M4 Review Assignment APEH

TERM

IDENTIFICATION / DEFINITION

LORD BUTE

John Stuart, 3rd earl of Bute, Scottish royal favorite who dominated King George III of Great Britain during the first five years of his reign. As prime minister (1762-63), he negotiated the peace ending the Seven Years' War (1756-63) with France, but he failed to create a stable administration. George III made the earl secretary of state (March 1761). The king appointed Bute in order to break the power of the dominant Whig leaders and to achieve a peace with France. From the first, Bute, as a Scotsman, was widely disliked in England. He aroused further hostility by ousting from his administration William Pitt (later 1st Earl of Chatham), creator of England's successful strategy in the Seven Years' War. Bute replaced Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, as first lord of the Treasury (in effect, prime minister) in May 1762, and in February 1763 he signed the Treaty of Paris, which made peace with France but was extremely unpopular in England. After imposing a hated cider tax and becoming involved in the controversial elevation of Henry Fox to the peerage, Bute resigned (April 1763). In issue number 45, Wilkes vehemently criticized Lord Bute's handling of the peace negotiations with France. Bute had Wilkes arrested, but he was released soon thereafter.

LEAGUE OF AUGBURG

A coalition of English, Spanish, Swedish, German, and Dutch troops who fought a series of battles against France

ABSOLUTISM

A political system in which a single leader controls all aspects of government and has complete authority over everyone and everything in the country

FRONDE

A series of widespread rebellions against the French nobles between 1649 and 1652 known as the Fronde was a reaction against the centralizing efforts of the monarchy.

JAMES EDWARD STUART

After Anne's death in 1714, George I became king. He confronted an immediate challenge to his title when James Edward Stuart, the Catholic son of James II, landed in Scotland in December 1715 but met defeat in less than two months.

JANSENISM V. JESUITS (IN FRANCE)

After the conversion of King Henry IV to Catholicism, the Jesuits in France monopolized the education of French upper-class men. A Roman Catholic religious movement known as Jansenism arose in the 1630s in opposition to the political influence of the Jesuits. Jansenists followed the teachings of Saint Augustine who had also influenced many Protestant doctrines. They believed that human beings had been so corrupted by original sin and could do nothing good nor contribute anything to their own salvation. Jansenists lived plain and pious lives quite like the Puritans in England, and like the Puritans, they became associated with opposition to royal authority. Jansenist families were also associated with the Fronde. On May 31, 1653, Pope Innocent X declared certain Jansenist teachings heretical and banned their founder's book Augustinius. Louis XIV permitted the papal bull banning Jansenists and therefore turned his back on the traditional Gallican Liberties of the French Church.

ANGLICAN

Anglicanism is often called the "via media" or "middle way" between Catholicism and Protestantism. Most Protestant denominations really needed to protest or even rebel against the Catholic church in order to separate themselves. King James I alienated the Puritans who wanted to eliminate the hierarchy of the Anglican Church by instead enhancing the bureaucracy of the Church.

CARDINAL RICHELIEU

Armand Jean du Plessis, commonly known as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French noble, statesman and clergyman. Often referred as the 'l'Éminence rouge' or the 'Red Eminence', he remained a bishop and the foreign secretary of France before rising to power as the chief minister in the regency of King Louis XIII. He sought to eliminate royal factions and aided for consolidation of regal power. He successfully reformed the country into a powerful centralised state by restricting the power of the nobles. He strengthened the army and the navy, made sure that France held a dominating position in the 'Thirty Years' War' in Europe and resorted to restrict the power of the Habsburg dynasty. He aided in establishing French colonies. While a devoted cardinal, he never backed off in tying up with Protestant rulers to reach his objective. He faced several challenges as the chief minister including 'Day of the Dupes', a conspiracy of the King's mother Marie de Medici, but was triumphant as he took the King into confidence. He was also a great patron of arts. Two powerful chief ministers, Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin, laid the groundwork for political absolutism in France. Richelieu revoked many of the privileges that had been granted to French Protestants through the Edict of Nantes.

THE ACT OF UNION, 1707

At Anne's death in 1714, the Elector of Hanover became King George I of Great Britain since England and Scotland had been combined in the Act of Union in 1707.

BOSTON MASSACRE

At the Boston Massacre of 1770, British troops killed five citizens during protests against the Townshend revenues. To diffuse the situation, Parliament repelled all the revenues except the one on tea.

CONVENTION OF WESTMINSTER

At the Convention of Westminster, Prussia and Britain agreed to a defensive alliance aimed at preventing the entry of foreign troops into the German states. Frederick II of Prussia feared an alliance of Austria and Russia. The convention meant that Britain, ally of Austria since the Wars of Louis XIV, joined forces with Prussia, Austria's major eighteenth century enemy. In May 1756, Maria Theresa's foreign minister, Wenzel Anton Kaunitz signed a defensive alliance with France, Austria's long-standing enemy.

AUSTRIA V. PRUSSIA (RIVALS)

Austria and Prussia had a long-standing conflict and rivalry for supremacy in Central Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries, termed Deutscher Dualismus (German dualism) in the German language area. While the rivalry had a military dimension, it was also a race for prestige, and a contest to be seen as the leading political force of the German-speaking peoples. The rivalry sometimes led to open warfare, from the Silesian Wars and Seven Years' War of the middle 1700s to the conflict's culmination in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. However, relations were not always hostile; sometimes, both countries were able to cooperate, such as during the Napoleonic Wars and the Second Schleswig War.

BAROQUE

Baroque Art was the style associated with seventeenth-century paintings, sculptures, and architecture. Artists depict subjects win a more naturalistic way rather than an idealized manner. Faith and interest in nature paralleled the new science and understanding of the natural world. There was also a deep understanding of human anatomy.

ROBERT CLIVE (HEAD OF ____ AND BEAT WHO IN BATTLE)

Both the British and French traded through privileged chartered companies which enjoyed a legal monopoly. The British East India Company under the leadership of Robert Clive seized the opportunity to annex regions in India as their local governments failed. In India, British forces under the command of Robert Clive defeated France and its Indian allies in 1757 at the Battle of Plassey. This victory opened the door for the British conquest of Bengal in northeast India and later all of India by the British East India Company.

CHARLES TOWNSHEND

British finance minister, Charles Townshend, led Parliament to pass as series of revenue acts pertaining to the colonial imports in 1767. When the colonists resisted, Parliament sent customs agents to administer the law and troops to protect these officers.

WILLIAM PITT THE ELDER

British secretary of state William Pitt orchestrated Britain's victories in every theater during the eighteenth century. In Europe, he pumped money to Frederick II in Prussia in order to divert France's attention from its struggle against British in the New World. His goal in the New World was to secure all of North America east of the Mississippi for Great Britain, which he met by sending 40,000 troops against the French in Canada. Pitt also launched attacks on major islands of the French West India which fell to Britain. He then used the profits from seized sugar to finance the war effort.

CARDINAL FLEURY

Cardinal Fleury became a leader in Parlement and worked to preserve the authority of the monarchy while also preserving the local authority of the French nobility. Fleury is often compared to Walpole in England because he pursued economic prosperity at home and tried to avoid war abroad.

CHARLES I OF ENGLAND

Charles took over after (James I) his father's death in 1625. At this point, England is also at war with Spain, but Parliament was unwilling to raise taxes to fund the war. To raise money, Charles levied new taxes on the people and added a tax on property owners. If the property owner refused to pay, then he could be imprisoned. In addition, soldiers were quartered or housed and fed in the British homes, which outraged the people. Parliament agreed to allocate money for the war with Spain if Charles agreed to the Petition of Right. The Petition of Right included clauses requiring no forced loans or taxes without Parliament's consent, no freeman should be imprisoned without just cause, and no quartering of troops in private homes. Charles agreed to the Petition and then disbanded Parliament until 1640. As the king, he could stop Parliament from meeting which significantly limited Parliament's power in checking the king. Charles took advantage of Parliament's absence to make more changes. He ended his wars with France and Spain to save money. His main advisor, Thomas Wentworth, used every means necessary to create new taxes. He attempted to impose the English episcopate system (The Church of England- Episcopal) and prayer book on Catholic Scotland in order to establish religious uniformity. The Scots rebelled and Charles was forced to call Parliament into session in 1640 to raise money to suppress the rebellion. Parliament refused to allocate money, so Charles dissolved Parliament again. It was only after the British were defeated at the Battle of Newburn that Charles reconvened Parliament for a long duration. At this point, Charles had created two groups of enemies in Parliament - landowners and merchants (who did not agree with his financial measures and paternalistic rule) and Puritans (who resented his religious policies and distrusted his Catholic wife). Parliament forced Charles to meet with them continuously which became known as the Long Parliament. Parliament flexed its power by impeaching and executing one of Charles' main allies Archbishop Laud. Laud attempted to establish religious uniformity in Scotland. Parliament abolished the royal courts used to enforce royal policy and prohibited the levying of new taxes without its consent. Religious issues continued to divide Parliament as Puritans wanted to abolish bishops and the Book of Common Prayer while the religious conservatives wanted to preserve the Church of England in its current form. In 1642, Charles invaded a meeting of Parliament intent on arresting certain members who opposed his policies. He then left London and began assembling an army to suppress the rebellious members of Parliament. The House of Commons passed the Militia Ordinance which gave Parliament the authority to raise of army of its own. Civil War had begun.

THOMAS WENTWORTH

Charles's main advisor, Thomas Wentworth, used every means necessary to create new taxes. He attempted to impose the English episcopate system (The Church of England- Episcopal) and prayer book on Catholic Scotland in order to establish religious uniformity.

CONTINENTAL CONGRESS

Citizens arranged committees of correspondence throughout the colonies to make different areas aware of the problems in their regions and they encouraged united action. In 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. This body hoped to persuade Parliament to restore self-government in the colonies.

YORKSHIRE ASSOCIATION MOVEMENT (AN ATTEMPT TO MIMIC WHAT THE COLONIES DID)

Discontentment in Britain resulted from the mismanagement of the American war, high taxes, and Lord North's ministry. In 1778, Christopher Wyvil, a landowner and retired clergyman, organized the Yorkshire Association Movement. Property owners, or freeholders, met in a mass meeting to demand moderate changes in the corrupt system of Parliamentary elections as they hoped to get some representation. The association examined and suggested reforms for the entire government. The association collapsed in the early 1780s, but it provided many British citizens with a new civic consciousness.

GEORGE I OF GREAT BRITAIN

Elector of Hanover (1698-1727) and first Hanoverian king of Great Britain (1714-27). George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, and Sophia of the Palatinate, a granddaughter of King James I of England. George married his cousin Sophia Dorothea of Celle in 1682, but in 1694, accusing her of infidelity, he divorced her and imprisoned her in the castle of Ahlden, where she died 32 years later. He succeeded his father as elector of Hanover in 1698. The English Parliament's Act of Settlement (1701), seeking to ensure a Protestant succession to the throne in opposition to the exiled Roman Catholic claimant (James Edward, the Old Pretender), made George third in line for the throne after Princess Anne (queen from 1702-14) and his mother. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14) George fought with distinction against the French. England's Whig politicians began to court his favor, but many Tories remained loyal to the Old Pretender. When George's mother died on June 8, 1714, he became heir to the throne, and on the death of Queen Anne (Aug. 1, 1714) the Whigs, who had just gained control of the government, ushered him into power.

TREATY OF DOVER

England and France formally entered an alliance against the Dutch, their chief commercial competitor, with the Treaty of Dover. In a secret part of the treaty, Charles II promised to announce his conversion to Catholicism as soon as conditions in England allowed for it. Louis XIV, the king of France, promised to pay Charles II a substantial subsidy for his conversion to Catholicism.

GEORGE III

England's longest-ruling monarch before Queen Victoria, King George III (1738-1820) ascended the British throne in 1760. During his 59-year reign, he pushed through a British victory in the Seven Years' War, led England's successful resistance to Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, and presided over the loss of the American Revolution. After suffering intermittent bouts of acute mental illness, he spent his last decade in a fog of insanity and blindness.

CARDINAL MAZARIN

First minister of France after Cardinal de Richelieu's death in 1642. During the early years of King Louis XIV, he completed Richelieu's work of establishing France's supremacy among the European powers and crippling the opposition to the power of the monarchy at home.

DIPLOMATIC REVOLUTION OF 1756

Following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Europe was at peace while France and Britain continued to struggle in the Ohio River Valley and upper New England. The British King, George II who was also the Elector of Hanover in Germany, thought that the French might attack Hanover in response to the conflict in America. At the Convention of Westminster, Prussia and Britain agreed to a defensive alliance aimed at preventing the entry of foreign troops into the German states. Frederick II of Prussia feared an alliance of Austria and Russia. The convention meant that Britain, ally of Austria since the Wars of Louis XIV, joined forces with Prussia, Austria's major eighteenth century enemy. In May 1756, Maria Theresa's foreign minister, Wenzel Anton Kaunitz signed a defensive alliance with France, Austria's long-standing enemy.

TREATY OF UTRECHT

France made peace with England at Utrecht in July 1713 and ended the War of Spanish Succession. Philip V remained king of Spain but renounced his place in the line to the throne in France which prevented the union of the two major powers. England gained control of Gibraltar and the island of Minorca. Louis XIV recognized the right of the House of Hanover to the English throne.

ENGLISH CIVIL WAR (CAUSES, SIDES & RESULTS)

From 1625 to 1629, Charles argued with parliament over most issues, but money and religion were the most common causes of arguments. In 1629, Charles copied his father. He refused to let Parliament meet. By 1642, relations between Parliament and Charles had become very bad. Charles had to do as Parliament wished as they had the ability to raise the money that Charles needed. However, as a firm believer in the "divine right of kings", such a relationship was unacceptable to Charles. Fighting between the Roundheads, those who supported Parliament, and the Cavaliers, those who supported the king, waged from 1642-1646. The Cavaliers were defeated militarily by June 1645. Parliament members who were sympathizers of Charles were expelled from Parliament in December 1648. On January 30, 1649, Charles I was executed. Parliament then abolished the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the Anglican Church.

CHARLES II OF ENGLAND

From 1649 to 1660, England was a Puritan republic although Cromwell dominated it. Cromwell's army brutally conquered Scotland and Ireland where they carried out atrocities against the Catholics. When the House of Commons suggested that Cromwell disband his army due to its large expense, he disbanded Parliament and crowned himself Lord Protector of England. He ruled the republic as a military dictator. He maintained a 160+ bodyguard force and ruled as a dictator. Cromwell enacted strict Puritan regulations against going to the theater, dancing, and drunkenness. The English people hated these restrictions as they saw their political liberty fading for religious conformity. When Cromwell died in 1658, the people of England were ready to restore Anglicanism and the monarchy.

GIAN LORENZO BERNINI

Gian Lorenzo Bernini designed and oversaw the construction of a great tabernacle that stands beneath St. Peter's Basilica's towering dome directly over the space where St. Peter is said to be buried. In the Church of Santa Maria de la Vittoria, he created a sculpture of the Spanish mystic St. Teresea of Avila.

GRAND ALLIANCE (WHO WERE THE MEMBERS, WHY FORMED)

In 1701, England, Holland, the Holy Roman Empire assembled the Grand Alliance to preserve the balance of power in Europe. France entered the War of Spanish Succession poorly equipped and without adequate finances or skilled generals.

TREATY OF AIX-LA-CHAPPELLE (JUST KNOW FRANCE GAINED LANDS)

In 1744, the British-French conflict expanded into the New World when France began to support Spain's efforts against Britain. This decision over-expanded France as it could not sustain a war against Austria on the Continent while simultaneously fighting Britain in the New World. The war ended in a stalemate in 1748 with the Treat of Aix-la-Chappelle. Prussia retained Silesia while Spain renewed Britain's privilege from the Treaty of Utrecht 1713 to import slaves to the Spanish colonies.

WILLIAM PITT (THE YOUNGER) AND THE RESULTS OF HIS TIME AS PRIME MINISTER OF GBR

In 1783, George appointed William Pitt the Younger to prime minister at the age of 24. Pitt constructed a House of Commons favorable to the monarch and sought to formulate trade policies that would make him popular with the British people. With the help of Pitt, George III managed to reassert the monarch's power in political affairs.

WAR OF AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION

In December 1740, King Frederick II of Prussia seized the Austrian province of Silesia and shattered the provisions of the Pragmatic Sanction which disrupted the balance of power in central and Eastern Europe. The Pragmatic Sanction assured that Maria Theresa would inherit the power in the Holy Roman Empire. Though this action, Frederick II challenged the dominance of the Habsburgs in central Europe. Maria Theresa rallied her empire to resist pressure from the Prussians and other rivals.

MARIA THERESA (WIFE OF LOUIS XIV AND ROLE IN PRAGMATIC SANCTION)

In December 1740, King Frederick II of Prussia seized the Austrian province of Silesia and shattered the provisions of the Pragmatic Sanction which disrupted the balance of power in central and Eastern Europe. The Pragmatic Sanction assured that Maria Theresa would inherit the power in the Holy Roman Empire. Though this action, Frederick II challenged the dominance of the Habsburgs in central Europe. Maria Theresa rallied her empire to resist pressure from the Prussians and other rivals. She secured the loyalty of the nobility by granting them new privileges and rights. She recognized Hungary as the most important of her crowns and promised local autonomy to the Magyar nobility. Maria Theresa's policies weakened the power of the central monarchy but ensured the survival of her empire.

JOHN WILKES

John Wilkes was a London political radical, member of Parliament, and publisher of a newspaper called The North Briton. In issue number 45, Wilkes vehemently criticized Lord Bute's handling of the peace negotiations with France. Bute had Wilkes arrested, but he was released soon thereafter. The House of Commons ruled that issue number 45 was libel, and it expelled Wilkes who then fled the country. The British people throughout the ordeal popularly supported Wilkes. In 1768, Wilkes returned to England and was elected to Parliament but the House of Commons—under the influence of George III's friends—refused to seat him. Wilkes was reelected four more times before the House of Commons just gave the seat to the candidate they supported. Uprisings of artisans, shopkeepers, and small property owners supported Wilkes, as did aristocrats who wanted to humiliate George III. Wilkes was finally seated in 1774 after becoming the lord mayor of London. The American colonists closely followed the affair as they saw George III regarded as a tyrant by supporters of Wilkes and it reaffirmed their feeling regarding the new taxes. American colonists were also struggling with the new taxes passed by Parliament and approved by the king through protests and meetings of Continental Congresses.

PETER PAUL RUBENS

King Charles I of England hired the Roman Catholic Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens to paint the ceiling of the Banqueting Hall at his palace in London.

KING FREDERICK II OF PRUSSIA

King Frederick II of Prussia seized the Austrian province of Silesia and shattered the provisions of the Pragmatic Sanction which disrupted the balance of power in central and Eastern Europe. Frederick II challenged the dominance of the Habsburgs in central Europe. Maria Theresa rallied her empire to resist pressure from the Prussians and other rivals. At the Convention of Westminster, Prussia and Britain agreed to a defensive alliance aimed at preventing the entry of foreign troops into the German states. Frederick II of Prussia feared an alliance of Austria and Russia. Prussian king Frederick II ignited the Seven Years War when he invaded Saxony, in France, in August 1756. Frederick attacked preemptively in order to prevent a conspiracy to destroy Prussia. British secretary of state William Pitt orchestrated Britain's victories in every theater during the eighteenth century. In Europe, he pumped money to Frederick II in Prussia in order to divert France's attention from its struggle against British in the New World.

DECLARATION OF INDULGENCE

King James II, also son of beheaded Charles, works immediately to gain rights for Catholics in England. He demanded repeal of the Test Act and issued the Declaration of Indulgence which permitted free worship in England. He imprisoned Anglican bishops who refused to publicize his suspension of laws against Catholics. These actions attacked the local authority of nobles, landowners, the church, and other corporate bodies whose members believed that they possessed particular legal privileges.

JAMES II OF ENGLAND

King James II, also son of beheaded Charles, works immediately to gain rights for Catholics in England. He demanded repeal of the Test Act and issued the Declaration of Indulgence which permitted free worship in England. He imprisoned Anglican bishops who refused to publicize his suspension of laws against Catholics. These actions attacked the local authority of nobles, landowners, the church, and other corporate bodies whose members believed that they possessed particular legal privileges. James II's wife gave birth to a son, and now there was a Catholic male heir to the throne which upset the people of England who were hoping for the heir to be Mary, his Protestant and eldest daughter. Mary was married to William III of Orange, the leader of European opposition to Louis XIV.

GEORGE II

King of Great Britain and elector of Hanover from 1727 to 1760. Although he possessed sound political judgment, his lack of self-confidence caused him to rely heavily on his ministers, most notable of whom was Sir Robert Walpole. Following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Europe was at peace while France and Britain continued to struggle in the Ohio River Valley and upper New England. The British King, George II who was also the Elector of Hanover in Germany, thought that the French might attack Hanover in response to the conflict in America.

NINE YEARS WAR

Louis XIV attempted to expand the national boundaries of France and in 1681 sent his forces to occupy the free city of Strasbourg on the Rhine River. The League of Augsburg formed to stop French aggression and was comprised of a coalition of English, Spanish, Swedish, German, and Dutch troops who fought a series of battles against France between 1689 and 1697 in what was known as the Nine Years War.

PALACE OF VERSAILLES

Louis XIV used the palace of Versailles to exert political control. Versailles was built between 1676 and 1708 in the outskirts of Paris. It was designed and decorated to proclaim the glory of the Sun King, as Louis was known. The palace housed thousands of the more important nobles, royal officers, and servants. The nobles, in theory, became dependent on the king.

ROLE OF PARLEMENTS (IN FRANCE)

Louis managed the nobility well by conferring with regional judicial bodies, called Parlements, and consulting with them regarding their opinions before making opinions that would affect them.

ROUNDHEADS

Members who supported Parliament

CAVALIERS

Members who supported the king

CARAVAGGIO

Michelangelo Caravaggio was an Italian artist known for contrasts between light and darkness and created dramatic scenes. His works were known to be theatrical as they draw the viewer into becoming emotional involved in the work.

PRESBYTERIAN

Moderately Puritan

NATURAL LAW

Natural law is a philosophy asserting that certain rights are inherent by virtue of human nature, endowed by nature—traditionally by God or a transcendent source—and that these can be understood universally through human reason. Americans demonstrated that natural law, rather than divine right or hereditary, was the highest political authority.

OLIVER CROMWELL (TITLE AND ROLE)

Oliver Cromwell, a squire known for his discipline and devout Puritan beliefs, took charge of the Roundhead army in the English Civil War. From 1649 to 1660, England was a Puritan republic although Cromwell dominated it. Cromwell's army brutally conquered Scotland and Ireland where they carried out atrocities against the Catholics. When the House of Commons suggested that Cromwell disband his army due to its large expense, he disbanded Parliament and crowned himself Lord Protector of England. He ruled the republic as a military dictator. He maintained a 160+ bodyguard force and ruled as a dictator. Cromwell enacted strict Puritan regulations against going to the theater, dancing, and drunkenness. The English people hated these restrictions as they saw their political liberty fading for religious conformity. When Cromwell died in 1658, the people of England were ready to restore Anglicanism and the monarchy.

PHILIP V (OF SPAIN)

On November 1, 1700, the last Habsburg king of Spain, Charles II, died without direct heirs. However, before he died, he left his entire inheritance to Louis's grandson Philip of Anjou who became Philip V of Spain. Philip was the grandson of Charles's sister Maria Therese and Louis XIV, and it seemed that Spain had fallen into French hands. However, France made peace with England at Utrecht in July 1713 to end the War of Spanish Succession. Philip V remained king of Spain but renounced his place in the line to the throne in France which prevented the union of the two major powers.

PETITION OF RIGHT

Parliament agreed to allocate money for the war with Spain if Charles agreed to the Petition of Right. The Petition of Right included clauses requiring no forced loans or taxes without Parliament's consent, no freeman should be imprisoned without just cause, and no quartering of troops in private homes. Charles agreed to the Petition and then disbanded Parliament until 1640.

ARCHBISHOP LAUD

Parliament flexed its power by impeaching and executing one of Charles' main allies Archbishop Laud. Laud attempted to establish religious uniformity in Scotland.

CLARENDON CODE

Parliament passed the Clarendon Code between 1661 and 1665 that excluded Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and the Independents from official political and religious posts.

TEST ACT

Parliament passed the Test Act to exclude Catholics from public service and more importantly, to prevent the ascension of James, duke of York and brother of Charles II, to the throne.

TREATY OF NIJMEGAN (JUST KNOW FRANCE GAINED LANDS)

Peace treaties of 1678-79 that ended the Dutch War, in which France had opposed Spain and the Dutch Republic (now the Netherlands). France gained advantages by arranging terms with each of its enemies separately.

SEVEN YEARS' WAR

Prussian king Frederick II ignited the Seven Years War when he invaded Saxony, in France, in August 1756. Frederick attacked preemptively in order to prevent a conspiracy to destroy Prussia. In response, France and Austria made an alliance with Russia, Sweden, and a number of smaller German states dedicated to the destruction of Prussia. Two factors saved Prussia from destruction - financial aid from Britain and Peter II took over in Russia and sought peace. The Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763 ended the war in Europe with no significant changes in prewar borders. However, Prussia clearly stood as one of the great powers due to its military might.

JAMES I OF ENGLAND

Queen Elizabeth had established a strong central monarchy in England, and the Stuart monarchs who followed her sought to establish the same type of authority. King James I (Scottish cousin of Elizabeth I), the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, succeeded the childless Elizabeth to the throne of England in 1602. He believed strongly in divine right and did not want to consult with his own royal court. Since Parliament controlled all tax matters, James tried to circumvent their power by levying new duties known as impositions, which were taxes on traded goods. He alienated the Puritans who wanted to eliminate the hierarchy of the Anglican Church by instead enhancing the bureaucracy of the Church. This alienation pushed the Puritans to flee England and found Plymouth Colony in North America where they could practice freely. Many feared that James sought to bring Catholicism back to England for several reasons: - He established peace with Spain - He relaxed penal laws against Catholics - He was hesitant in sending troops to defend the German Protestants at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War - He arranged the marriage of his son, Charles, to -Henrietta Maria, the Catholic daughter of Henry IV of France In addition, James is the monarch who ordered the Bible translated into English, hence the King James Version of the Bible that exist to this day. Shortly before James I died in 1625, England went to war with France largely due to parliamentary pressures.

RELIGIOUS MAJORITIES IN ENGLAND V. FRANCE

Religion in England is dominantly Protestant with a republic form of government while religion in France is dominantly Catholic with an absolutism form of government.

THE ACT OF SETTLEMENT

The Act of Settlement sanctioned that the English crown be passed to the Protestant House of Hanover in Germany if Anne, the second daughter of James II and heir to the childless William III, died without issue.

BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

The Book of Common Prayer (BCP) is the short title of a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion, as well as by other Christian churches historically related to Anglicanism. The original book, published in 1549 in the reign of Edward VI, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome. The work of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English. Religious issues continued to divide Parliament as Puritans wanted to abolish bishops and the Book of Common Prayer while the religious conservatives wanted to preserve the Church of England in its current form.

HOUSE OF HANOVER (OF GERMANY)

The House of Hanover, whose members are known as Hanoverians, is a German royal house that ruled Hanover, Great Britain, and Ireland at various times during the 17th through 20th centuries. The Act of Settlement sanctioned that the English crown be passed to the Protestant House of Hanover in Germany if Anne, the second daughter of James II and heir to the childless William III, died without issue. At Anne's death in 1714, the Elector of Hanover became King George I of Great Britain since England and Scotland had been combined in the Act of Union in 1707.

WHY WAS GEORGE I NAMED KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NOT JUST ENGLAND?

The Kingdom of England (which includes Wales) joined with the Kingdom of Scotland to form The Kingdom of Britain.

THE NORTH BRITON NEWSPAPER BY JOHN WILKES

The North Briton was a radical newspaper published in 18th century London. The North Briton also served as the pseudonym of the newspaper's author, used in advertisements, letters to other publications, and handbills. Although written anonymously, The North Briton is closely associated with the name of John Wilkes. The newspaper is chiefly famous for issue number 45, the forty or so court cases spawned by that issue, and for the genesis of "45" as a popular slogan of liberty in the latter part of the 18th century.

PEACE OF RYSWICK (KNOW WHICH COUNTRY SECURED THEIR BORDERS)

The Peace of Ryswick ended the war which secured Holland's borders and prevented Louis's expansion into Germany. However, these countries were still concerned with Louis' growing power.

QUEBEC ACT OF 1774

The Quebec Act 1774 extended the boundaries of Quebec to include the Ohio River Valley. Americans regarded the Quebec Act as an effort to prevent their mode of self-government from spreading beyond the Appalachian Mountains.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION

The Pragmatic Sanction assured that Maria Theresa would inherit the power in the Holy Roman Empire.

THE TOLERATION ACT OF 1689

The Toleration Act of 1689 permitted worship by all Protestants and outlawed only Roman Catholics and those who denied the Christian doctrine of the Trinity.

TREATY OF HUBERTUSBURG

The Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763 ended the Seven Years' War in Europe with no significant changes in prewar borders. However, Prussia clearly stood as one of the great powers due to its military might.

TREATY OF PARIS, 1763 & 1783

The Treaty of Paris 1763 ended the Seven Years War abroad. Britain received all of Canada, the Ohio River Valley, and the eastern half of the Mississippi Valley. Britain returned Pondicherry and Chandernagore in India and the West Indian sugar islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique to the French. This peace, however, did not last long. The War of the American Revolution continued until 1781 when the forces of George Washington defeated those of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 concluded the conflict, and the thirteen American colonies finally established independence.

WAR OF JENKINS' EAR (SIGNIFICANCE ON CONTINENT OF EUROPE)

The War of Jenkins' Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain in the Americas. Jenkins and other British merchants lobbied Parliament to end Spanish intervention in their trade. British Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole, declared war on Spain in 1739. This war may have been a minor event, but due to developments in continental European politics, it became the opening encounter to a series of European wars fought across the world until 1815.

2 HOUSES OF ENGLISH PARLIAMENT

The business of Parliament takes place in two Houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Their work is similar: making laws (legislation), checking the work of the government (scrutiny), and debating current issues.

STAMP ACT CONGRESS

The colonies formed the Stamp Act Congress in October 1765 in order to draw up a protest to present to the crown. Groups, like the Sons of Liberty in Massachusetts, rallied colonists to refuse to import British goods. Consequently, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766. Stamp Act Crisis established a pattern of British colonial relations with their mother country.

SIR ROBERT WALPOLE (WHY SO POPULAR)

The immediate conflict met by George's succession to the throne put the legitimacy of the Hanover monarchy in flux until Sir Robert Walpole took over the helm of the government. Walpole was supported by George I and experienced great success from 1721 to 1742 due to his ability to handle the House of Commons and his control of government patronage. Walpole maintained peace abroad and expanded Great Britain's commercial interest from New England to India.

KNOW THE "LEGACY OF LOUIS XVI"

The last king of France (1774-92) in the line of Bourbon monarchs preceding the French Revolution of 1789. The monarchy was abolished on Sept. 21, 1792; later Louis and his queen consort, Marie-Antoinette, were guillotined on charges of counterrevolution.

BISHOP JACQUES-BENIGNE BOSSUET

The political theorist Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bossuet who defended the notion of divine right of kings tutored Louis as a child. Louis allegedly once declared "L'etat, c'est moi (I am the state.)" Louis' absolutism applied to national interests like the making of war or peace, the regulation of religion, and the oversight of economic activity. Unlike the Stuart monarchs of England, Louis firmly prevented the intervention of nobles and legislative bodies from interfering with his authority on the national level.

LOUIS XIV (OF FRANCE AND KNOW HIS NICKNAME)

The reign of France's Louis XIV (1638-1718), known as the Sun King, lasted for 72 years, longer than that of any other known European sovereign. In that time, he transformed the monarchy, ushered in a golden age of art and literature, presided over a dazzling royal court at Versailles, annexed key territories and established his country as the dominant European power. During the final decades of Louis XIV's rule, France was weakened by several lengthy wars that drained its resources and the mass exodus of its Protestant population following the king's revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

COMMON SENSE BY THOMAS PAINE

Thomas Paine publishes his pamphlet "Common Sense," setting forth his arguments in favor of American independence. Although little used today, pamphlets were an important medium for the spread of ideas in the 16th through 19th centuries. Originally published anonymously, "Common Sense" advocated independence for the American colonies from Britain and is considered one of the most influential pamphlets in American history. Thomas Paine's Common Sense widely circulated and galvanized public opinion in favor of separation from Great Britain.

THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION

Those in Parliament who opposed James II and Catholicism invited William of Orange to invade England to preserve "traditional liberties" of Anglicanism and parliamentary government. William arrived with his army in November 1688 and was received by the English people without significant opposition. James fled to France, and in 1689, Parliament named William III and Mary II the new monarchs of England. This bloodless transfer of power became known as the Glorious Revolution.

WILLIAM OF ORANGE

Those in Parliament who opposed James II and Catholicism invited William of Orange to invade England to preserve "traditional liberties" of Anglicanism and parliamentary government. William arrived with his army in November 1688 and was received by the English people without significant opposition. James fled to France, and in 1689, Parliament named William III and Mary II the new monarchs of England. This bloodless transfer of power became known as the Glorious Revolution.

ENGLAND V. FRANCE (RIVALS)

Two nations that are constantly at war with each other and in their many colonies. Both nations were major powers that struggled for dominance in the 18th and 19th centuries. England is dominantly Protestant with a republic form of government while religion in France is dominantly Catholic with an absolutism form of government.

EDICT OF NANTES V. EDICT OF FOUNTAINBLEAU

Two powerful chief ministers, Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin, laid the groundwork for political absolutism in France. Richelieu revoked many of the privileges that had been granted to French Protestants through the Edict of Nantes. Tension between the Catholic majority (90%) and Protestants remained high in the years following the issuance of the Edict of Nantes in 1598. The French Catholic Church encouraged the persecution of Huguenots, French Protestants, claiming it was a patriotic duty. Louis replaced the Edict of Nantes with the Edict of Fontainebleau, which significantly limited the rights of Protestants in France. The edict include the following provisions: - Protestant churches and schools were closed. - Protestant ministers were exiled. - Non-converting laity were condemned to be galley slaves. - Protestant children were baptized by Catholic priests.

INTOLERABLE ACTS

Under the ministry of Lord North, Parliament was determined to assert its authority over the colonies and instituted a series of laws known in American history as the Intolerable Acts. The new laws did the following: - Shut down the port of Boston - Reorganized the government of Massachusetts - Allowed troops to be quartered in private homes - Removed the trials of royal customs officials to England

CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY

William and Mary agreed to recognize the Bill of Rights that limited the powers of the monarchy and guaranteed the civil liberties of the English privileged classes. English monarchs would not be subject to the law and would be ruled by the consent of Parliament which would be called into session every three years. The Bill of Rights prohibited Roman Catholics from occupying the throne.

WILLIAM III AND MARY II

William was born in The Hague in the Netherlands. He was an only child and never knew his father William II who died of smallpox before his birth. His mother was Mary eldest daughter of Charles I of England. William was appointed Stadtholder (chief magistrate) and captain-general of the Dutch forces in 1672 to resist the French invasion of the Netherlands. He forced Louis XIV to make peace in 1678 and then concentrated on building up a European alliance against France. In 1677 he married his cousin Mary, eldest daughter of James, Duke of York, the future James II. The marriage was intended to repair relations between England and The Netherlands following the Anglo-Dutch wars.

ENGLISH NAMES

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FRENCH NAMES

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FRENCH TERMS

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OTHER

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