Lifespan Development Final Exam

Counselors working with young children should know that children as young as ____________ usually show some knowledge of gender-related preferences and activities.

3 years old

Research indicates that children's feelings of autonomy from peers are likely to be at their lowest point for which of the following age groups?

8th grade

Which of the following individuals would most likely be in the reorganizational stage according to Schaie's view of adult adjustment?

A 62-year-old truck driver.

Which of the following helpers is most likely to have an implicit "incrementalist" belief about intelligence?

A counselor who recommends a strategy of academic skill building for a client who is experiencing academic problems.

What is the "two-pronged approach" to helping adolescents with their behavioral, social, or academic problems?

A focus on reducing risk factors while also enhancing protective factors.

Imagine that you are counseling a 6th grader on how to improve her study skills so that she will remember more information on tests. Not only do you teach her some memory strategies, you also encourage her to engage in self-testing so that she will begin self- monitoring, that is, keeping track of how well she is remembering new material. What kind of skill is this kind of self-monitoring?

A metacognitive skill.

In Bowlby's attachment theory, which of the following represents a primary outcome of the formation of attachments in infancy?

A working model of self, of others, and of relationships.

Some parents of adolescents are going through their own "perilous transition." What proportion of American parents report strong feelings of powerlessness, rejection, and personal regret when their children become adolescents?

About 40%.

Colin is applying for the pre-med major. Colin worked in the health science area for several years before returning to college. He is very serious about doing well in school. According to Marcia's categories of identity status, which placement would you assign to Colin with regard to his vocational identity?

Achieved

On the basis of research on parenting, what advice should counselors give parents about how much to be involved in their adolescents' school life?

Adolescents' academic achievement is likely to benefit when parents remain actively involved in school-related activities like monitoring homework and serving as partners in school decision making.

Mary, age 82, keeps insisting that someone has been sneaking into her apartment and turning on her stove when she isn't looking. Her family has noticed that Mary has been more and more forgetful lately, and now she has begun rambling in her speech and using many word substitutions, like "horse" for "dog." Mary is likely to be suffering from

Alzheimer's disease

At 10 months old, Suzie is very active, responds intensely to stimulation, avoids new stimulation, and tends to be irritable and fussy. Suzie's mother, Anne, wants to be a good caregiver, but Suzie's fussiness and intensity have made her feel like a failure. Anne sometimes finds herself withdrawing from Suzie and not responding when Suzie cries, because she feels like it will do no good. What advice should Anne's counselor give her?

Anne is not responsible for her baby's fussiness. Some babies are needier and more negative than others. In the long run, continuing to be responsive to crying will help Suzie to better regulate her emotions.

In a dimensional analysis of adult attachment style (as opposed to a simple set of attachment categories), the focus is on the degree to which a certain tendency is exhibited. What two continuous dimensions or tendencies seem to characterize most attachment scales?

Anxiety and approach-avoidance.

A parent whose own working model of attachment is "preoccupied/entangled" is likely to have an infant with which of the following kinds of attachment?

Anxious ambivalent.

In a study of relationship satisfaction and stability over a 3-year period, which of the following types of partnerships was the most likely to break up?

Anxious-ambivalent man with avoidant woman.

In studies of problem discussion and conflict management between partners, individuals with which type of attachment style are most likely to report feeling hostile and angry after a discussion session?

Anxious-ambivalent.

When 2-year-old Sabrina does not comply with requests, her mother tells her that she is not acting like a good girl and that Sabrina's father and sisters will be disappointed. She is told to wait until they come home when she will be punished for her misbehavior. What advice should a counselor give to Sabrina's mother?

Any consequence for misbehavior should be immediate, because Sabrina is too young to understand cause and effect when the consequences are so delayed.

Becoming aware of the "Me" self, the self that recognizes one's gender and age, occurs roughly around what age?

Around 3 years.

Mr. Sanderson is a 1st grade teacher. He believes in fostering children's tolerance for others, encouraging fairness, and promoting cooperative behavior. One of his classroom jobs involves leading the lunch line to the school cafeteria, a coveted role among the students. Vanessa has been line leader of the week. It is now the last day of the week and Mr. Sanderson asks Vanessa to allow Jeremy, a brand new student, a chance to lead the line. Mr. Sanderson is upset with Vanessa when she refuses because he feels she is not being kind. What is the best explanation for Vanessa's behavior?

At this age, Vanessa can engage in needs-based reasoning but may still have difficulty weighing the needs of others against to her own.

Which of the following parenting styles is most closely associated with positive outcomes in psychosocial development and school achievement for adolescents?

Authoritative

In Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) study of attachment formation, some mothers were less responsive to their babies' signals than others. One group of mothers seemed to be reluctant to hold their babies, showed less warmth and affection than other mothers, and were more rejecting and angry. When their babies were tested in the strange situation test, the children tended to fit which category of attachment?

Avoidant

Becky is struggling to learn her alphabet letters. Her kindergarten teacher, frustrated by failed attempts to teach her, says to Becky, "All the other girls and boys can write most of the letters and you can't even say their names." The teacher believes she is motivating the child to work harder by comparing Becky to the others. Which of the following predictions is most consistent with Cooley's theory of self-development?

Becky will incorporate her teacher's negative evaluations into her construction of her own sense of self.

Becky was part of an infant attachment study when she was a baby, participating in a strange situation test with her mother. Later, as a young adult, Becky participated in an attachment interview assessing her adult representation of her attachment to her mother. Based on other studies of this kind, which of the following findings is likely?

Becky's infant attachment status is likely to be predictive of her adult attachment category.

Which of these statements reflect findings from research on gender differences in identity formation?

Both males and females focus on the construction of an identity and the establishment of intimacy simultaneously.

At what age would a young child typically show self-recognition, the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror?

By 18 months.

Which of the following is a true statement about the stability of infant attachments?

Changes in family stressors that lead to changes in caregiving quality can lead to shifts in attachment quality.

Research indicates a history-graded effect for cohorts of children and adolescents growing up in the United States today. Which of these is the best description of this effect?

Children and adolescents experience higher levels of anxiety than individuals in previous generations.

Which of the following is the best example of the concept of a zone of proximal development?

Cindy explains to her younger sister how to solve a problem in math by organizing the information in a new way. Her younger sister can then complete her homework.

Roberto, at 15, is finding that he loves to take chances. He enjoys the sensation of being on the edge of danger, whether he is trying a new drug, or riding in a car at top speed with his friends. Roberto was well-behaved, outgoing, and happy as a younger child. If you were his counselor, what would you tell his parents about his current experimentation with deviant behavior?

Closer parental monitoring can help reduce the deviant behavior and protect Roberto from harm

Which of the following would be an example of regulating loss in adapting to his circumstances for Genaro?

Coming to terms with his injury and the loss of his job and income

Brain developments in the adolescent period include which of the following?

Continued myelination

For counselors who work with abused and maltreated children, which of the following statements draws an appropriate conclusion from research on social cognition and friendships?

Counselors should pay attention to the social world of these maltreated children, because those who can make a best friend have a good chance of improving their self-esteem.

Mrs. Harmon, the mother of 18-month-old Bryce, is concerned that Bryce has not learned to speak very well. He has a limited vocabulary and seems content to point to the things he wants. Mrs. Harmon has read several child development books which indicate that Bryce should be in the stage of language learning. Mrs. Harmon fears that Bryce is not keeping up developmentally. Based on your understanding of the timing of developmental stages, what would be your best advice?

Developmental stages can be useful guidelines, but there is a range of normal development within stages.

Which of the following is true with regard to the way coping styles relate to depression?

Distraction shortens episodes of depression by shortening the time spent focusing on negative events and thus lessening their intensity.

Yvonne is a 13-year-old 8th grader who is a new student in an urban middle school. She recently moved into the area with her mother and her three siblings. The family moved to be nearer to Yvonne's grandparents after the breakup of her parents' relationship. Yvonne is tall for her age and is bothered by the looks and sexual comments about her breasts from boys in her school. She has made few friends at the new school. What does this example illustrate about the ease of the adolescent transition for early-maturing girls like Yvonne?

Early-maturing girls are more likely to be rejected by girls who are less mature.

Which of the following is the most important factor in helping young adults avoid a slide into poverty?

Education

How do the attitudes toward death among elderly people compare to the attitudes of younger age groups?

Elderly people report less anxiety about death than middle-aged adults.

Which of the following is a critical element that underlies the development of self-control?

Emotion regulation.

In one study, young rats exposed to stress vocalized their anxiety. Their mothers, alerted to this distress, responded with diligent caregiving behavior that altered the development of the hippocampus. Which of the following processes or principles does this example demonstrate?

Epigenesis.

Ernest is 42 years old and has been out of work for two months. He lost his position as a program manager when his company merged with another larger company. He made a great deal of money during his time as manager and saved quite a bit, so finances are not an immediate concern. He has not been actively looking for work, and he feels sluggish, sleeps much more than he did in the past, and spends most of his time watching TV. Based on conservation of resources theory, how would you interpret his behavior?

Ernest is experiencing the effects of loss of status following the termination.

For helping professionals who assume an attachment perspective in their therapeutic approach to clients, what is expected to be the primary mechanism of change?

Establishing a therapeutic bond that functions as a secure base

Seven-month-old Juan and his mother live in a small rented apartment in a large city. Affordable, high quality child care centers are very hard to find in her neighborhood. Which level of the environment, according to Bronfenbrenner's model, is limiting her access to high quality day care in her community?

Exosystem

Mrs. Brown has tried to explain to her 3-year-old daughter, Maya, that Maya must stay at the babysitter's house while her mother goes to work. Maya cries each day during leave-taking. Mrs. Brown is embarrassed by this, especially because the babysitter seems to disapprove. The babysitter thinks that Maya should be more considerate toward her mother. Which is the most developmentally appropriate course of action?

Explain to the babysitter that Maya can't understand yet why her mother has to leave her and ask that the babysitter be patient with her.

Based on research, which adolescent and early adult characteristics are most strongly related to high levels of generativity in middle adulthood?

Extraversion and agreeableness.

Which of the following tends to assure that work experiences will be linked to positive well-being?

Feeling that one is making competent progress toward challenging goals.

Which of the following is the most likely physical change that most adults will experience in their 40s?

For many, it will take longer for eyes to adapt to changes in light than before.

Beth comes from a working class family. Since her father is disabled and unemployed, Beth needed to take a full-time job right after high school to help her mother provide for two younger children. Fortunately, she got a job as a receptionist in her uncle's real estate business. The secretarial skills she learned in high school help pay the family's bills. According to Marcia's categories of identity status, which placement would you assign to Beth with regard to her vocational identity?

Foreclosed.

Which of the following is the best example of a characteristic form of adolescent egocentrism?

Fourteen-year-old Erika buys gifts for other members of her family based on what she likes to receive. She doesn't worry about what her family members' preferences are.

According to research by Baltes and colleagues, in which decade is the growth of wisdom likely to be greatest?

From 15 to 25.

Of the following, which is the most accurate example of coaction?

Genes that are related to a specific disorder may be expressed phenotypically only in a certain kind of environment.

Juan, a 7-month-old infant, lives in a city where the availability of high quality child care is very limited. His mother is forced to leave Juan in the care of a young woman who also cares for five other infants and toddlers in her small apartment. Which of the following influences represents an example of a distal process?

Governmental policies and subsidies for child care that apply in the city.

Which of the following research techniques is an appropriate method for studying cognitive development of individuals during the sensorimotor period?

Habituation paradigm.

Jasmine, age 16, has just begun an after-school and weekend job at which she expects to work about 20-25 hours a week. She plans to use her earnings to buy clothes, gas for her car, and to fund outings with friends. Based on research, which of the following is the most likely outcome of Jasmine's part-time employment?

Her greater work time will negatively affect her school achievement.

Sonya is a successful therapist with three adult children. She is 50 years old and in relatively good health. Sonya has some minor aches and stiff joints, mostly stemming from an old knee injury she suffered while playing sports in college. She and her husband reside on the West coast near Sonya's elderly father. Her younger daughter is still in middle school. Her two older children live in different states, and her oldest son has been diagnosed with HIV. Sonya tries to bring the family together as often as she can, but it is usually only once or twice a year. She is involved in her community and is a generous donor to programs that support research on AIDS. Which of the following could be considered a nonnormative event in Sonya's life?

Her son's diagnosis of HIV.

Paula is a client who demonstrates highly anxious tendencies. She broods over perceived mistakes, worries about how others view her, and feels that she never meets her own high expectations in ways that satisfy her. Her counselor can conclude that Paula probably also has which of these other characteristics?

High levels of sensitivity to stress.

Which of the following does not contribute to social segregation for the elderly?

High rates of dementia among those over age 60.

Brendt has finished 6th grade in his elementary school, and is beginning 7th grade at a junior high school. According to research on school transitions, what is most likely to be true for Brendt?

His academic achievement in 7th grade would probably be better if the transition from elementary school began after 8th grade.

Dennis is a 17-year-old who comes to a counselor because he feels sexually attracted to males, which is at odds with his religious beliefs. Although he has felt this way for a long time, he is still struggling to understand why. Which of these explanation has some research support?

Homosexual orientation is at least partly determined by heredity.

Contemporary developmentalists focus on which question concerning nature and nurture?

How do we explain the mechanisms by which nature and nurture interact to affect development?

Research on job satisfaction indicates which of the following?

How well personality characteristics match the demands of a job is an important ingredient in job satisfaction.

Phillipa's husband, Manuel, is worried about her plan to return to full-time employment when their baby is 6 months old. He is afraid that there will be a negative effect on the baby's attachment to her mother. Phillipa suggests that she and Manuel discuss the pros and cons of day care with a counselor. What would a well-informed counselor advise this couple?

If Phillipa continues to provide sensitive, responsive care when she is with the baby, and if the day care is good quality, then the baby should still form a secure attachment to Phillipa.

As a rule of thumb, when might an evaluation by a speech pathologist be advisable?

If by age 4 the child's language is not understandable to people outside the family.

Parents who give reasons for the rules they set in ways that their children can understand are using what disciplinary method?

Induction.

Which of the following statements does not reflect contemporary critiques of Piagetian theory that have experimental support?

Infants may have a rudimentary understanding of object permanence earlier in infancy than Piaget suspected.

From Chen's perspective, what theory about marriage would explain the relationship failure?

Intrapersonal theory.

It's a typical day for Tessa, a counselor who works with teenagers. Marcus explains to her that he came to school high on drugs because he can get away with it. He believes his teachers are clueless when it comes to spotting kids on drugs. Which form of adolescent egocentrism might Elkind use to describe Marcus' view of the world?

Invincibility fable.

The available data indicate that chronic maternal stress during pregnancy has which of the following effects on the fetus?

Is related to newborn hyperactivity and irritability

Jeremy, a 2nd grader, is in the counselor's office because he hit another boy on the playground. He tells the counselor that he knew the other boy was about to hit him first. He was just "getting back" at the other student. The counselor tries to help Jeremy control his aggressive behavior by explaining that the other boy didn't intend to hurt him. Given what you have learned about social development, which of the following is your best recommendation for the counselor?

Jeremy probably doesn't have a good understanding of another person's intentions at this age. The counselor should assess the quality of Jeremy's perspective-taking and structure the intervention accordingly.

Joe, a 52-year-old, lost his job when the plant he managed was closed, and his overall life satisfaction plummeted. After 9 months out of work, Joe was fortunate to find another, similar position. What can we expect for Joe now?

Joe's overall life satisfaction will rise, but will not return to baseline

When she was pregnant with Joey, Joey's mother had a poor diet because food was in short supply in her war-torn country. The war ended after Joey was born, and his middle-class mother was able to provide him with adequate, nutritious food throughout his childhood. Which of the following outcomes is the most likely for Joey?

Joey is at greater risk of serious ongoing health problems than youngsters who have adequate prenatal nutrition.

As a toddler, Joey loved to "dance" with his mother and his sisters, twirling around the house to music. By age 5, Joey refused to dance anymore, saying that dancing was for girls. His mother felt that he really wanted to dance but that he just wouldn't. How would a cognitive theorist explain Joey's attitude toward dancing?

Joey is intrinsically motivated to engage in behaviors that he believes are consistent with his gender.

Which of the following has the greatest potential to interfere with mature critical thinking and reflective judgment?

Lack of metacognitive ability.

Counselors who do parent training primarily use which approach for this work?

Learning theory.

High levels of parental monitoring and control are associated with which of the following outcomes regardless of ethnicity or social class?

Less deviant behavior and drug use among adolescents.

Brenda and Louise are twin sisters who each married 20 years ago. Brenda and her husband run a small piano tuning business. They have had a small, loyal customer base, and their modest but adequate income has not changed over time. Louise and her husband each work for a corporation, and their incomes have steadily increased over the last 20 years allowing them to increase their standard of living. Assuming that Brenda and Louise began their married lives equally happy, and based on their income histories alone, what would you predict about the subjective well-being of Brenda and Louise today?

Louise and Brenda are probably still about equally happy.

A counselor is concerned about a clients' self-esteem. Which of the following provides a research-based rationale for this concern?

Low levels of self-esteem are related to negative attributions about one's self, which are related to depression.

Which of the following is a well-documented gender difference in brain structure?

Male brains are more lateralized than female brains.

Which of the following statements is true with respect to moral development?

Many adults reach the point where they reason about moral issues using universal ethical standards.

Marie has a 2½-year-old daughter. The babysitter has been calling her daughter "naughty" and "a bad girl" when the child is uncooperative. The babysitter says that the little girl doesn't understand what she is saying so it doesn't matter. Marie is unsure about what to do. Based upon information presented in this chapter, what would you say to Marie?

Marie should find some way to stop this before these labels become part of her daughter's developing self-understanding.

Mark, a 47-year-old man, is very shy. He has difficulty interacting with others because he feels awkward and does not easily express his thoughts and feelings. He is a relatively successful artist who lives alone in a rural Southern state. Mark also remembers being very shy as a child. Which of the following is not a likely explanation for the continuity of Mark's personality over his life span?

Mark's parents did not try to make him more outgoing.

Before using cognitive therapies with children, which of the following is an important area of cognitive skill that clinicians should assess in their young clients?

Metacognitive skill.

Rasheed is a 19-year-old college student whose family is making financial sacrifices to pay for his education. So far, his grade point average is not high enough to allow him entrance into the pre-med program, the course of study he intends to pursue. He also works part time as a youth counselor, a job he really likes. He is considering changing his major to education. According to Marcia's categories of identity status, which category would you assign to Rasheed with regard to his vocational identity?

Moratorium

Infants form multiple attachments, to both mother and father and perhaps to a sibling, grandparent, and so on. Which of the following statements is most consistent with available data on the impact of these attachments?

More than one secure attachment adds value, serving as a further protective factor.

Regarding measures of well-being and happiness, how do older people (over 65) tend to fare in comparison to young or middle-aged adults?

Most aspects of well-being improve for older adults, except for purpose in life and personal growth.

What can you reliably predict about normal age-related changes in cognitive functioning in middle adulthood?

Most people need to take a little more time when solving complex problems.

What kind of peer intervention is least likely to be helpful to troubled teens?

Moving troubled teens to a new school so that they are separated from at-risk peers.

Based upon research about marital relationships conducted by Gottman, what feature of a relationship best predicts the demise of a relationship?

Negative affect reciprocity.

In the Primary Mental Health Project begun in 1958 in Monroe County, New York, 1st graders were evaluated in a variety of ways in order to determine which early risk factor might predict later maladjustment. Of all the assessments done on those first graders, which one was the best predictor of mental health problems later?

Nomination by peers for negative roles in a class play.

When the life goals of college and noncollege young adults are compared, which of the following is true?

Noncollege and college youth both rank good pay and opportunities for advancement in their work as important goals.

Most men can expect some changes in testosterone levels and possibly in their sexual function in their 40s. Which of the following changes is most likely?

Older men produce less seminal fluid during ejaculation than when they were younger.

Which of the following is true of American teenagers' knowledge of HIV/AIDS?

Only a minority are well-informed and understand the risks of unprotected sex.

Jane is a newly minted therapist who works with couples and families. Her decision was motivated by her sister Melinda's experience of spousal abuse. When Jane meets with her supervisor to review cases, he points out that when her female clients cry or describe intense conflicts with their husbands, Jane takes their side. She believes her supervisor is blind to the signs of abuse. What critical thinking pitfall do Jane's reactions show?

Over-reliance on the vividness effect.

Which of the following therapeutic approaches is designed to help children develop their perspective taking and friendship skills?

Pair therapy.

Based on what you have learned about language development, what advice would you give to new parents who are concerned about their child's literacy and later success in school?

Parents and caregivers should provide lots of good quality language experience and practice by asking questions and elaborating on many topics of interest to their children.

For counselors who work with families that include children of different ages, which of the following statements is true?

Parents need to be flexible as children get older and adjust their rules and expectations to developmentally changing competencies and needs.

When peers and parents both support academics, adolescents tend to be successful students. When peers and parents are at odds on the importance or value of academics, which of the following is most often true according to research?

Peers' attitudes are likely to have the most influence on the adolescent's academic performance.

Which of the following factors is an important predictor of a successful retirement?

Pension eligibility and high self-esteem.

To understand parent-teen conflicts, it can be helpful for the counselor to understand the parents' and teen's views of parental control. For example, teens often consider some aspects of parental control legitimate but not others. Which of the following kinds of rules governing behavior are teens most likely to feel that parents should not control?

Personal rules.

Peter, who is an aggressive 11-year-old, is referred to the counselor because of a recent episode of fighting on the bus. When asked to explain what happened, Peter said that he had to sit next to a girl who was laughing with her friend across the aisle about the "stupid kids in school." Enraged by this, Peter pushed her head into the window. What is the most likely explanation for Peter's aggressive reaction?

Peter has a hostile attribution bias and assumed the girls' mean comments were about him.

According to research on self-concept in children, which of the following aspects of self-concept is most closely tied to overall level of self-esteem?

Physical appearance.

Which of the following statements is most accurate with regard to Piaget's theory?

Piaget firmly believed that children who were at a particular stage of cognitive development had the same level of understanding in all areas, such as understanding causality, morality, agency, etc.

Laboratory studies have provided evidence for which of the following statements with regard to emotional reactivity?

Positive affectivity is related to higher levels of left prefrontal cortical activity.

Ms. Jackson, a middle school counselor, is concerned about the special problems girls face at adolescence. Consider the research evidence for gender differences in self-esteem at this period of development. Which of the following interventions would be most productive?

Provide opportunities, modeling, and support for both girls and boys to select courses and activities that could be considered non-traditional with regard to gender.

It is generally a best practice for counselors to approach working with youngsters who demonstrate anger, noncompliance, and aggression in which of the following ways?

Provide structure and a clear set of guidelines for appropriate behavior while seeking to enhance social competence.

Hazan and Zeifman (1999) asked 6- to 17-year-olds questions about attachment needs. They found that peers met some attachment needs during childhood or early adolescence, but that peers did not fulfill other attachment needs unless they became romantic partners. Which of the following attachment needs were shifted to peers even for the youngest children in this study?

Proximity maintenance.

Most theories of racial, ethnic or sexual identity include which of the following ideas?

Realizing the significance of race, ethnicity or sexual orientation plays a critical role.

Dr. Jones encountered a problem with a new client in therapy. Using the model of reflective practice described in Chapter 1, what is the sequence of steps he should use in order to work with this client effectively?

Reflect on well-established theories; apply the theoretical knowledge to the individual's case; and then test out new ways of thinking about the problem if prior theory does not suffice.

Which of the following would be an example of maintenance in adapting to his circumstances for Genaro?

Returning to physical therapy so that he can go back to his job as a truck driver.

Sasha, a 3-year-old girl, was having difficulty settling down at bedtime. She ran around her house, trying to make her parents catch her before getting into bed. Sasha's behavior awakened her baby sister, asleep in the next room. John, Sasha's father, felt pushed to his limit and he screamed at Sasha to stop and threatened her with a spanking. In this example, which of the following statements is true with regard to internalization of standards?

Sasha's father did not support her internalization of rules of behavior because she only complied out of fear.

Genaro is a 55-year-old truck driver who has developed anxiety attacks after a recent accident that left him with a serious back injury. Because of his anxiety, he has stopped going to physical therapy. He is considering whether he can return to truck driving, whether he can afford to retire, or if he will need to explore other options for a new career. Which of the following would be an example of growth in adapting to these circumstances?

Seeking out counseling to help him deal with his anxiety and learn about his options for a new career.

Karina and her friend Joanna began their college careers at a competitive ivy league school and they both had high grade point averages and high test scores in high school. Yet, both of them are having a hard time getting good grades as freshmen. They find the amount of reading and the performance requirements to be so demanding that each of them has had D grades on exams. Now in their second semester, Karina is digging in, working harder, and starting to have more success, while Joanna seems discouraged and is considering giving up. Which of the following is most likely to be true of Joanna?

She displays a helpless pattern

Andrea is an adult with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style. Consistent with her attachment style, what is most likely to be true of Andrea's romantic relationship?

She is likely to report a lack of trust in her relationship.

When Francesca, age 62, discovered that her retirement plan had suffered losses in the stock market, she realized that she would not be able to retired within the next year as she had expected to do. After she learned of her predicament, Francesca met with a financial consultant provided by her company, and she has decided to postpone her retirement by just two years. She hopes that the economy will improve and the additional years of work will help her to achieve her financial goals. Which of the following is an accurate description of Francesca's coping at this point?

She is using a primary control strategy.

Juan is a fearless 4-year-old and one of the most active children in his day care center. He eagerly climbs the playground equipment and seems to have little fear of getting hurt. Juan often wanders away from his mother in stores, preferring to explore the interesting sights rather than wait patiently by her side. Juan's mother is exasperated with his behavior and fears for his safety. Based upon the research, what advice could you give her?

She should remember that Juan will be more likely to comply if she explains the rules and reasons for her worries.

Janine is a 45-year-old accountant who has considerable experience in working as a consultant with firms who are undergoing mergers and acquisitions. Recently one of the firms she successfully helped through a difficult acquisition has offered her a position as Vice President. She has never managed a major corporate division before. Based on what you know about women leaders, what would you predict about her leadership style?

She will probably be agentic (e.g., assertive, task oriented) and also democratic.

Which of the following traits best characterizes popular children across a wide variety of cultures?

Sociable and helpful.

Chen and Anne come to counseling because they are on the brink of a divorce. After five years of marriage, Anne sees Chen as a highly controlling individual who micromanages their bank account. She's tired of her husband always nagging about money, and says she doesn't feel like she's getting anything positive out of her relationship. Chen considers Anne's spending extravagant. He blames her family background for creating her lack of responsibility. From Anne's perspective, what theory about marriage would explain the relationship failure?

Social exchange theory

Social skills training programs are interventions in which children are taught specific, discrete behaviors that can facilitate effective social interactions, like making eye contact and asking appropriate questions. Assessments of these interventions indicate that they have modest success in improving peer acceptance. Which of these is the best description of a major shortcoming of these intervention programs?

Socially unskilled children are already perceived in biased ways by peers, and that perception is not being addressed by the intervention.

The period of time that is now considered "normal" for the experience of grieving and depressive symptoms after the death of a loved one is

Something that helping professionals have not achieved consensus on

A counselor is running a parents' group when the topic of spanking as a disciplinary technique is raised. What is the most accurate statement based on research that the counselor can offer?

Spanking may gain immediate compliance, but it does not aid development of self-regulation and it may increases a child's aggressiveness.

Using Erikson's developmental theory as a framework, which of the following statements is an accurate representation of his ideas?

Successful resolution of a psychosocial crisis at each stage depends upon having more positive than negative experiences in the area of major concern.

Sylvia and Joanne are both members of a support group for new widows. Sylvia has been deeply religious for most of her adult life. She prays daily and attends weekly services. Joanne is not religious, but she has engaged in daily mindful meditation practice for many years. Both women seem equally devastated by the unexpected deaths of their husbands. What can you predict about how they will recover from their losses?

Sylvia and Joanne are both likely to benefit from their daily contemplative practices.

Surya wants 8-year-old Leila to start her homework. Leila doesn't want to turn off the TV. Surya raises her voice and threatens to take away Leila's TV privileges for a week if she doesn't comply. Surya enters the room and commands Leila to obey. Leila begins to wail, saying that the homework is too hard and that she never understands it anyway. At this point the phone rings. Surya gets absorbed in the call. Thirty minutes later, Leila is still watching TV and another battle ensues. Surya, exhausted from the struggle, take her to bed. Which behavior is most likely to increase next time?

TV viewing.

Which of the following is an accurate description of the long-term effects of chronic stress on the body?

The ability of the immune system to fight infection and ward off disease is compromised.

Which of the following is true with respect to the impact of nurture on the fetus' developing brain?

The establishment of some synaptic connections in the fetal brain depends upon environmental input, like sound.

Robert and Nadine both have been laid off. The couple has inadequate access to food or health care. When they realize that Nadine is pregnant, they feel desperate, and they talk to a social worker at a local clinic about their situation. The social worker is able to provide them with referrals to a food outlet, but she is unable to find a prenatal care clinic that provides free services in their neighborhood. Considering the effects of multiple risk factors, what is the most likely potential value of the social worker's efforts?

The fewer risk factors the better, so their unborn child is likely to be better off even with the limited help the social worker provided.

Based on your knowledge of prenatal development, which of the following sequences would you expect to be correct?

The heart begins to form before the hands.

Which of the following statements is true about the effects of teratogens on the developing fetus?

The kind of damage done depends on the stage of development during exposure.

Juan is afraid of snakes. Which of the following is likely to best describe how his brain responds when he first sees a snake?

The lower limbic structures like the amygdala can process the sensory input from the snake and trigger a physical reaction to the feared stimulus before the input is processed at a more rational level by the cortex.

Which of the following is true of aggressive children?

The may be well-liked if they have strengths in areas like sociability and cognitive ability.

Ms. S. and her infant just participated in an attachment study. First, Ms. S. was interviewed to determine how she represented her attachment relationship with her own early caregivers. Second, the researchers assessed the quality of her baby's attachment to Ms. S. They are seeking to identify relationships between a parent's working model of attachment and the quality of the attachment the infants form with them. This attachment study is part of which research tradition?

The nuclear family tradition.

Franco participated in an experience sampling study of emotional experience. The participants in the study ranged in age from 18 to 90. He wore a pager, and every time he was paged he checks off the emotions he was experiencing at that moment on a list. Franco and others in his age group reported that positive emotions lasted longer than for the other study participants, but they reported that negative emotional states ended more quickly. What age group is Franco most likely to be in?

The oldest group (65 and up).

Juan, a 7-month-old infant, lives in a city where the availability of high quality child care is very limited. His mother is forced to leave Juan in the care of a young woman who also cares for five other infants and toddlers in her small apartment. According to Bronfenbrenner's theory, which of the following influences on Juan's development represents an example of a proximal process?

The quality of care-giving Juan receives in day care.

Which of these is the best summary of developmental trends in the formation of identity?

There is a general decline in foreclosures and diffusions over time while achievements increase over time.

Which of the following is not true with regard to the definition of reactive attachment disorder?

These children behave indifferently, like avoidantly attached youngsters.

Brain growth during adolescence appears to be influenced by the hormonal changes of puberty. What effects do these hormonal changes seem to have?

They affect the onset and offset of genes that influence cortisol levels.

Sally, age 28, recently married John, age 45. They would like to have a child, but they are concerned that they may be at high risk to have a child with a chromosomal abnormality, like Down's syndrome, because of John's age. What is their genetic counselor likely to tell them?

They are at higher than average risk for some chromosomal disorders because of John's age, but not for Down's syndrome.

Daniel is very extraverted. He admits that he is not comfortable unless surrounded by other people, and he energetically pursues activities that require the company of others. His cousin Bill, about the same age, is very introverted. Bill is self-reflective and prefers more solitary pursuits. Regardless of their personality characteristics, which of the following is likely to contribute most to their long-term happiness?

They are good friends who are willing to help each other in difficult times.

Problem drinking and drug use is part of the lifestyle of many young adults. In a longitudinal study of 33,000 people, what was the typical course of these behaviors?

They begin to decline when adults reach their mid-twenties.

One traditional role of counselors is to help people make decisions. Young adult clients who are still dualistic thinkers may have which of the following problems in this process?

They may come to a foreclosed decision before exploring options.

Sabrina and Bethany are both members of the same crowd in high school, which means that

They share interests, attitudes, behaviors, and appearance characteristics.

In several studies of the benefits of searching for meaning in the loss of a loved one, which of the following individuals were likely to show the most distress in the long run?

Those who tried but failed to find meaning in their loss.

Which intrapersonal process seems to be serving to enhance Tim's self-esteem?

Tim's downward social comparison.

Which of the following statements about Tim's self-esteem is most accurate?

Tim's global self-esteem is likely to be high because he excels in an area of importance to him.

Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he's not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a sport at which he excels. Tim's 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn't want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which of the following statements about Tim's self-concept is most accurate?

Tim's self-concept reflects some understanding of his strengths and weaknesses.

Massage therapy for infants has been very successful in promoting weight gain and social interaction, and in decreasing distress in low birth weight infants. Based upon developmental research, what is the best explanation for this?

Touch is the best developed sense at birth and therefore the most effective avenue for soothing and regulating the newborn.

Which of the following approaches would you recommend Tim's teacher use with him?

Try to help Tim gain a more realistic perspective about his weaknesses in math and help him learn the skills he needs to succeed.

Which of these is the best definition of relativistic thought according to Perry?

Weighing evidence and deciding upon the most defensible alternative.

Alex is 22 months of age. He knows that he should not play with his food at the dinner table, but he sometimes still does so. His parents can usually redirect his behavior with simple reminders about what he should be doing. What is happening cognitively to help him grow in self-control?

With repeated experience, Alex is constructing representations of standards for everyday behavior that serve as guidelines for behavior.

Which of the following discipline methods is most likely to in generate both immediate compliance and very high levels of anxiety?

Withdrawal of love.

Which of the following is not true with regard to Yvonne's level of moodiness?

Yvonne's moodiness is likely to increase because she has higher expectations for academic success than her male peers.

In one animal study of the influence of genes on behavior, offspring of rats with genes for low stress reactivity were reared by unrelated mother rats with genes for high stress reactivity. This is an example of

a cross-fostering study.

Tyrone is a 35-year-old advertising executive. Lately, he has been experiencing some physical symptoms, like shortness of breath and difficulty sleeping. He explains to a counselor that he has been having more difficulty dealing with his work and family responsibilities. A comprehensive intake interview reveals that Tyrone's mother suffered from a diagnosed affective disorder. This piece of information might indicate the presence of

a diathesis.

In an assessment of peer relationships, Fred was rarely selected by classmates as someone to play with or to do a class project with. But Fred was also rarely selected as someone whom classmates would refuse to play with. Fred is an example of

a neglected child.

Kindling-behavioral sensitization describes

a process of increasing sensitivity to stressful triggers.

One factor that promotes self-esteem among minority group members is

a strong and positive racial or ethnic identity.

Counselors should know that the period between the ages of 15 and 24 years is

a time when depression rates are at their peak, with the highest prevalence of any time in the life span.

Cross-cultural research findings indicate that

age-related changes in personality traits are consistent across different cultural groups.

Research on mate selection indicates that people choose mates on the basis of all of the following characteristics, except for

agency

Day care researchers have identified a dose-response relationship between the amount of time spent in day care and the age of entry into day care and which later outcome?

aggression and neediness at school age

The "Big Five" personality traits are

agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion and conscientiousness.

Counselors need to be aware of social and cultural trends in adolescent behavior. For example, surveys of 8th to 12th graders in 2009-2011 showed that

alcohol and tobacco use by teens have both decreased.

Andrea is an adult with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style. She is least likely to select a romantic partner who has ____________ attachment style.

an anxious-ambivalent

A group of people characterized by shared traditions, attitudes, values, and beliefs handed down from one generation to another constitute ______________.

an ethnic group.

Studies of people who are bereaved, whether due to death of a loved one or due to their own spinal cord injuries, show similar results regarding the relationship between initial distress and later coping. Compared to other bereaved individuals, people who show the highest levels of initial distress

are less effective in coping with their loss in the long run.

The general consensus is that disorders of the autism spectrum

are neurobiological in nature and have high family concordance rates.

Jacob, age 13, gets a laugh from the whole school orchestra when he imitates the music teacher, who is out of the room. The next day, Jacob's friend Brad boasts at lunch that "Jacob and I really got a laugh out of the orchestra at practice yesterday." Brad is identifying with Jacob and appropriating Jacob's accomplishment as his own. This example illustrates one kind of

attribute substitution.

When Ms. S completed the attachment interview assessing her own relationship to her early caregivers, she provided answers that were coherent and collaborative, and she acknowledged the importance of attachment-related experiences in her development. Her attachment status would most likely be categorized as

autonomous

When a parent is classified as "dismissive" on the basis of an attachment interview assessing the parent's attachment to early caregivers, that parent's baby is most likely to have an attachment to the parent that is classified as

avoidant

Research using habituation and preferential response paradigms has provided us with much of what we know about the infant's perceptual abilities. The habituation paradigm takes advantage of

baby's tendency to orient to new stimulation

Studies of brain activity during the early adult years suggest an increased capacity for

behavioral and emotional control.

Counselors who work to improve children's social relationships are concerned with developing friendship skills. According to Selman, friendship skills can be defined as

behaviors such as appropriate assertiveness, eye contact, and good communication with peers.

Studies of peer groups indicate that children's conformity to peers can best be described as resulting from

both peer influence and selection of similar peers.

Bea is the mother of 4-month-old Alex. She has been depressed since Alex's birth and is frequently withdrawn. Brain research indicates that, in comparison to other infants his age, Alex will have

brain activation patterns resembling those of fearful and inhibited children.

Stanley is 7 years old. His parents are quite concerned about his school progress. Although he has begun to learn to read, he reverses some letters when he writes. Based on research, Stanley's school counselor should tell his parents that

brain development can be quite uneven in childhood and as a result, it is not unusual for children to show poor performance in isolated skills.

A positive emotional style

can be cultivated by everyone.

Based upon research on Perry's theory, helping professionals should provide ____________ for dualists and ____________ for multiplists.

challenge / experiential learning

Children like Fred seem to be (In an assessment of peer relationships, Fred was rarely selected by classmates as someone to play with or to do a class project with. But Fred was also rarely selected as someone whom classmates would refuse to play with.)

choosing not to participate very actively in peer activities.

Both Sam and Suzanna, age 11, are having trouble making friends. A counselor assesses each of them for social interactive skills and discovers that Sam has poor perspective-taking skills for his age. Suzanna actually has good perspective-taking skills, but she fails to use these skills effectively when interacting with others. In Selman's terms, these two children show different levels of ____________ but similar levels of ____________.

competence / performance

The internalization of rules and standards of behavior is most closely associated with the development of

conscience.

Reflective clinicians often absorb the tenets and techniques associated with major theoretical approaches to counseling and then interpret and organize them in ways that are useful for their own work. This aspect of reflective practice is an example of

constructivism.

The belief that individuals create their own knowledge by interpreting new experience in the light of past experience is a fundamental proposition of

constructivism.

Anna must care for children as well as a sick loved one on a day-to-day basis. She also needs to keep her job. This situation places her under considerable stress. Coping of this type is called coping with

daily hassles.

The dimension of parenting style called parental responsiveness can usefully be broken down into two characteristics: acceptance (affection, involvement, concern) and

democracy

General guidelines for intervention programs for children with autism spectrum disorder include

early entry into intervention, use of Applied Behavior Analysis, and parent training and support.

Carla, a bright, energetic 8-year-old, has lost four gloves during the past few weeks. Her mother is annoyed at the need to keep replacing gloves. Carla notices that her little brother is amused that Carla is in trouble, and she formulates the theory that her brother is stealing the gloves just to get her into trouble. Carla is convinced that she is right. She refuses to entertain her mother's suggestion that Carla is often so distracted that she does not keep track of her possessions. Carla is displaying a form of

egocentrism.

Studies of American schools indicate that as children move out of elementary school into middle and junior high schools, instructional practices are characterized more by

emphasis on discipline and teacher control

A "skills first" approach to mental health problems refers to an approach that

enhances competence in order to bolster self-esteem, because feeling good is seen as a by-product of doing well.

The parents of Abe, age 14, are concerned that he is watching violent movies and playing violent video games with his friends. You can advise them that

exposure to media portrayals of violence are related to teenage aggressive behavior.

Memory is to some degree reconstructed. This accounts for the phenomenon of

false memories.

Several factors at preretirement are strong predictors of positive attitudes toward retirement later, including

feeling confident in relationships with friends.

In adolescence and early adulthood, males and females begin to spend more time in mixed-gender groups. Studies of who has more influence on the outcome of problem solving in mixed-gender groups indicate that

females have a disadvantage because males do less turn-taking and are more domineering.

The brain is commonly classified into three main parts. They are

forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

Among the important differences between adult-adult attachments and child-adult attachments is the

greater degree of symmetry in adult-adult attachments.

Counselors who use attachment based family therapy (ABFT) with troubled adolescents and their families

have alliance building individual sessions with parents and with the adolescent to provide safe haven and empathy.

Vygotsky believed that egocentric or private speech (talking aloud to one's self) played an important role in cognitive development by

helping organize young children's thinking, as a precursor to self-regulation.

In middle childhood and early adolescence, cliques serve the purpose of

helping to establish one's identity and meet needs for acceptance.

The epigenome is the full set of factors, from the cell to the outside world, that controls the expression of

hereditary material.

A person who perceives neutral events as containing aggressive or threatening meaning is said to possess a

hostile attributional bias.

The quality of a children's attachments has been found to affect

how children respond to new social situations.

Assimilation can be described as ____________ and accommodation can be described as ____________.

incorporating information / restructuring information.

Globalization has begun to affect the young adult period in developing nations by

increasing the length of time individuals spend in self-exploration before taking on adult responsibilities.

Heckhausen found in a study of young, middle-aged, and elderly adults that elderly people had fewer aspirations regarding work, finances, and family and more aspirations related to health, community, and leisure pursuits than young adults. These age-related shifts in aspirations illustrate

increasing use of secondary control strategies with age.

Models of development which hold that change occurs as a continuous process are called

incremental models.

For an adolescent engaging in risky behavior (e.g., alcohol use), one strategy that counselors can use is to introduce dissonance into the discussion. Before a counselor can do so effectively, she must

interview the teen about his or her own current beliefs and expectations.

Friendship, according to Selman, requires balancing

intimacy and autonomy.

Research on the use of control strategies indicates that flexibility in adjusting one's goals

is less characteristic of 20-year-olds than 60-year-olds.

Counselors need to recognize that girls' antisocial behavior in late childhood

is likely to include non-confrontational relational aggressive behaviors.

Children who suffer severe protein and calorie shortages at any age may experience stunted growth, a protuberant belly, and extreme apathy. This severe starvation syndrome is called

kwashiorkor.

Counselors working with school-age children and adolescents need to recognize that gender identity continues to develop in these years. Among the important findings from recent research is that girls tend to feel

less content with their gender than boys.

The Phineas Gage matrix describes a syndrome due to frontal lobe damage that diminishes an individual's emotional intensity. From this syndrome we have learned that with decreased emotional intensity comes

lesser tendency to plan and make rational decisions.

Fluid intelligence is to ____________ as crystallized intelligence is to ____________.

mechanics / pragmatics.

Vygotsky pointed out that children do not independently construct a definition for each a word they learn, but rather they learn the meanings that the surrounding culture has ascribed to each word. This central concept in Vygotsky's theory is called

mediated learning.

In end-of-life-care, the "double effect" refers to

medication that is given to relieve pain even when this may also result in death.

Bea is the mother of 4-month-old Alex. She has been depressed since Alex's birth and is frequently withdrawn. Because of Bea's depression, we can expect that, in comparison to other 4-month-olds, Alex experiences will display

more fearfulness and turning away.

Recent research on the self-system supports the idea that the self is ____________ in nature.

multidimensional

Models of development which hold that change occurs as a function of reciprocal influences, both from within the person and from the external environment are called

multidimensional models.

Counselors must recognize the principle of ___________: Individual pathways of development may result in a wide range of possible outcomes.

multifinality

In late adulthood, many of the physical losses of middle adulthood (e.g., sensory decline) continue. For people over 65 there is also a new physical problem that about half of the population must contend with, called

osteoarthritis

If a mother and baby are cooing and smiling at each other, and then the mother withdraws and becomes unresponsive, the typical infant will first engage in ____________, and then in ____________.

other-directed coping behaviors / self-directed coping behaviors

In a study of children from elementary school to young adulthood (Mahoney, 2000), participation in extracurricular activities for at least a year was associated with high rates of graduation and low rates of criminal activity if the student's

peer group also participated in the extracurricular activity.

By middle childhood, boys' choices of companions tend to be based on shared interests, whereas girls' choices of companions tend to be based more on

personality.

For most mental illnesses and behavioral disorders, like alcoholism and clinical depression, the genetic contribution can best be described as

polygenic.

A counselor helping a young adult client with procrastination must recognize that this problem can have many sources. In young adulthood, one common developmental source is

poor self-management skills

A child's social preference score is based on ____________, and their social impact scores are based on ____________.

positive nominations / positive plus negative nominations

Participation in after-school activities sponsored by school or community organizations is

positively related to academic achievement.

Jason experienced the death of a close relative due to an act of violence. He comes to counseling to get help dealing with the grief and pain of this experience. After some time, Jason adjusts, and he demonstrates improvements in psychological functioning that exceed his level of adjustment prior to this traumatic event. This is an example of

posttraumatic growth.

The ability to use language to communicate effectively by using well-organized narratives primarily depends upon the development of ____________ skill.

pragmatic

Currently available evidence is strongest for _________ influences on the development of gender identity, and there is no reliable evidence for _________ causes after birth.

prenatal / environmental

An attempt to forestall the development of problems by promoting health and wellness in the general population is called

primary prevention.

Counselors who work with young children to enhance their mental health should take an active role in

providing support and information for parents.

Stage theories of development typically describe ____________ changes in behavior, cognition, or social relationships.

qualitative

In Bronfenbrenner's model, proximal processes refer to

reciprocal interactions between an organism and its immediate environment.

In a number conservation task a set of discrete items is laid out in two rows They are first laid out in exactly the same way, and then one row is moved so that the items are farther apart. Typically, 3- and 4-year-olds

recognize that the rows have the same number when they are arranged identically, but believe there are more items when they are farther apart.

In his approach to couples therapy, Gottman encourages couples to recognize relationship problems that are the result of differences in temperament and attitudes (e.g., different approaches to money) as chronic and inevitable, much like chronic physical ailments that come on as we get older. This approach is similar to ____________, one of the adaptive mechanisms described by life span developmental theorists.

regulation of loss

Researchers believe that the key characteristic that explains the therapeutic benefits of cognitive therapy is

replacing dysfunctional thinking with more functional thoughts.

Anna is a 44-year-old divorced mother of two teenagers. Anna's father, who lives alone in a nearby suburb, has recently been diagnosed with lung cancer. Anna needs to take her father to and from medical appointments while she tries to manage the demands of her own full-time job. She goes to the employee assistance counselor at work for help in coping with the demands of her situation. The counselor understands that the demands on Anna are too great given her available resources, a phenomenon called

role strain.

Normally developing motor and visual milestones for a 4-month-old include

rolling over, reaching for objects, visual tracking moving objects.

A coping style which has been linked to higher levels of depression among adolescent girls and women is

rumination.

When elementary school children are free to choose whomever they wish to play with, the most consistent finding is that they will choose

same sex playmates

When Tamara responds to the crying of her 4-month-old baby, Jessie, she tries to figure out what has caused the baby's distress (hunger, wet diaper, etc.) while making soothing sounds and holding the baby. Tamara's actions are ____________ Jessie's developing emotion regulation abilities.

scaffolding

According to research on adult partner selection, secure individuals tend to select ____________ individuals as partners.

secure

When Jeanine, a successful surgeon, began to suffer from arthritis in her hands, she stopped doing surgery, continuing only the consulting portion of her medical practice, and accepted a position as Dean of the medical school at the university hospital where she had her practice. Narrowing her medical practice to consulting work represents an example of

selection

The term ____________ refers to the description of a person's attributes, whereas the term ____________ refers to how a person feels about those attributes.

self-concept / self-esteem

People are generally motivated to evaluate themselves favorably in relation to others. This tendency is called a

self-enhancing bias.

At 50 years old, Andrew is an important source of support for his younger sister who has a serious disability. As a computer engineer, Andrew has made a practice of designing computer devices that help his sister and others in her situation interact with the wider world. Andrew sees his work as important in the lives of other people. Andrew's view of his life is an example of

situational meaning.

Beginning in the first hours after birth, caregivers interaction with infants in ways that enhance positive affect and attention, such as

smiling, affectionate touching, and high-pitched vocalizations.

Biological females with two X chromosomes are sometimes born with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which causes their external genitalia to appear more like those of a male. They may be misidentified at birth and raised as males. If the correct identification is not made before age 3, physicians often advise parents to continue raising the child as a boy, because the child's gender identity may be difficult to change after age 3. The experiences of CAH girls and other gender atypical children have helped demonstrate that

social assignment is a powerful influence on gender identity.

When Marla, age 14, decides that she is a good writer because she gets better grades than her friend Jenna on stories she writes for English, she is demonstrating the use of ____________ as part of identity formation.

social comparison with peers

Some research shows that cultural values and goals shape the kinds of discipline that parents use with their children. One example is that Puerto Rican mothers wanted their children to recognize their obligations and connectedness to others; their goals for their children were more ____________ than the goals of European American mothers.

sociocentric

The measure of social status that combines aspects of education background, income, and occupation is called

socioeconomic status.

The nature and amount of verbal communication between parents and their children is correlated with the family's

socioeconomic status.

One way to assess children's status among their peers is to ask each child in a classroom to choose which other children he or she would most like to sit next to or to do various things with, and which other children he or she would least like to do these things with. This technique is called

sociometry.

Models of development which hold that change typically occurs in shifts between periods of relative stability and periods of disequilibrium are called

stage models

Perry's theory holds that the college experience fosters cognitive development because

students are confronted with a diversity of beliefs and values which they must accommodate.

Basic emotions such as _____________ can be observed in young infants, but self-conscious emotions such as ____________ only emerge in childhood.

surprise and fear / embarrassment and pride

Henry, at 79, has always enjoyed relatively good health. However, he has recently begun feeling like he is slowing down and has reported to his doctor that he is doing poorly, although his doctor can find no specific cause. When Henry participated in a research study at a local university where his intellectual functioning was tested, his score had dropped dramatically since his last testing session a year earlier. Henry has the signs of

terminal decline.

When working with youth whose racial or ethnic heritage is biracial or multiracial, counselors are likely to find that

the majority of adolescents identify with the minority category of their racial or ethnic identity.

When counseling adolescents who are unsure of their sexual identity, helpers should keep in mind that

the majority of gender-minority youth experience both same-sex and other-sex attractions in the process of coming out.

Developmental researchers use the term "goodness of fit" to refer to

the match between the caregiver's responses to a child and the child's temperament.

The more you know about a particular domain of knowledge,

the more easily you can learn new information in that domain.

One thing that both Eastern and Western religions share is that they promote

the regulation of negative or destructive emotions.

Developmentalists study what infants and children understand about other people's intentions, desires, beliefs, feelings, and so on. This field of study is referred to as

theory of mind.

Theories of development differ from opinion primarily because

they are based on scientific research.

Despite the disagreements among theorists about the existence of a fifth stage of cognitive development, nearly all agree that

thinking about adult real-life problems tends to become increasingly relativistic.

According to Vygotsky, language is one product of shared understanding among members of a social group and may be considered a ____________ that facilitates learning and thinking.

tool or sign

Experimentation with deviant or risky behaviors (drug use, vandalism, sex, truancy, etc.) in adolescence is

typical of this age group and can be considered statistically normative.

Ms. J. participated in an attachment interview assessing her relationship to her early caregivers. Her transcript revealed lapses in logical thinking, especially when she talked about traumatic memories. She would most likely be categorized as

unresolved.

The process of myelination is not completed until

well into adulthood.

Negative reinforcement is best described as

when some unpleasant stimulus is avoided or removed, strengthening the behavior that allows escape from the unpleasantness.

Symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) include

widely spaced eyes and flattened nose.