ties produce entrepreneurial relationships especially when combined with opportunities and pressures for career change coupled with enabling resources produce high involvement in continuous learning. Diverse weak relationships combined with an environment that supports acquisition and application of new knowledge can also produce high involvement in continuous learning
Effects of High and Low Career Resillience
Supervisors provide employees with performance feedback and information about performance expectations and career opportunities. Employees who are high in career resilience are able to take advantage of this information, for instance, absorbing and applying critical feedback to improve their performance. Employees who are low in career resilience are less likely to use such information productively, and are likely to ignore or withdraw from situations that offer criticism and seek only self-affirming information.
Workforce Trends Driving Continuous Learning
The need for learning is driven by changing economic conditions, global competition, the increased complexity of work and life demands (Johnson, 1997), technological developments, and organizational restructuring. People who engage in learning for its own sake or for non-economic and non-job related reasons shouldn't expect the learning to lead to high wages. However, there may be non-economic benefits (e.g., such as personal gratification, expanded social interactions), intellectual growth (which may have indirect effects on career advancement), and deepening of interests. Trend Toward Contract Employees Increased Job and Organizational Complexity Continuous Learning as Core Competence Societal Goals
Kozlowski, Chao, and Jensen (2009) Multilevel Model of Organizational System Alignment for Organizational Learning
They suggest that degree of alignment between elements of the techno-structure and formal and informal enabling processes produce organizational learning outcomes at and between levels. At the micro-level, requisite task and teamwork knowledge, skills and abilities align with opportunities for acquiring technical and process knowledge through informal means, such as implicit learning, socialization, and mentoring, and formal means, such as workshops, courses, and on-the-job training, to increase employees' task-relevant knowledge. At the meso level, unit technology and work-flow structures align with opportunities to share and distribute knowledge through team learning and development leader training to produce shared mental models, transactive memory, and the production and distribution of a knowledge pool. At the macro level, the organization's mission, strategies, technologies, and structure align with a climate for learning and leadership training to produce vertical transfer of knowledge.
Individual Differences Predispose People to Certain Ways of Learning
Those who are high in variables that foster readiness to learn are likely to be generative and transformative learning, especially when the situation is also high in pressure to change and learn. Those who are low in readiness, are likely to ignore stimuli that encourage or require learning or may adapt their behavior to the situation but not learn and apply new knowledge and skills in new and different ways. Readiness is a function of the resilience and insight components of career motivation (London, 1985). These include self-awareness, awareness of environmental opportunities and pressures, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-regulation. That is, people are going to be more willing to change and learn when they have high regard for themselves, see themselves as able to change and be effective, and believe they are able to control situations to bring about positive outcomes.
Transformative Learning
Transformative learning goes beyond generative learning. Transformative learners reconstruct meaning and alter the way the operate in fundamental and sometimes dramatic ways. This stems from constructivist theories of learning (Dewey, 1933/1986; Mezirow, 1991, 1994; Rogoff, 1990; von Glaserfield, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978). They use language to change they way they conceptualize and communicate their vision of the world (Anderson, 1997). They learn by interchanging and evolving ideas with others, formulating new visions and modes of transactions with others that are then used when unexpected events occur (Gergen, 1991; Wenger, 1999). Assessment is an important part of learning. People who engage in reflection and self-assessment gain an understanding of their own capabilities (Krechevsky & Seidel, 1998; Sternberg, 1997b). Moreover, assessments can monitor growth over time. People give up old behaviors, create new patterns of acting and interacting with others, evaluating and revising these behaviors as they go. It is a process of reinvention and experimentation. People who learn transformatively may have some trepidation, but basically they are excited by the process of self-reflection, discovery, and re-creation.
