Management Chapter 10
A variety of tasks takes place in the implementation phase, including the following:
- Acquiring new equipment - Hiring new employees - Training employees - Planning and designing the system's physical layout - Coding -Testing - Designing security measures and safeguards - Creating a disaster recovery plan
The following are seven guidelines for a successful IT project management:
- Assign a project manager to the information systems being developed - Identify a goal for every project meeting - Document each project meeting with e-mail, memo, wiki, or internal social media - conduct regular face to face meeting with project technical staff - A new person should take over as a project manager for team members that are falling behind - Build in slack time for a project without disclosing it to team members - Assign the best available technical people to the project
Prototypes are usually used for the following purposes:
- Gathering system requirements - Helping to determine system requirements - Determining a system's feasibility - Selling the proposed system to users and management
CASE tools help analysts by the following:
- Keep models consistent - Document models with explanantions and annotations - ensure specific rules are followed - Create a single repository - track and manage changes to the design - create multiple versions of the design
CASE tools usually include the following output:
- Specifications documents - Documentation of the analysis, including models and explanations - Design specifications with related documentation - Logical and physical design documents based on the conceptual design - Code modules that can be incorporated into the system
Depending on the outcome of the prototype evaluation, one of the following decisions is made:
- revise the prototype - cancel the information system project - develop a new prototype - build a complete system based on the prototype
The team may decide on one of the following approaches for constructing the prototype:
- using an external vendor - using software packages - 4th-generation programming language - high-level programming language - developing the prototype from scratch
Conceptual data model (such as an entity relationship model) - what is analyzed - what is it used for
-Data analysis -Helps analysts understand the data requirements a system must meet by defining data elements and showing the associations between them
flowchart - what is analyzed - what is it used for
-Process analysis -Illustrates the logical steps in a process but does not show data elements and associations; can supplement a DFD and help analysts understand and document how a process works
context diagram - what is analyzed - what is it used for
-Process analysis and design -Shows a process at a more general level and is helpful for showing top management and the task force how a process works
Data flow diagram - what is analyzed - what is it used for
-Processes analysis and design -Helps break down a complex process into simpler, more manageable, and more understandable subprocesses; shows how data needed by each process flows between processes and what data is stored in the system; also helps define the system's scope
A feasibility study usually has five major dimensions:
-economic -technical -operational -scheduling -legal
What happens in the planning phase?
-the systems designer must define the problem the organization faces, taking care not to define the symptoms rather then the underlying problem - can be external or internal problems
Prototype is usually done in 4 steps
1. Define the initial requirements 2. Develop the prototype. 3. Review and evaluate the prototype. 4. Revise the prototype.
Java
An object-oriented programming language designed specifically for programs (particularly multimedia) to be used over the Internet. Java allows programmers to create small programs or applications to enhance websites.
DFD context diagram
Level 0 diagram
Prototyping Advantages/Disadvantages
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When an information system is ready to be converted, designers have several options:
Parallel conversion Phased-in-phased-out conversion Plunge (direct cutover) conversion Pilot conversion
____________________________________________________________________________ have a lot to do with a 50% failure rate for IT projects.
Project management and lack of proper utilization of project management tools and techniques
__________ is the fastest way to put an information system into operation.
Prototyping
Request for information
Screening document for gathering vendor information and narrowing the list of potential vendors. It can help manage the selection of vendors by focusing on the project requirements that are crucial to selecting vendors. Not suitable for complex projects because it can be used only for selecting three or four finalists from a list of candidates
________ __________ is commonly used to code the logic required for processes.
Visual Basic
Analysts must get feedback from users on the problem and the need for an information system by asking the 4 Ws.
Why Who When What
The end result of the planning phase should give upper and top management.....
a clear view of what the problem is and how the information system will solve the problem
What happens with system planning?
a preliminary analysis of requirements for each is done and a feasibility study is conducted for each system. the organization decides which are a "go" and proceeds to the next phase
the systems development life cycle is
a series of well-defined phases performed in sequence that serves as a framework for developing a system or project
In prototyping,
a small-scale version of the system is developed, but one that is large enough to illustrate the system's benefits and allow users to offer feedback.
The physical design is created for
a specific platform, such as choosing Dell servers running Ubuntu Linux, Dell laptops running Windows 10 and Internet Explorer, Java for the programming language, and SQL Server 2016 for the relational DBMS.
Request for proposal (RFP)
a written document with detailed specifications that is used to request buds for equipment, supplies, or services from vendors. Usually prepared during the implementation phase and contains detailed information about functional, technical, and business requirements of the proposed information system
the system specifications document is sent to
all key users and task force members for approval
The main advantage of an request for proposal is that
all vendors het the same information and requirements, so bids can be evaluated more fairly.
The conceptual design is
an overview of the system and does not include hardware or software choices
The creation of a system specifications document indicates the end of the
analysis phase and the start of the design phase
During the design phase,
analysts choose the solution that is the most realistic and offers the highest payoff for the organization. Details of the proposed solution are outlined, and the output of this phase is a document with exact specifications for implementing the system, including files and databases, forms and reports, documentation, procedures, hardware and software, networking components, and general system specifications.
phased-in-phased-out conversion
as each module of the new system is converted, the corresponding part of the old system is retired. This process continues until the entire system is operational. Not suitable in all situations, it can be effective in accounting and finance
economic feasibility
assesses a system's cost and benefits
After identifying the problem in the planning phase, an analyst or team of analysts
assesses the current and future needs of the organization or a specific group of users by answering the following questions: - Why is this information system being developed - Who are the systems current and future users - Is the system new or an upgrade or extension of an existing system - Which functional departments will be using the system
cost-effective analysis is
based on the concept that a dollar today is worth more than a dollar one year from now.
A crucial part of the request for proposal process is
comparing bids from single and multiple vendors.
CASE tools are similar to
computer-aided design (CAD) tools used by architects and engineers
The design phase consists of three parts:
conceptual design logical design physical design
Including users and top management in the ____________ phase of prototyping is essential
construction
The last path of IT project management is the
critical path because it takes the longest to be completed
In the requirements-gathering and analysis phase, analysts
define the problem and generate alternatives for solving it. - attempts to understand the requirements for the system, analyzes these requirements to determine the main problem with the current system or processes, and looks for ways to solve problems by designing the new system
the main goal of an information system is
delivering useful information in a timely manner to the right decision maker
The joint application design involves a
detailed agenda, visual aids, a leader who moderates the session, and a scribe who records the specifications
Prototypes can also be tested to
detect problems and devise solutions
PERT and CPM techniques work by
determining the "critical path" for the completion of a series of interrelated activities.
The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a model for
developing a system or project
Internal users are
employees who will use the system regularly and they can offer important feedback on the system's strengths and weaknesses
Establishing evaluation criteria in the planning phase does what
ensures objectivity
systems planning today is about
evaluating all potential systems that need to be implemented
During the planning phase, analysts investigate a proposed solution's feasibility and determine how best to present the solution to management in order to obtain funding. This is called
feasibility study
The 1st step in the requirements-gathering and analysis phase is to
gather requirements - techniques include: interviews, surveys, observations, and the JAD approach
The SDLC approach is sometimes called, insourcing....
happens when an organization's team develops the system internally.
IT project management
includes activities required to plan, manage and control the creation and delivery of an information system. Activities include everything that take place during the SDLC process.
An advantage of the joint application design approach is that it
incorporates viewpoints from different functional areas of an organization to help ensure that collected requirements for the application are not too narrow and one-dimensional in focus
the SSAD approach treats process and data
independently and is a sequential approach that requires completing the analysis before beginning the design
An information system's scope and complexity can change after the analysis and design phases, so the team should keep in mind that an
information system project that is feasible at the outset could become unfeasible later.
each phases output becomes the next phases _________.
input
To ensure an information systems success, users must have
input in the planning, design, and implementation phases. - a task force is formed, consisting of representatives from each department, systems analysts, technical advisers, and top management
Joint application design (JAD)
is a collective activity involving users, top management, and IT professionals. It centers on a structured workshop (called a JAD session) where users and system professionals come together to develop an application.
legal feasibility
is concerned with legal issues, including political repercussions and meeting the requirements of the Information Privacy Act.
technical feasibility
is concerned with the technology that will be used by the system. The team needs to assess whether the technology to support the new system is available or feasible to implement
scheduling feasibility
is concerned with whether the new system can be completed on time
operational feasibility
is the measure of how well the proposed solution will work in the organization and how internal and external customers will react to
selling prototype
is used to sell a proposed system to users or management by showing some of its features
Self-sourcing has resulted from
long backlogs in developing information systems, the availability of affordable hardware and software, and organizations' increasing dependence on timely information
feasibility is the
measure of how beneficial or practical an information system will be to an organization; it should be measured continuously throughout the SDLC process.
system failure can happen for many reasons:
missed deadlines users' needs not being met dissatisfied customers lack of support from top management exceeding the budget old equipment being unable to handle the capacity and pick up times
Analysts can use CASE tools to
modify and update several design versions in effort to choose the best version
external users are
not employees but do use the system; they include customers, contractors, suppliers, and other business partners. Although they are not normally part of the task force, their input is essential
Windows is an
object-oriented programming language and a relational DBMS
the most common analysis methods are
payback net present value return on investment internal rate of return
designing a successful information system requires integrating:
people, software, and hardware
The _________ phase is one of the most crucial phases of the SDLC model.
planning
Any system has three parts:
process data user interface
analyzing requirements in the analysis phase is done from the perspective of the
process and data
the object-oriented approach combines
process and data analysis, and the line between analysis and design is so thin that analysis and design seem to be a single phase instead of 2 distinct phases
To manage this complexity and keep the implementation plan under budget and on schedule, systems analysts employ
project management tools and techniques to solve scheduling problems, plan and set goals, and highlight potential bottlenecks. Including Microsoft Project, Micro Planning International's Micro Planner enable to study the cost, time, and resource impact of schedule changes
When designing information systems, _______________________________________________________, otherwise, the system could become inefficient shortly after it is designed.
projecting the organization's growth rate is important
The final result of cost-effectiveness analysis is the cost-benefit analysis report, used to
sell the system to top management - should include: executive summary, introduction, scope and purpose, analysis method, recommendations, justifications, implementation plans, summary, and appendix items
proof-of-concept prototype
shows users how a particular task that was not technically feasible can be done
As part of the assessment, analysts must examine the organizations
strategic goals, how the proposed system can support these goals, which factors are critical to the proposed system's success, and the criteria for evaluating the performance
designers of information systems often follow the _________ __________ ___________ _____________, also known as the "waterfall" method.
systems development life cycle
To access economic feasibility, the team tallies
tangible development and operating costs for the system and compares them with expected financial benefits of the system.
Pilot conversion
the analyst introduces the system in only a limited area of the organization, such as a division or department. If the system works correctly, it is implemented in the rest of the organization in stages or all at once.
A Gantt chart lists
the completion time (sometimes called the "milestone") on the x-axis and all the activities on the y-axis.
The logical design makes
the conceptual design more specific by indicating hardware and software, such as specifying Linux servers
the major question of operational feasibility is whether
the information system is worth implementing
Parallel conversion
the old and new systems run simultaneously for a short time to ensure the new system works correctly. However, this approach is costly and can be used if an operational system is already in place
Plunge (direct cutover) conversion
the old system is stopped and the new system is implemented. This is risky if there are problems with the new system, but the organization can save on costs by not running the old and new systems concurrently.
During the implementation phase,
the solution is transferred from paper to action, and the team configures the system and procures components for it.
There are 2 major approaches to the analysis and design of information systems:
the structured systems analysis and design (SSAD) approach the project-oriented approach
A major disadvantage of a request for proposal is the
time involved in writing and evaluating proposals.
Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE)
tools automate parts of the application development process. These tools are particularly helpful for investigation and analysis in large-scale projects because they automate parts of the design phase.
The team uses the information collected during the requirements-gathering phase to
understand the main problems, define the project's scope - including what it should and should not do - and create a document called the "system specifications"
the task force collects
user feedback and works toward getting users involved from the beginning
opportunity costs measure
what you would miss by not having a system or feature
Self-sourcing
when end users develop their own information systems, with little or no formal assistance from the information systems team. These users might not know how to write programming code, but they are typically skilled enough to use off-the-shelf software, such as spreadsheet and database packages, to produce custom-built applications.
