Linguistics Final Exam

when something is not grammatical, mark it with ___

*

AuxP types

*Perfect: "have" + past participle {-en} *Progressive: "be" + Present participle {-ing}

Verbs subcategorization rules

*control elements of a sentence called arguments -controls 0 arguments- expletive (_____ is raining) -controls 1 argument- intransitive (Ruthie Ann smiled a lot) -controls 2 arguments- transitive. (Ruthie Ann kissed a frog) -controls 3 arguments- ditransitive (Ruthie Ann gave the frog a kiss) -controls 4 arguments- tritransitive (Ruthie Ann traded the dealer her old Ford for a new Chrysler)

insertion

+past from I, head of IP, inserted in VP. --> (find + past), takes past tense from I the head of the inflection phrase and insert it into the VP

semantic network shows...

-clustering and the interconnectedness of concept and semantic attributes -center of clusters may be "superordinate" categories that are connected to "lesser" or "basic" level categories and then connected to "subordinate" level categories

features may be...

-defining: essential, always present -characteristic: usually present -inherent: apply regardless of the context (a count noun is a count noun despite context) -context sensitive: depend upon context (noun could be subject or object)

AdvP can be of...

-degree= to what degree? ie) very, extremely -manner= how? ie) quickly, with enthusiasm -direction= to where? or from where? ie) there, to town, downtown, home -place: where? ie) there, here, in the house, at home -frequency: how often? ie) often, on Tuesdays, every day -time: when? ie) soon, at noon, Sunday -reason (purpose): why? ie) because I can, since I found it

types of operations

-insertion -merge -movement -substitution -deletion

in any given SS: constituent order may be...

-linear: continuous -nonlinear: discontinuous or moved around so it may be necessary to return constituents to their assigned position as an adjunct or perhaps as a complement and then add up the meaning of morphemes within phrases

adjectives

-may control complements of a AdjP ie) Ruthie Ann was fond of the frog. 'fond' may control 'of NP'

noun subcategorization rules

-may control complements of a NP ie) Ruthie Ann took a picture of the frog. take a 'picture' may control 'of NP' ie) Ruthie Ann wrote a book about the frog. write a 'book' may control 'about NP'

prepositions

-may control complements of a PrepP ie) Ruthie Ann took the frog out of the fountain.

subcategorization rules and restrictions

-verbs: control elements of a sentence- called arguments -noun: may control complements of a NP -adjectives: may control complements of a AdjP -prepositions: may control complements of a PrepP

phrase-structure rules- specify constituents of syntactic categories or define a syntactic category and, therefore, account for the underlying structure of a sentence. 2 types:

1. deep structure- abstract level in which all elements determining the actual structure are present 2. surface structure ("S" structure)- level most nearly corresponding to actual performance ie) John visited London after Mary (surface structure). John visited London after he visited Mary.

2 types of homographs

1. homonyms- identical in spelling and pronunciation with different meaning ie) bear, bank 2. heteronyms- words identical in spelling, but with a difference in pronunciation and meaning ie) lead, read, live

2 types of homophones

1. homonyms- identical in spelling and pronunciation with different meaning ie) pool, crane 2. heterographs- identical in pronunciation, with different spelling and meaning ie) two, to, too. piece, peace

all different types of meaning

1. language-meaning dialect meaning regional social 2. speaker-meaning literal nonliteral

3 types of ambiguity

1. lexical ambiguity 2. grouping ambiguity 3. structural ambiguity

2 subcomponents of syntax

1. lexicon or mental dictionary 2. computational system

Constituency tests (4 parts)

1. replacement test- can this be replaced by a single word? 2. stand alone test- can it be a response to a question? 3. movement test- can we move it around in a sentence? 4. coordination test- can it be conjoined with and/or

rules of syntax

1. syntax reflects the grammaticality of an utterance 2. explains linear morpheme order of utterance (how you group words into phrases and phrases into sentences) 3. deals with ambiguity in meaning of an utterance 4. accounts for similarities of meaning in utterances (ie. Dana turned off the light. Dana turned the light off.) 5. shows function/relationships/grouping of constituents to one another. shows what goes together (ie. next to the tree) 6. creative ability to produce and comprehend infinite number of utterances

merge

V, head of VP, merged with +past from I. ie) the puppy (find + past) the child = the puppy found the child

Obligatory components of PS tree

XP, X', X

Optional components

YP, X", ZP, WP

deletion

a constituent is no longer present in the SS. John says that the puppy plays with cats. --> John says the puppy plays with cats.

generative (transformational) syntax

a limited number of rules or parameters will be capable of generating an infinite number of well-formed sentences and only sentences of a particular language therefore, if a sentence is generated by the rules or parameters, then it is grammatical or grammatically well-formed

c-command (constituent command)

a node A c-commands its sister nodes and any node dominated by its sister nodes (daughters). and B c-commands A along with any node it dominates (A & B are sister nodes, C & D are daughters of B and sisters of each other) M A B Bozo C D likes Betty

metaphor

a non-literal extension of a meaning. understand one concept in terms of another. ie) This exercise is a breeze. Time is money. Time is a thief.

phrase structure grammar

a set of phrase structure rules telling which morphemes can be combined and how to form constituents of morphemes

homophony

a single form has more than one meaning

movement

adjunct is moved to specifier of MP. ie) the dentist is filling a tooth tomorrow --> tomorrow the dentist is filling a tooth.

feature passing

all features of the 'Head' are subject to passing (insertion and merge) to other constituents using the provisions of c-command

trace theory

all operations leave a phonetically empty copy called a trace

constituent

any group of morphemes (or a single morpheme) that can function as a unit in a sentence

co-occurrence

based upon acquiring meaning in context. some words tend to occur more frequently with other specific words (collocations) (ie. green eggs and ham, pen and ink) also: clear conscience, clear idea, clear sky, clear head, etc. Each instance of "clear" may have a different slightly meaning, but each helps to define "clear"

gradable pairs

can be placed on a continous spectrum or scale (ie. long & short, happy & sad, tall & short, fast & slow)

antonyms divided into

complementary pairs gradable pairs relational opposites reversible pairs autoantonyms

concretive metaphor

concrete term refers to an abstract object (ie. to spend time, the stock market crashed, the burden of responsiblity)

types of metaphors

concretive animistic anthropomorphic

lexical syntactic categories

content words with lexical meaning ie) nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs

complementary pairs

do not lie on a continuous spectrum or scale (i.e. push and pull, off and on, exhale and inhale, male and female, dead and alive)

adjunct

dominated by X". modifiers, help to define the head, says something about the head, modifies the head, describes the head -adjuncts may often be removed from a sentence without changing its basic meaning -can be removed from a S without changing the basic meaning. modifiers; help to define the head, say something about the head, etc.

complements

dominated by X'. if a category phrase is a sister to the 'head', then it is a complement -completes the meaning of the head -close relationship between the 'head' and its complements -complete meaning of verb

specifier

dominated by XP. makes the meaning of the head more precise. -specifiers follow parameters of the particular language, but these rules are not the same for all languages

polysemy

each form has the same phonetic shape and the words are related etymologically (historically-orgin) ie) deposit minerals and deposit money ie) mark as a visible trace and mark as a grade ie) milk- to remove milk from, to take advantage of

homonymy

each form has the same phonetic shape, but the words aren't related etymologically ie) bear (animal vs. to carry or give birth to) ie) seal (animal vs. imprint) ie) bank (building vs. edge of river)

anomaly

expressions, clauses, sentences which are well-formed grammatically but seemingly lack clause or sentence meaning. the individual words retain meaning, but when combined or grouped syntactically, the meaning disappears and the sentence becomes uninterpretable ie) White blackbirds are frequently rare. He relaxed furiously in the chair. Jabberwocky: Twas brilling and the slithy toves

synecdoche

figure of speech -part refers to the whole: flower -whole refers to a part: head -specific example refers to a general set: Band-Aid, John Hancock -material refers to something made from it: lead, plastic -container refers to its contents: barrel

idioms

fixed phrase where the overall meaning cannot be inferred from the individual elements ie) the boys tore up the street, a bad apple, the final straw, know by heart, make ends meet, spill the beans, hit the road, knock it off

non-lexical syntactic categories

function words lacking lexical meaning ie) determiner, degree words, conjunction, preposition, auxiliary verbs

AuxP

functional category phrase (specifier to VP) -aux as a head may have category notation, but no lexical entry -aux as a head may have category notation, but no lexical entry -introduces 'aspect' to make the meaning of V more precise

substitution

functional replacement of a constituent ie) The old man could have found the dog --> He could have found the dog.

hyponym

generic term to designate subordinate items of a semantic category (dog is a hyponym of an animal) hyponyms are sister terms: poodle and wolf are sister terms of a canine

hypernym

generic term to designate the superordinate or basic level of a semantic category (ie. flower is a semantic category at basic level of the superordinate (plant))

lexical ambiguity

have the same phonetic translation. ie) the flower is white vs. the flour is white

**if two words are spelled the same but one is capitalized, it's an example of ____________

heterograph

descriptive categories describe

homophones homographs

homographs

identical in spelling, but with a different meaning

grouping ambiguity

ie) I really have wanted posters. That's a little boys school.

structural ambiguity

ie) I see someone's smoking pot again. Visiting relatives can be boring.

relational opposites

ie) giver & recipient, employer & employee, doctor & patient, teacher & student/pupil, lend & borrow

lexical ambiguity

ie) she cannot bear the child. we saw her duck

Extended Projection Principle (EPP)

in SAE, all clauses must have subjects +NPSub expletive insertion: expletive PRO in specifier of IP (expletive verbs have 0 arguments)

matrix phrase

includes simple/complex sentences, questions, commands, etc. could say +Q, *yes/no, +C (command), +D (declarative) MP M' M IP

garden path sentences

lead you down the garden path to an incorrect analysis -what causes problems are not violations of syntactic principles but violations of semantic expectations ie) I told the girl the cat scratched John would help her. The man returned to the party was happy. Because he always jogs a mile seems a short distance to him.

types of ambiguity

lexical grouping structural

branch in PS tree

line connecting two parts of a PS tree

principle of markedness in semantics

linguistic phenomena often occur in polar opposite pairs one pole may be more specialized (specialized is marked)

markedness in syntax

linguistic phenomena often occur in polar opposite pairs. one pole may be more specialized. the specialized element is said to be marked.

lexicon or mental dictionary

list of lexical items of a language along with information on -pronunciation -grammatical category -semantic meaning

componential analysis (semantic decomposition)

meaning is represented by combos of smaller units, semantic features of meaning OR is composed of sets of semantic features of meaning. so it is possible to break down lexical meaning into smaller units, components, properties or features that distinguish each individual word from other words competing for a place in the same semantic category

principles of compositionality

meaning of a phrase depends on... -meaning of the components -how the components are arranged/composed

AdvP

modify verbs. go under V". may consist of: -adverbs -prepositional phrases -noun phrases -complementary phrases

synonyms

morphemes with identical semantic features (big and large, dozen and twelve, child and kid)

semantic network

network is hierarchical. concepts have nodes and links joining common semantic attributes.

How do you get from deep structure to surface structure?

operation- a principle applied to a PS tree yielding a new PS tree

computational system

operations for combining and arranging lexical items in ways that are grammatical

antonyms

opposites with respect to some component of their meaning

demonstrative

points out which one using proximity to speaker -as determiner: I'll take this copy and you take that copy. -as pronouns: I'll take this and you take that.

historical categories describe

polysemy homonymy

denotative meaning

primary meaning, akin to a definition. language-meaning. specific meaning to whcih something refers.

extension

referential: set of entities the "referent" picks out -describes a referent an action a state of being ie) President of the US- Obama, Prime Minister of Canada- Trudeau, etc

syntax

represents a native speaker's knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences (the way you combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences)

autoantonyms

same phonetic shape with opposite meanings (ie. dust (remove) vs. dust (spread), raise buildings vs. raze buildings, trip (to stumble) vs. trip (to make stumble))

connotative meaning

secondary meaning. shades of feeling. speaker-meaning. set of associations a word can evoke

intension

sense: concepts that the "referent" evokes. additional meanins beyond the referential meaning. mental images evoked ie) President of the US- leader of the free world, Prime Minister of Canada- head of the governing party, Superman- man of steel/more powerful than a locomotive, Captain America

X-bar theory

sentences are not composed merely of strings of words, but of words grouped into larger units called phrases

paraphrases

sentences that are synonymous. one deep structure with multiple surface structures

syntactic categories

sets of constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality (fancy name for parts of speech) a class or group of words that plays a similar role in context individual words or groups of words may have more than one function or play more than one role

reversible pairs

some kind of movement ie) expand & contract, put together & take apart, ascend & descend

phrasal verb

sometimes defined as a verb + preposition. other times verb + particle. V + particle (particle verb) ie) Turn off the lights. OR Turn the lights off. Hand in your homework. OR Hand your homework in.

homophones

sound like another word, but with a different meaning

troponym

specific manner elaboration of an active verb ie) with difficulty: hobble, limp, trudge

modal verb

specifies the meaning of a verb to express various functions with a lexical equivalent Function and lexical function equivalent: -permission: may -possibility: may -ability: can -capability: can -futurity: will -obligation: should -necessity: must

semantics

study of meaning in human language involving the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences divorced from the effect of context (literal meaning)

personal pronouns

subject: NP dominated by IP ie) Rosey went home --> She went home object: NP dominated by VP and c-command by V ie) Kim saw Rosey --> Kim saw her --> She saw her

actual meaning

sum of the functional and/or lexical meaning of individual morphemes using the syntactic principles of precedence (occurs left to something in the tree), dominance (occurs above it in the tree), and c-command (two sisters, one will dominate the other and everything it dominates)

superordinate vs. subordinate

superordinate=animals. basic level (usually highest level you can form a mental image) ie) a dog, cat subordinate= Dachshund, Dalmation, Beagle or Siamese, Bengalese

paraphrases

synonymous sentences with variant structures

animistic metaphor

term pertaining to an animate (living) creature, refers to an inanimate object (ie. the tail of a kite, the eye of the needle, the neck of a bottle, a head of cabbage, an ear of corn)

anthropomorphic metaphor

term pertaining to humans is applied to non-humans (i.e. the arms of a tree, her clothes spoke volumes about her personality, the fickle finger of fate, the voice of authority, the voice of experience)

fuzzy concepts

the defining criteria are not straightforward, not 'clear-cut' ie) good: when is something good? bad, tall, short, heavy, high, expensive

node in PS tree

the end of a branch

dominance

the hierarchical structure of constituents. node dominates another, if and only if it is higher in tree structure and if you can trace a branch to the node it dominates.

precedence in PS tree

the linear order of constituents. node precedes another, if it occurs to the left in the tree structure and neither dominates the other

projection principle

the properties of the lexical item are projected upward

pragmatics

the study of meaning derived from the effect of context (ie. how context affects meaning)

grouping ambiguity

unclear relationship or association of words or phrases ie) We saw the man in the store yesterday. John was angry at the time. Two sisters united after 18 years at a checkout counter.

complementizer

uses a complement phrase (ie. The officer said that the man failed the sobriety test) ie. "that" and "for" - both are +D

metonym

using an attribute or aspect of a noun in place of or instead of the noun to convey the same meaning. a shared association, not a shared characteristic ie. The White House is a metonym for the president/his staff, Nashville for country music industry, city hall for municipal government, etc)

phrase-structure tree

visual representation of PS-Rules for an utterance showing the grouping of constituents as well as the linear and hierarchical structure

ambiguity

word, phrase, clause or sentence may be understood or interpreted in more than one way

phrases

words grouped into larger units

structural ambiguity

you don't know what the structure is. things are missing. ie) flying machines can be dangerous. John visited London after Mary.