Management Ch. 9: Terms

employee stock option

A financial instrument that entitles the bearer to buy shares of an organization's stock at a certain price during a certain period or under certain conditions.

affiliation

A high need for ________ may not always be desirable in managers and other leaders because it might lead them to try too hard to be liked by others (including their employees) rather than doing all they can to ensure that performance is as high as it can and should be.

Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory

A need theory that distinguishes between motivator needs (related to the nature of the work itself) and hygiene needs (related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed) and proposes that motivator needs must be met for motivation and job satisfaction to be high.

self-efficacy

A person's belief about his or her ability to perform a behavior successfully. This influences motivation both when managers provide reinforcement and when workers themselves provide it

informational justice

A person's perception of the extent to which his or her manager provides explanations for decisions and the procedures used to arrive at them.

interpersonal justice

A person's perception of the fairness of the interpersonal treatment he or she receives from whoever distributes outcomes to him or her. It is high when managers treat employees with dignity and respect and are polite and courteous.

procedural justice

A person's perception of the fairness of the procedures that are used to determine how to distribute outcomes in an organization.

learning

A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.

need

A requirement or necessity for survival and well-being.

goal-setting theory

A theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and performance and explaining why goals have these effects.

social learning theory

A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people's thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people's behavior.

self-reinforcer self-management

Any desired or attractive outcome or reward that a person gives to himself or herself for good performance. This self-control is often referred to as the ___________ of behavior.

input They ensure that members of an organization obtain the outcomes they desire when they make valuable contributions to the organization.

Anything a person contributes to his or her job or organization. Examples: time, effort, education, experience, skills, knowledge, and actual work behaviors. Managers strive to motivate members of an organization to contribute ______—through their behavior, effort, and persistence—that help the organization achieve its goals. How do they do this?

outcome

Anything a person gets from a job or an organization. Examples: autonomy, responsibility, a feeling of accomplishment, the pleasure of doing interesting or enjoyable work, improving the lives or well-being of other people and doing good by helping others, pay, job security, benefits, and vacation time.

specific behaviors; specific outcomes

By linking the performance of _________ to the attainment of __________, managers can motivate organizational members to perform in ways that help an organization achieve its goals.

positive reinforcement

Giving people outcomes they desire when they perform organizationally functional behaviors.

expectancy expressing confidence in their employees' capabilities, providing training so people have the expertise needed for high performance and increasing their levels of autonomy and responsibility as they gain experience

In expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which effort results in a certain level of performance. People are motivated to put forth a lot of effort on their jobs only if they think that their effort will pay off in high performance. How can managers boost this in their employees?

instrumentality

In expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which performance results in the attainment of outcomes. For example, linking a promotion or pay to a person's performance.

valence

In expectancy theory, how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or an organization is to a person. How much a person values certain outcomes; many value pay, autonomy, responsibility, opportunities for promotion, feeling of accomplishment, etc.

vicarious learning observational learning

Learning that occurs when the learner becomes motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person performing it and being reinforced for doing so; also called __________.

positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment

Operant conditioning theory provides four tools that managers can use to motivate high performance and prevent workers from engaging in absenteeism and other behaviors that detract from organizational effectiveness. These tools are:

achievement, affiliation, and power

Psychologist David McClelland extensively researched the needs for __________, __________, and __________.

Abraham Maslow physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs

Psychologist __________ proposed that all people seek to satisfy five basic kinds of needs which are?

Physiological needs, Safety needs, Belongingness needs, Esteem needs, Self-actualization needs

Rank Maslow's hierarchy of needs from the lowest level to the highest level:

intrinsic motivation extrinsic motivation

Regarding Frederick Herzberg, the two needs he suggests need to be met are motivator needs that are related to _________, and hygiene needs that are related to __________.

referent

Regarding the Equity Theory, motivation is influenced by the comparison of one's own outcome-input ratio with the outcome-input ratio of a _______. The ______ might be another person or a group of people who are perceived to be similar to oneself; the ______ also might be oneself in a previous job or one's expectations about what outcome-input ratios should be. In a comparison of one's own outcome-input ratio to a ________ ratio, one's perceptions of outcomes and inputs (not any objective indicator of them) are key.

achievement power power

Research suggests that high needs for ________ and for ______ are assets for first-line and middle managers and that a high need for_______ is especially important for upper managers.

vicarious learning self-reinforcement self-efficacy

Social learning theory extends operant conditioning's contribution to managers' understanding of motivation by explaining (1) how people can be motivated by observing other people performing a behavior and being reinforced for doing so (_________), (2) how people can be motivated to control their behavior themselves (__________), and (3) how people's beliefs about their ability to successfully perform a behavior affect motivation (________).

participate feedback

Some managers find that having employees ________ in the actual setting of goals boosts their acceptance of and commitment to the goals. In addition, organizational members need to receive ________ about how they are doing; this can often be provided by the performance appraisal and _______ component of an organization's human resource management system.

quantitative

Specific goals are often _________.

Scanlon plan

The ___________ (developed by Joseph Scanlon, a union leader in a steel and tin plant in the 1920s) focuses on reducing expenses or cutting costs; members of an organization are motivated to propose and implement cost-cutting strategies because a percentage of the cost savings achieved during a specified time is distributed to the employees.

need for power

The extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others.

need for achievement

The extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence.

need for affiliation

The extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the people around him or her get along with each other.

overpayment inequity

The inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her own outcome-input ratio is greater than the ratio of a referent. In comparing yourself to a referent, you think you are receiving more outcomes than you should be, given your inputs.

Esteem needs

The needs to feel good about oneself and one's capabilities, to be respected by others, and to receive recognition and appreciation.

Self-actualization needs

The needs to realize one's full potential as a human being.

need theories

Theories of motivation that focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs.

learning theories

Theories that focus on increasing employee motivation and performance by linking the outcomes that employees receive to the performance of desired behaviors and the attainment of goals.

procedural, informational, interpersonal

What are the three other forms of justice that are important for high motivation?

operant conditioning theory and social learning theory

What are two different learning theories?

overpayment inequity

When people experience __________, they may try to restore equity by changing their perceptions of their own or their referent's inputs or outcomes. Equity can be restored when people realize they are contributing more inputs than they originally thought. Equity also can be restored by perceiving the referent's inputs to be lower or the referent's outcomes to be higher than one originally thought. When equity is restored in this way, actual inputs and outcomes are unchanged, and the person being overpaid takes no real action.

underpayment inequity

When people experience ____________, they may be motivated to lower their inputs by reducing their working hours, putting forth less effort on the job, or being absent; or they may be motivated to increase their outcomes by asking for a raise or a promotion.

(1) workers' own personal characteristics (such as their personalities, abilities, values, attitudes, and needs), (2) the nature of their jobs (such as whether they have been enriched or where they are on the five core characteristics of the job characteristics model), and (3) the nature of the organization (such as its structure, its culture, its control systems, its human resource management system, and the ways in which rewards such as pay are distributed to employees).

Whether workers are intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated, or both depends on a wide variety of factors:

Motivator needs

________ are related to the nature of the work itself and how challenging it is. Outcomes such as interesting work, autonomy, responsibility, the ability to grow and develop on the job, and a sense of accomplishment and achievement help to satisfy these needs.

Hygiene needs

_________ are related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed. These needs are satisfied by outcomes such as pleasant and comfortable working conditions, pay, job security, good relationships with coworkers, and effective supervision.

bonus plans

_________ have more motivational impact than salary increases because the amount of the bonus can be directly and exclusively based on performance.

Action plans

__________ can include the strategies needed to attain the goals and timetables or schedules for the completion of different activities crucial to goal attainment. Like the goals themselves, ________ also help ensure that efforts are focused in the right direction and that people do not get sidetracked along the way.

piece-rate pay

___________ is an individual-based merit plan, managers base employees' pay on the number of units each employee produces, whether televisions, computer components, or welded auto parts.

commission pay

___________, another individual-based merit pay plan, managers base pay on a percentage of sales.

profit sharing

___________, employees receive a share of an organization's profits.

Intrinsically motivated behavior

____________ is behavior that is performed for its own sake; the source of motivation is actually performing the behavior, and motivation comes from doing the work itself. Many managers are motivated this way; they derive a sense of accomplishment and achievement from helping the organization achieve its goals and gain competitive advantages. Motivated by more challenging jobs, not boring ones.

Extrinsically motivated behavior

__________________ is behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment; the source of motivation is the consequences of the behavior, not the behavior itself. Their motivation comes from the consequences they receive as a result of their work behaviors.

Organizationally functional behaviors

___________________ are behaviors that contribute to organizational effectiveness; they can include producing high-quality goods and services, providing high-quality customer service, and meeting deadlines.

goal

A ______ is what a person is trying to accomplish through his or her efforts and behaviors.

merit pay plan

A compensation plan that bases pay on performance.

distributive justice

A person's perception of the fairness of the distribution of outcomes in an organization.

equity theory

A theory of motivation that focuses on people's perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to their work inputs.

unmet

Abraham Maslow stated that the lowest level of ______ needs in the hierarchy is the prime motivator of behavior; if and when this level is satisfied, needs at the next highest level in the hierarchy motivate behavior.

punishment

Administering an undesired or negative consequence when dysfunctional behavior occurs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

An arrangement of five basic needs that, according to Maslow, motivate behavior. Maslow proposed that the lowest level of unmet needs is the prime motivator and that only one level of needs is motivational at a time.

Physiological needs

Basic needs for things such as food, water, and shelter that must be met in order for a person to survive.

prosocially motivated behavior

Behavior that is performed to benefit or help others.

extinction

Curtailing the performance of dysfunctional behaviors by eliminating whatever is reinforcing them.

negative reinforcement

Eliminating or removing undesired outcomes when people perform organizationally functional behaviors. When this is used, people are motivated to perform behaviors because they want to stop receiving or want to avoid undesired outcomes.

1960s; J. Stacy Adams

Equity theory was formulated in the ____ by _________, who stressed that what is important in determining motivation is the relative rather than the absolute levels of outcomes a person receives and inputs a person contributes.

distributive justice

Equity theory, given its focus on the fair distribution of outcomes in organizations to foster high motivation, is often labeled a theory of ____________.

motivator needs

For motivation and job satisfaction to be high, __________ must be met.

detrimental

For work that is very creative and uncertain, specific, difficult goals may be _________.

(1) outcomes that can lead to high levels of motivation and job satisfaction and (2) outcomes that can prevent people from being dissatisfied.

Frederick Herzberg focused on two factors regarding his motivator-hygiene theory:

specific and difficult

Goal-setting theory suggests that to stimulate high motivation and performance, goals must be _____________.

seniority

Japanese managers in large corporations have long shunned merit pay plans in favor of plans that reward ________. However, more and more Japanese companies are adopting merit-based pay due to its motivational benefits; among such companies are Toyota, Hitachi, Panasonic, and Nomura Securities.

inequity underpayment inequity and overpayment inequity

Lack of fairness. This exists when a person's outcome-input ratio is not perceived to be equal to a referent's. It creates pressure or tension inside people and motivates them to restore equity by bringing the two ratios back into balance. What are the two types?

intrinsic; extrinsic

Motivation can come from either_______ or _______ sources.

why

Motivation is central to management because it explains ______ people behave the way they do in organizations

Safety needs

Needs for security, stability, and a safe environment.

Belongingness needs

Needs for social interaction, friendship, affection, and love.

motivation

Psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and a person's level of persistence.

direction of a person's behavior effort persistence

The __________ refers to the many possible behaviors a person can engage in. _______ refers to how hard people work. _______ refers to whether, when faced with roadblocks or other obstacles, people keep trying or give up.

underpayment inequity

The inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her own outcome-input ratio is less than the ratio of a referent. In comparing yourself to a referent, you think you are not receiving the outcomes you should be, given your inputs.

equity

The justice, impartiality, and fairness to which all organizational members are entitled. This exists when a person perceives his or her own outcome-input ratio to be equal to a referent's outcome-input ratio.

expectancy theory formulated by Victor H. Vroom in the 1960s expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

The theory that motivation will be high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes. Who came up with this theory? This theory is one of the most popular theories of work motivation because it focuses on all three parts of the motivation equation: inputs, performance, and outcomes. This theory identifies three major factors that determine a person's motivation:

operant conditioning theory psychologist B. F. Skinner

The theory that people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences. Who was this developed by?

Ed Locke and Gary Latham

Who are the leading researchers for goal-setting theory?

Difficult

________ goals are hard but not impossible to attain