MADM701 - M7!

3 Types of Leadership

authoritarian, democratic, laissez-faire

One analysis explains that in these turbulent times characterized by high stress and financial concerns that there are 10 qualities that help make great leaders and shape managerial successes. They include:

(1) Honesty. (2) Ability to delegate. (3) Communication. (4) Sense of humor. (5) Confidence. (6) Commitment. (7) Positive attitude. (8) Creativity. (9) Intuition. (10) Ability to inspire.

The Three "Faces" of an Organizational Leader:

(1) Manager (disciplined, rational, organizing, controlling, intellect, strategic, decision maker); (2) Artist (curious, independent, creative, emotional, innovator). (3) Priest (ethical, pure, empathetic, inspiring, comforting, transcendent). In addition to this analogy is the view that great leaders must have energy, expertise, and integrity. Especially in light of corporate scandals and the global financial crisis in recent years, the integrity component has taken on increased importance. Out of these three interacting gears of leadership, it is integrity that ensures that an organization is run in the right direction—with a view towards collective good rather than selfish motives. Therefore, it is the most nonnegotiable of the three elements. Henceforth, leaders ought not to be selected on the basis of the superficial qualities that have blinded us in the past. They must first pass the acid test of integrity.

3 Ways to Derive Competencies

(1) Research based. (2) Strategy based. (3) Values based.

One analysis concluded that leaders will be perceived most favorably by their associates, and succeed in exerting most influence over them, when they behave in ways that closely match:

(1) The needs and values of associates. (2) the requirements of a specificwork situation.

Graen and Uhl-Bien have emphasized that LMX has evolved through various stages:

(1) the discovery of differentiated dyads; (2) the investigation of characteristics of LMX relationships and their organizational implications/outcomes; (3) the description of dyadic partnership building; and (4) the aggregation of differentiated dyadic relations to group and network levels. New insights into the manner in which leaders differentiate between employees in order to form in-groups and out-groups may in part be explained by social network analysis. Positive social networks and exchange processes assist leaders in selecting those who may become part of the inner circle of an organization. Also, the fourth stage recognizes the new cross-functional or network emphasis in organizations and even external relations with customers, suppliers, and other organizational stakeholders.

In contrast to transactional leaders, Avolio notes that transformational leaders characterized by idealized leadership, inspiring leadership, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration represent a cluster of interrelated styles aimed at the following:

1. Changing situations for the better. 2. Developing followers into leaders. 3. Overhauling organizations to provide them with new strategic directions. 4. Inspiring people by providing an energizing vision and high ideal for moral and ethical conduct. He suggests that fostering transformational leadership through policies of recruitment, selection, promotion, training, and development will pay off in the health, well-being, and effective performance of today's organizations.

Transformational Leaders

1. Charisma (Idealized Influence): Provides vision and sense of mission; instills pride; gains respect and trust. 2. Inspiration: Communicates high expectations; uses symbols to focus efforts; expresses important purposes in simple ways. 3. Intellectual stimulation: Promotes intelligence; rationality; and careful problem solving. 4. Individual consideration: Gives personal attention; treats each employee individually; coaches; advises. On the basis of his research findings, Bass concludes that in many instances (such as relying on passive management by exception), transactional leadership is a prescription for mediocrity and that transformational leadership leads to superior performance in organizations facing demands for renewal and change.

Some of the findings by the GLOBE team suggest 21 primary and then six leader attributes and behaviors that are viewed as contributing to leadership in various cultures. These six are summarized as follows:

1. Charismatic/Value-Base—the ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance outcomes from others on the basis of core beliefs. 2. Team-Oriented—effective team building and implementation of a common purpose/ goal among team members. 3. Participative—the degree to which managers/leaders involve others in making and implementing decisions. 4. Humane-Oriented—supportive, considerate, compassionate, and generous leadership. 5. Autonomous—independent and individualistic leadership. 6. Self-Protective—ensuring the safety and security of the individual, it tends to be an approach that is self-centered and face saving. The GLOBE researchers found that these six leadership dimensions differed in terms of their desirability and effectiveness in various cultures.

What two leadership dimensions emerged from the Ohio studies?

1. Consideration. 2. Initiating Structure. These two factors were found in a wide variety of studies encompassing many kinds of leadership positions and contexts. The researchers carefully emphasize that the studies show only how leaders carry out their leadership function. In simple terms, the Ohio State factors are task or goal orientation (initiating structure) and recognition of individual needs and relationships (consideration). The two dimensions are separate and distinct from each other. They were the first to point out and emphasize the importance of both task and human dimensions in assessing leadership. This two-dimensional approach lessened the gap between the strict task orientation of the scientific management movement and the human relations emphasis, which had been popular up to that time.

Transactional Leaders

1. Contingent reward: Contracts the exchange of rewards for effort; promises rewards for good performance; recognizes accomplishments. 2. Management by exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards; takes corrective action. 3. Management by exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met. 4. Laissez-faire: Abdicates responsibilities; avoids making decisions. On the basis of his research findings, Bass concludes that in many instances (such as relying on passive management by exception), transactional leadership is a prescription for mediocrity and that transformational leadership leads to superior performance in organizations facing demands for renewal and change.

Taking a contingency approach to recognize situational variables, Hersey and Blanchard incorporated the maturity of the followers into their model. The level of maturity is defined by three criteria (Hersey & Blanchard, Life-Cycle Approach):

1. Degree of achievement motivation. 2. Willingness to take on responsibility. 3. Amount of education and/or experience.

Competencies that are related to leadership effectiveness both in the United States and other cultures:

1. Drive, or the inner motivation to pursue goals. 2. Leadership motivation, which is the use of socialized power to influence others to succeed. 3. Integrity, which includes truthfulness and the will to translate words into deeds. 4. Self-confidence that leads others to feel confidence, usually exhibited through various forms of impression management directed at employees. 5. Intelligence, which is usually focused in the ability to process information, analyze alternatives, and discover opportunities. 6. Knowledge of the business, so that ideas that are generated help the company to survive and thrive. 7. Emotional intelligence, based on a self-monitoring personality, making quality leaders strong in situation sensitivity and the ability to adapt to circumstances as needed.

Important Leadership Studies

1. Iowa. 2. Ohio State. 3. Michigan.

4 Categories of Effective Leadership Skills (Whetten and Cameron):

1. Participative and human relations (for example, supportive communication and team building). 2. Competitiveness and control (for example, assertiveness, power, and influence). 3. Innovativeness and entrepreneurship (for example, creative problem solving). 4. Maintaining order and rationality (for example, managing time and rational decision making).

What are the two situational factors in path-goal theory?

1. Personal characteristics of associates. 2. Environmental Pressures/Demands on associates.

The GLOBE research indicated nine dimensions of cultures that differentiate societies and organizations. These identified cultural dimensions are:

1. Power distance, or the degree to which members of a collective expect power to be distributed equally. 2. Uncertainty avoidance, which is the extent a society, organization, or groups rely on norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events. 3. Humane orientation, reflected in the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others. 4. Institutional Collectivism, described as the degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward the collective distribution of resources and collective actions. 5. In-Group Collectivism, which is the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families. 6. Assertiveness, defined as the degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationships with others. 7. Gender egalitarianism, expressed as the degree a collective minimizes gender inequality. 8. Future orientation, or the extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning, and investing in the future. 9. Performance orientation, suggested by the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence.

Path-Goal Leadership : Using one of the four styles contingent on the situational factors as outlined, the leader attempts to influence associates' perceptions and motivate them, which in turn leads to their role clarity, goal expectancies, satisfaction, and performance. This is specifically accomplished by the leader as follows:

1. Recognizing and/or arousing associates' needs for outcomes over which the leader has some control. 2. Increasing personal payoffs to associates for work-goal attainment. 3. Making the path to those payoffs easier to travel by coaching and direction. 4. Helping associates clarify expectancies. 5. Reducing frustrating barriers. 6. Increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction contingent on effective performance.

Other historically important approaches to leadership styles include Hersey and Blanchard's Life-Cycle (later termed the situational) approach to leadership. Following the original Ohio State studies, Hersey and Blanchard's approach identifies two major styles:

1. Task style. The leader organizes and defines roles for members of the work group; the leader explains the tasks that group members are to do and when, where, and how they are to do them. 2. Relationship style. The leader has close, personal relationships with the members of the group, and there is open communication and psychological and emotional support. Hersey and Blanchard's life cycle represent a popular, but not evidence-based, approach to leadership style.

The key for leadership effectiveness in this model is to match up the situation with the appropriate style. The following summarizes the four basic styles (Hersey & Blanchard, Life-Cycle Approach):

1. Telling style. This is a high-task, low-relationship style and is effective when followers are at a very low level of maturity. 2. Selling style. This is a high-task, high-relationship style and is effective when followers are on the low side of maturity. 3. Participating style. This is a low-task, high-relationship style and is effective when followers are on the high side of maturity. 4. Delegating style. This is a low-task, low-relationship style and is effective when followers are at a very high level of maturity. This popular approach lacks sufficient evidence to predict leader effectiveness.

3 Characteristics of Leadership Skills (Whetten and Cameron):

1. The skills are behavioral. They are not traits or, importantly, styles. They consist of an identifiable set of actions that leaders perform and that result in certain outcomes. 2. The skills, in several cases, seem contradictory or paradoxical. For example, they are neither all soft- nor all hard-driving, oriented neither toward teamwork and interpersonal relations exclusively nor toward individualism and entrepreneurship exclusively. 3. The skills are interrelated and overlapping. Effective leaders do not perform one skill or one set of skills independent of others. In other words, effective leaders are multiskilled.

Most of the research on transformational leadership to date has relied on Bass and Avolio's MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire) or qualitative research that simply describes leaders through interviews. Examples of the latter were the interviews with top executives of major companies conducted by Tichy and Devanna. They found that effective transformational leaders share the following characteristics:

1. They identify themselves as change agents. 2. They are courageous. 3. They believe in people. 4. They are value driven. 5. They are lifelong learners. 6. They have the ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity, and uncertainty. 7. They are visionaries.

James Burns : 2 Types of Political Leadership

1. Transactional. 2. Transformational.

Whetten and Cameron provide a more empirical derivation of effective leadership skills. On the basis of an interview study of more than 400 highly effective managers, the 10 skills most often identified were the following:

1. Verbal communication (including listening) 2. Managing time and stress 3. Managing individual decisions 4. Recognizing, defining, and solving problems 5. Motivating and influencing others 6. Delegating 7. Setting goals and articulating a vision 8. Self-awareness 9. Team building 10. Managing conflict

Noted leadership researchers House and Podsakoff have summarized the behaviors and approaches of great leaders that they drew from modern theories (e.g., charismatic and transformational) and basic research findings as follows:

1. Vision. Great leaders articulate an ideological vision that is congruent with the deeply held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have a moral right. 2. Passion and self-sacrifice. Great leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and the mission. 3. Confidence, determination, and persistence. Great leaders display a high degree of faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they articulate. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the status quo and, therefore, is likely to offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order. 4. Image building. Great leaders are self-conscious about their own image. They recognize that they must be perceived by followers as competent, credible, and trustworthy. 5. Role modeling. Leader image building sets the stage for effective role modeling because followers identify with the values of role models who are perceived positively. 6. External representation. Great leaders act as the spokesperson for their organization and symbolically represent the organization to external constituencies. 7. Expectations of and confidence in followers. Great leaders communicate high performance expectations to their followers and strong confidence in their followers' ability to meet such expectations. 8. Selective motive arousal. Great leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that are of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission. 9. Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement change, great leaders engage in frame alignment. This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers' interests, values, and beliefs, as well as the leader's activities, goals, and ideology, becomes congruent and complementary. 10. Inspirational communication. Great leaders often, but not always, communicate their messages in an inspirational manner using vivid stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies.

Path-Goal: Supportive Leadership

2. Supportive leadership. The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine concern for associates. Studies involving 10 different samples of employees found that supportive leadership had its most positive effect on satisfaction for associates who work on stressful, frustrating, or dissatisfying tasks.

What percentage of companies were satisfied with their investments in leadership development programs?

35%.

Laissez-Faire Leadership

A form of "leadership" characterized by a general failure to take responsibility for leading; The laissez-faire leader gave complete freedom to the group; this leader essentially provided no leadership.

Democratic Leadership

A form of leadership in which the leader solicits input from subordinates. Encouraged group discussion and decision making. This leader tried to be "objective" in giving praise or criticism and to be one of the group in spirit.

Trait Theory

A leadership theory that holds that effective leaders possess a similar set of traits or characteristics.

Acceleration Pool

A management succession planning system that develops a group of high-potential candidates for undefined executive jobs. The acceleration pool utilizes information gained in assessment centers to identify potential new leaders along with the strengths and weaknesses individual candidates possess. From there it is possible to speed up the process by which they are trained to move into leadership positions.

Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness

A model of leadership effectiveness that focuses on both person variables and situational variables. This model contained the relationship between leadership style and the favorableness of the situation. Situational favorableness was described by Fiedler in terms of three empirically derived dimensions: 1. The leader-member relationship, which is the most critical variable in determining the situation's favorableness. 2. The degree of task structure, which is the second most important input into the favorableness of the situation. 3. The leader's position power obtained through formal authority, which is the third most critical dimension of the situation.

Big Five - Traits of Leaders

A recent qualitative and quantitative meta-analysis review found strong empirical support for the leader trait perspective when traits are organized according to the five-factor model. Specifically, the personality trait of extraversion had the highest (.31) average correlation with leader emergence and leadership effectiveness, followed by conscientiousness (.28), openness to experience (.24), neuroticism (.24), and nonsignificant agreeableness (.08). These results and newly developed traitlike theoretical frameworks such as the motivation to lead (MTL), which has been demonstrated to predict leadership potential, indicate that a dispositional, traitlike approach to leadership is still alive and may have potential for the future.

Summary Continuum of Leadership Styles Drawn From the Classic Studies and Theories of Leadership

A rough approximation of the various styles derived from the studies and theories discussed so far can be incorporated into the continuum shown in Table 14.2.

Authoritarian Leadership

A style of leadership in which the leader tells the employees what needs to be done and how to perform it without getting their advice or ideas. Very directive and allowed no participation. This leader tended to give individual attention when praising and criticizing, but tried to be friendly or impersonal rather than openly hostile.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model

AKA vertical dyad linkage (VDL). The leadership model based on the finding that supervisors develop different kinds of leadership relationships with their subordinates, depending on characteristics of both the leader and members. In particular, leaders and their associates develop dyadic (two-person) relationships that affect the behavior of both.

Path-Goal: Achievement-Orientation Leadership

Achievement-oriented leadership. The leader sets challenging goals for associates and shows confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well. In three separate organizations it was found that for employees performing ambiguous, nonrepetitive tasks, the higher the achievement orientation of the leader, the more associates were confident that their efforts would pay off in effective performance.

Etic

Across cultures.

Charismatic Leadership Theories

Although the charismatic concept, or charisma, goes as far back as the ancient Greeks and is cited in the Bible, its modern development is often attributed to the work of Robert House. On the basis of the analysis of political and religious leaders, House suggests that charismatic leaders are characterized by self-confidence and confidence in their associates, high expectations for associates, ideological vision, and the use of personal example. Followers of charismatic leaders identify with the leader and the mission of the leader, exhibit extreme loyalty to and confidence in the leader, emulate the leader's values and behavior, and derive self-esteem from their relationship with the leader. Bass has extended the profile of charismatic leaders to include superior debating and persuasive skills as well as technical expertise and the fostering of attitudinal, behavioral, and emotional changes in their followers.

Human Resource Development (HRD) Skills

Because human resources are so much a part of leadership effectiveness, leaders must have human resource development (HRD) skills of developing a learning climate, designing and conducting training programs, transmitting information and experience, assessing results, providing career counseling, creating organizational change, and adapting learning materials.

Genetics and Leadership

Behavioral genetics research using twins (identical twins have the same genetic endowment and thus differences between them can be attributed to development) indicates that about 30 percent of both male and female leader emergence can be attributed to heritability. Thus the vast majority of one's leadership is open to experience, learning, and development. In other words, the research evidence on whether leaders are born versus made greatly favors that they are made, developed.

Metacompetencies

Briscoe and Hall argue for the need to go beyond these three with what they call "metacompetancies." Under this new approach, leaders would be trained utilizing a learning-based model. Continuous learning emphasizes flexibility and identity, so strong that the individual leader is able to "learn how to learn" and therefore adapt to continually changing circumstances as found in today's environment. Other competencies are not abandoned, but rather are augmented by this learning and knowledge-acquisition-based approach.

Path-Goal: Directive Leadership

Directive leadership. This style is similar to that of the Lippitt and White authoritarian leader. Associates know exactly what is expected of them, and the leader gives specific directions. There is no participation by subordinates. Studies of seven organizations found that leader directiveness was (a) positively related to satisfactions and expectancies of associates engaged in ambiguous tasks and (b) negatively related to satisfactions and expectancies of associates engaged in clear tasks.

Communication Skills

Effective leaders must be able to communicate—in written form, orally, and nonverbally.

Nadler and Tushman's Charismatic Leadership Styles

Envisioning: Creating a picture of the future—or a desired future state—with which people can identify and that can generate excitement. • Articulating a compelling vision • Setting high expectations Energizing: Directing the generation of energy, the motivation to act, among members of the organization. • Demonstrating personal excitement and confidence • Seeking, finding, and using success Enabling: Psychologically helping people act or perform in the face of challenging goals. • Expressing personal support • Empathizing

Which type of leader is most effective in both very favorable and very unfavorable situations?

Fiedler was able to discover that under very favorable and very unfavorable situations, the task-directed, or hard-nosed and authoritarian, type of leader was most effective. What Fiedler's model suggests is that in highly unfavorable situations, the effective leader takes charge and makes the decisions that need to be made to accomplish the task without asking for input or trying to keep everyone happy.

Leadership Skills

How leaders/ managers can be effective.

Which type of leader is most effective in both moderately favorable and moderately unfavorable situations?

However, when the situation was only moderately favorable or unfavorable (the intermediate range of favorableness), the human-oriented or democratic type of leader was most effective. Human-oriented, democratic leader is effective in the intermediate range of favorableness. An example of such situations is the typical committee or unit. In these situations, the leader may not be wholly accepted by the other members of the group, the task may not be completely structured, and some authority and power may be granted to the leader.

Effective Managers - Happy Underlings

In contrast, however, the analysis of effective managers (those with satisfied and committed subordinates and high-performing units) found that communication and human resource management activities made the largest relative contribution, and networking, the least.

Cultural Flexibility

In international assignments this skill refers to cultural awareness and sensitivity. In domestic organizations the same skill could be said to be critical for success in light of increasing diversity. Leaders must have the skills not only to manage but also to recognize and celebrate the value of diversity in their organizations.

Leadership Triad

Knowledge, trust, power.

Personal characteristics of associates (Path-Goal Theory)

Leader behavior will be acceptable to subordinates to the extent that the subordinates see such behavior as either an immediate source of satisfaction or as instrumental to future satisfaction.

Environmental Pressures/Demands on associates (Path-Goal Theory)

Leader behavior will be motivational (e.g., will increase subordinate effort) to the extent that (1) it makes satisfaction of subordinate needs contingent on effective performance, and (2) it complements the environment of subordinates by providing the coaching, guidance, support, and rewards which are necessary for effective performance and which may otherwise be lacking in subordinates or in their environment.

Early Michigan Leadership Studies

Nondirective interviews were conducted with the 24 section supervisors and 419 clerical workers. Results showed that supervisors of high-producing sections were significantly more likely to be general rather than close in their supervisory styles and be employee-centered (have a genuine concern for their people). The low-producing-section supervisors had essentially opposite characteristics and techniques. They were found to be close, production-centered supervisors. Another important, but sometimes overlooked, finding was that employee satisfaction was not directly related to productivity, the type of supervision was the key to their performance.

In-Group vs. Out-Group LMX Effects

Over time, the leader will develop an "in-group" of associates and an "out-group" of associates and treat them accordingly. Thus, for the same leader, research has shown that in-group associates report fewer difficulties in dealing with the leader and perceive the leader as being more responsive to their needs than out-group associates do. Also, leaders spend more time "leading" members of the in-group (that is, they do not depend on formal authority to influence them), and they tend to "supervise" those in the out-group (that is, they depend on formal roles and authority to influence them). Finally, there is evidence that members of the in-group (those who report a high-quality relationship with their leader) assume greater job responsibility, contribute more to their units, and are rated as higher performers than those reporting a low-quality relationship.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory in Perspective

Overall, few would argue that Fiedler provided one of the major breakthroughs for leadership theory, research, and practice. Although some of the criticism cannot be ignored, there are several reasons that Fiedler's model made a historically important contribution: 1. It was the first highly visible leadership theory to present the contingency approach, thus giving widespread attention to the important role that the situation or context plays in leadership. 2. It also emphasized the importance of the interaction between the situation and the leader's characteristics in determining leader effectiveness. 3. It stimulated a great deal of research, including tests of its predictions and attempts to improve on the model, and inspired the formulation of alternative contingency theories.

Path-Goal: Participative Leadership

Participative leadership. The leader asks for and uses suggestions from associates but still makes the decisions. In a major study in a manufacturing organization, it was found that in nonrepetitive, ego-involving tasks, employees were more satisfied under participative leaders than under nonparticipative leaders.

State-Like POB Capacities

Positive Organizational Behavior; the statelike (situationally based capacities, those open to development and change, as opposed to the dispositional, relatively fixed traits) positive organizational behavior (POB) constructs have potential for understanding and developing leadership. Specifically, both intuitive and beginning research evidence indicate that optimism, hope, resiliency, emotional intelligence, and especially self-efficacy are related to effective leaders.

Creativity - Skills

Problem solving, innovation, and creativity provide the competitive advantage in today's global marketplace. Leaders must possess the skills to not only be creative themselves but also provide a climate that encourages creativity and assists their people to be creative.

Manager's Time - Divided between Tasks

Real Managers Study investigated the question of what leaders/managers do in their day-to-day activities and what successful and effective leaders/ managers do. It was found that the managers spend about a third of their time and effort in communication activities, a third in traditional management activities, a fifth in human resource management activities, and a fifth in networking activities.

Research-Based Competency Models

Research-based competencies are derived from behavioral data gathered from successful leaders.

Two Reactions to Authoritative Leaders

Researchers found that the boys subjected to the autocratic leaders reacted in one of two ways: either aggressively or apathetically. Both the aggressive and apathetic behaviors were deemed to be reactions to the frustration caused by the autocratic leader. The researchers also pointed out that the apathetic groups exhibited outbursts of aggression when the autocratic leader left the room or when a transition was made to a freer leadership atmosphere.

Roles vs. Skills of a Leader

Roles and activities are what leaders do, and skills are concerned with how leaders can be effective.

Situational favorableness (Fiedler)- Three empirically derived dimensions: Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness

Situations are favorable to the leader if all three of these dimensions are high. 1. Leader-member relationship, which is the most critical variable in determining the situation's favorableness. 2. Degree of task structure, which is the second most important input into the favorableness of the situation. 3. Leader's position power obtained through formal authority, which is the third most critical dimension of the situation. If the leader is generally accepted and respected by followers (high first dimension), if the task is very structured and everything is "spelled out" (high second dimension), and if a great deal of authority and power are formally attributed to the leader's position (high third dimension), the situation is favorable. If the opposite exists (if the three dimensions are low), the situation will be very unfavorable for the leader. Fiedler concluded through his research that the favorableness of the situation in combination with the leadership style determines effectiveness.

Strategy-Based Competency Models

Strategy-based competency models derive information from key informants regarding strategic company issues and directions.

Authentic Leadership Development (ALD)

That one's life course of events plays a big role in authentic leadership development (ALD), but also that life's both planned or unplanned "moments that matter" can be accelerated. The process that draws upon a leader's life course, psychological capital, moral perspective, and a "highly developed" supporting organizational climate to produce greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors, which in turn fosters continuous, positive self-development resulting in veritable, sustained performance. In other words, heredity, life events, and specific leadership experiences all affect one's ALD. However, it should be understood that this ALD process can be accelerated by both negative (e.g., painful life events such as being unjustly fired, loss of a loved one, or a heart attack) and positive (finding out what is really important such as helping a friend or traveling to a foreign country) moments. Also, the ALD process can be proactively accelerated by starting with a desired end-point, enhanced self-awareness (both understanding your actual self and your potential best self) and self-regulation. A key to ALD is bringing the future to the present.

Iowa, Michigan, and Ohio Studies

The Iowa studies analyzed the impact of autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire styles. The studies conducted by the Michigan group found the employee-centered supervisor to be more effective than the production- centered supervisor. The Ohio State studies identified consideration (a supportive type of style) and initiating structure (a directive type of style) as being the major functions of leadership.

Successful Managers - Promotions

The analysis of successful managers (those rapidly promoted) found that networking made the biggest relative contribution to their rise and human resource management activities the least.

Effective Managers vs. Successful Managers

The analysis of successful managers (those rapidly promoted) found that networking made the biggest relative contribution to their rise and human resource management activities the least. In contrast, however, the analysis of effective managers (those with satisfied and committed subordinates and high-performing units) found that communication and human resource management activities made the largest relative contribution, and networking, the least.

Authentic Leadership Development Model

The concept of authentic leadership is more on a continuum, rather than just being dichotomous. Also, although we recognize authentic leaders draw from their genetic endowment and life experience, similar to positive organizational behavior (POB) capacities or psychological capital (see Chapter 7), authentic leadership is considered to be statelike and thus open to development and change. First to treat leadership as both a developmental process and product centered on authenticity. The authentic leadership process involves antecedent-positive psychological capacities and positive organizational context leading to positive self-development and the product of the authentic leader. In other words, this developmental approach to leadership focuses on the positive (both personal and contextual) in getting to know and regulate one's self. The outcomes of authentic leadership are positive psychological capital (confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency) and transparency, moral/ethical behavior, future-orientation, and building associates.

Democratic Leadership, Outbursts, Aggression

The democratically led group fell between the one extremely aggressive group and the four apathetic groups under the autocratic leaders.

Effective Coaching

The goal of effective coaching is to move away from the concept that "managing equals controlling" and forward to the idea that "managing equals creating a context for coaching." It is the partnership and the climate that are the keys to effective coaching development systems. Tactics that support effective coaching include accessibility, attention, validation, empathy, support, compassion, and consistency.

Laissez-Faire Outbursts, Aggression

The laissez-faire leadership climate actually produced the greatest number of aggressive acts from the group.

Relationship Style Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, Life-Cycle Approach)

The leader has close, personal relationships with the members of the group, and there is open communication and psychological and emotional support.

Situational Approach to Leadership

The leader is viewed as a product of the times and the situation. The person with the particular qualities or traits that a situation requires will emerge as the leader. This view has much historical support as a theoretical basis for leadership and serves as the basis for situational—and then termed contingency and now contextual—theories of leadership.

Task Style Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, Life-Cycle Approach)

The leader organizes and defines roles for members of the work group; the leader explains the tasks that group members are to do and when, where, and how they are to do them.

Classic Exchange Theory of Groups

The leader provides more benefits/rewards than burdens/costs for followers. There must be a positive exchange between the leaders and followers in order for group goals to be accomplished. Superiors make investments (e.g., salary, office space) in and receive returns (e.g., performance) from subordinates; subordinates make investments in and receive returns from superiors; and the investments and returns occur on a one-to-one basis in each superior-subordinate dyad.

GLOBE Project

The meta-goal of the GLOBE program is to develop, over time, an empirically based theory to describe, understand, and predict the impact of cultural variables on leadership, organizational processes, and the effectiveness of the leader and the processes. For over a decade, 170 country-based coinvestigators (CCIs) gathered data from 18,000 managers from 62 countries. The CCIs were responsible for leading the study in the specific culture in which each had expertise. The general findings of the GLOBE project are that cultural dimensions do exist that can be identified and measured. Cultural differences can be studied through etic (across cultures) or emic (within cultures, or country-specific information) approaches. Cultural differences strongly influence the ways in which people think about their leaders as well as societal norms that exist concerning the status, influence, and the privileges granted to leaders.

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

The most important aspect in leadership is the follower's expectation that a task can be accomplished and that it will lead to rewards. Derived from the expectancy framework of motivation theory. The path-goal conceptualization depends heavily on directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented styles of leadership. In essence, the path-goal theory attempts to explain the impact that leader behavior has on associate motivation, satisfaction, and performance. The House version of the theory incorporates four major types, or styles, of leadership. Four major types, or styles, of leadership: 1. Directive leadership. This style is similar to that of the Lippitt and White authoritarian leader. Associates know exactly what is expected of them, and the leader gives specific directions. There is no participation by subordinates. 2. Supportive leadership. The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine concern for associates. 3. Participative leadership. The leader asks for and uses suggestions from associates but still makes the decisions. 4. Achievement-oriented leadership. The leader sets challenging goals for associates and shows confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well.

Outcomes of Authentic Leadership

The outcomes of authentic leadership are positive psychological capital (confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency) and transparency, moral/ethical behavior, future-orientation, and building associates.

Leadership Across Cultures : Personal Values

The personal values held by a manager shape his or her perception of a situation, influence the analysis of alternative solutions to a problem, and affect the ultimate decision made by the leader. At the same time, the personal values of followers influence their leader, and these values are different across cultures. A study of similar U.S.-owned manufacturing plants located in five different cultures (Italian, Mexican, Spanish, United States, and British) revealed that the overall leadership approaches of the host-country nationals reflected the expectations of the local culture and workforce.

Value-Based Competency Models

The values-based model focuses on the company's cultural values, as interpreted by company leaders.

The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behavior

The verbal descriptions and the relationship between authority and freedom found in Figure 14.1 give a rough representation of the characteristics of the various styles of leadership. Importantly, as shown in the contingency or contextual theories, both sides can be effective.

Leadership Styles

The way leaders/managers influence followers/ employees.

Substitutes Theory of Leadership

Theory questions whether leaders are even necessary and states certain organizational characteristics could eliminate the need for leaders. The theory states that different situational factors can enhance, neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviors. The substitutes approach recognizes that certain subordinate, task, and organizational characteristics may substitute for or neutralize the impact that leader behavior has on subordinate performance and satisfaction.

Leadership Across Cultures : Interpersonal Skills

There is considerable evidence that managers differ across cultures in their interpersonal styles and skills. Leaders vary in their views of rules and procedures, deference to authority, levels of dependence and independence, use of objectivity versus intuition, willingness to compromise, and other interpersonal tactics. Even transformational and transactional tactics used by leaders may vary in their levels of success in differing cultures. As these research studies reviewed indicate, there is reason to believe that cultural issues in leadership should be studied to reveal both differences between cultures and specific within-country practices that will help expatriate leaders succeed.

Iowa Studies

They were the first attempts to determine, experimentally, what effects styles of leadership have on a group. 3 leadership styles developed from evaluating children collaborating. Like the Hawthorne studies presented in Chapter 1, the Iowa studies are too often automatically discounted or at least marginalized because they are hard to generalize to modern organizational leadership. The value of the studies was that they were the first to analyze leadership from the standpoint of scientific methodology, and, more important, they showed that different styles of leadership can produce different, complex reactions from the same or similar groups.

Job Redesign

This approach attempts to manage the job rather than the extremely complex person who holds the job. From enriching the job by building in more responsibility, the more recent approach is to concentrate on the characteristics of identity, variety, significance, autonomy, and feedback. There has been a stream of research to support the concept that when employees perceive these characteristics in their job, they do high-quality work.

How does the path-goal theory differ from Fiedler's contingency model?

This path-goal theory—and here is how it differs in one respect from Fiedler's contingency model—suggests that these various styles (directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented) can be and actually are used by the same leader in different situations.

Self-management of learning

This skill refers to the need for continuous learning of new knowledge and skills. In this time of dramatic change and global competitiveness, leaders must undergo continuous change themselves. They must be self-learners.

Authentic Leaders

To know oneself, to be consistent with oneself, and to have positive and strength-based orientations toward one's development and the development of others. Such leaders are transparent with their values and beliefs. They are honest with themselves and with others. They exhibit a higher level of moral reasoning capacity, allowing them to judge between gray and shades of gray. The authentic leader is true to him- or herself and others and possesses considerable positive psychological capital, is transparent, moral/ethical, and future-oriented, and gives priority to developing associates to be leaders.

Leadership Across Cultures : Backgrounds of Managers

U.S. managers come from all economic backgrounds—lower, middle, and upper class. Although most are college educated, there is no guarantee that attending a given school will lead to success, as promotion is often based on performance. In Japan, graduates of prestigious schools have much better chances to become top managers in the larger corporations, and in Korea many top business leaders are educated in the United States. Besides educational background, class and family status also can have an influence. U.S. managers come from all classes, but the same is not true in other countries. Family name and class are important in France. In India, it is common to accept the authority of elders, and this is revealed through little delegation of authority in many companies. In Scandinavian countries, however, differing family patterns are reflected in participatory decision-making styles and the routine delegation of authority by leaders.

Leadership Activities

What leaders/managers do in their day-to-day jobs, skills how leaders/ managers can be effective.

"Pied Piper" Effect

When job hopping by an effective leader can lead to defections and attrition among the subordinates who were under the departed leader.

Emic

Within cultures, or country-specific information.