Management Chapter 16

The desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict, and establish warm friendships, describes a. a need for affiliation. b. a need for power. c. a need for achievement. d. a need for authority. e. all of these.

A need for affiliation.

The frustration-regression principle is most closely related with a. Maslow. b. Herzberg. c. McClelland. d. Alderfer. e. Adam.

Alderfer

Empowering employees means giving employees a. information. b. knowledge. c. power. d. rewards. e. all of these.

All of these

Kara and Simon are both middle managers at Gotcha International. Kara is dissatisfied because she knows that Simon makes more in salary even though, in Kara's opinion, she works longer hours than he does. If Kara wishes to reduce this perceived inequity, what should she do? a. She could reduce the number of hours she works. b. She could increase her level of absenteeism. c. She could ask for a raise. d. All of these. e. Only she could reduce the number of hours she works and she could ask for a raise.

All of these

____ influences the critical psychological state of experienced meaningfulness of work. a. Skill variety b. Task significance c. Task identity d. All of these e. Task significance and task identity only

All of these

____ is an example of an intrinsic reward. a. An employee's feelings of self-worth b. A pat on the back from your boss c. A pay raise d. A promotion e. A bonus

An employee's feelings of self-worth

____ refers to a reward given by another person. a. An intrinsic reward b. An internal reward c. An extrinsic reward d. A valued reward e. A charity

An extrinsic reward

Jeff and Rob have a difficult time getting along at work. Most days, Jeff spends a lot of time cracking jokes and goofing off, while Rob constantly nags him and tells him to act like a grownup. On days when Jeff is more reserved, Rob does not nag him, hoping that this will result in improved behavior down the road. This is an example of which form of behavior modification? a. Empowerment b. Extinction c. Punishment d. Avoidance learning e. Positive reinforcement

Avoidance learning

The removal of an unpleasant consequence following a desired behavior is referred to as a. avoidance learning. b. punishment. c. positive reinforcement. d. extinction. e. inefficient management.

Avoidance learning

Which of these is sometimes called negative reinforcement? a. Avoidance learning b. Punishment c. Positive reinforcement d. Extinction e. Neutral learning

Avoidance learning

Which need describes the desire to be accepted by one's peer, have friendships, be part of a group, and be loved? a. Self-actualization needs b. Physiological needs c. Esteem needs d. Belongingness needs e. Safety needs

Belongingness needs

Which of the following is NOT a common method for reducing a perceived inequity? a. Change inputs b. Change outcomes c. Distorts perception d. Leave the job e. Change equity

Change equity

Samuel, a sales associate at an electronics store, learns that his base pay is higher than any other sales associate in the store. He justifies his higher salary to the idea that he must be a top sales associate, generating more revenue than anyone else. This example demonstrates which method for reducing perceived inequity? a. Working harder, not smarter b. Changing outcomes c. Changing work effort d. Changing perceptions e. Leaving the job

Changing perceptions

Yolanda recently learned that Sue, who works in the same position as she and has been with the company for the same amount of time, earns about ten percent more than she does. As a result, Yolanda feels that she should not work as hard, so she starts coming in late and taking more days off. This is an example of which method for reducing perceived equity? a. Working harder, not smarter b. Changing outcomes c. Changing work effort d. Changing perceptions e. Leaving the job

Changing work effort

Which of the following is NOT a need proposed by Maslow in his hierarchy of needs theory? a. Safety needs b. Compensation needs c. Physiological needs d. Esteem needs e. Self-actualization needs

Compensation needs

Which of the following theories emphasize the needs that motivate people? a. Process b. Reinforcement c. Content d. Contingency e. Situational

Content

____ is an important part of the job characteristics model. a. Critical psychological states b. A hierarchy of needs c. Schedules of reinforcement d. All of these e. None of these

Critical psychological states

A recent study from the U.S. Department of Labor shows that the top reason that people leave their jobs is because they: a. Don't make enough money b. Don't feel appreciated c. Don't believe in what the organization stands for d. Don't like their colleagues e. Don't like their boss

Don't feel appreciated

The ____ involves whether putting effort into a task will lead to high performance. a. P -> O expectancy b. E -> P expectancy c. O -> V expectancy d. A -> Z expectancy e. V -> P expectancy

E -> P expectancy

The delegation of power and authority to subordinates is referred to as a. need for power. b. need for achievement. c. empowerment. d. passing the buck. e. need of affiliation.

Empowerment

___________ is power sharing, or the delegation of power or authority to subordinates in an organization. a. Engagement b. Synergy c. Motivation d. Empowerment e. Leadership

Empowerment

Carla's subordinates view her as a great manager. Not only does she get the job done, but she organizes the workplace in such a way that employees experience a sense of meaningfulness, connection, and growth. This is an example of employee: a. Pay-for-performance b. Delegation c. Empathy d. Apathy e. Engagement

Engagement

____ is a situation in which employees enjoy their work, contribute enthusiastically to meeting goals,and feel a sense of belonging and commitment to the organization. a. Commitment b. Engagement c. Employee loyalty d. Employee assurance e. Employee guarantee

Engagement

____ theory deals with employee's perception of fairness. a. Expectancy b. Reinforcement c. Need hierarchy d. Equity e. ERG

Equity

Which of the following is an example of a process theory of motivation? a. Need hierarchy theory b. Equity theory c. Two-factor theory d. ERG theory e. Acquired needs theory

Equity theory

Nelson is motivated by a strong need for recognition and is continually seeking credit for his contributions to the organization. According to Maslow, Neil is motivated by which category of needs? a. Physiological b. Safety c. Belongingness d. Esteem e. Self-actualization

Esteem

Alderfer referred to the needs for physical well being as ____ needs. a. physiological b. existence c. belongingness d. relatedness e. growth

Existence

Which of the following is based on the relationships between effort, performance, and outcomes? a. Equity theory b. Expectancy theory c. Reinforcement theory d. Two-factor theory e. ERG theory

Expectancy theory

One of your fellow team members at work is continually disrupting the team's work with jokes and general horseplay. You hope that by ignoring him he will stop this senseless behavior. You are attempting to use which reinforcement tool? a. Extinction b. Positive reinforcement c. Negative reinforcement d. Avoidance learning e. Desired behavior is reinforced annually

Extinction

Which of the following techniques reduces the likelihood that behavior will be repeated? a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Extinction d. Reward enhancement e. All of these

Extinction

Which of these refers to the withdrawal of a positive reward, meaning that behavior is no longer reinforced and hence is less likely to occur in the future? a. Avoidance learning b. Punishment c. Positive reinforcement d. Extinction e. None of these

Extinction

Katie dislikes almost everything about her job. The only reason she continues to work at Mace Autobody is the excellent benefits package she receives. Katie is motivated by a. extrinsic rewards. b. intrinsic rewards. c. variable rewards. d. all of these. e. none of these.

Extrinsic reward

A need for affiliation is the desire to accomplish something difficult, attain a high standard of success, master complex tasks, and surpass others.

False

A need for power, a need for accomplishment and a need for superior power is proposed by David McClelland's acquired needs theory.

False

A recent study indicates that the link between intrinsic characteristics and job motivation and satisfaction is stronger in economically disadvantaged countries and high power distance countries.

False

According to MANAGER'S SHOPTALK in Chapter 16, a criticism of carrot-and-stick approaches is that extrinsic rewards assume people are driven by higher-level needs.

False

Because the ERG model proposes that workers cannot revert back to lower-level needs from time to time, this model is more rigid than Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

False

Content theories concern the thought processes that influence behavior.

False

Employee empowerment means that people enjoy their jobs and are satisfied with their work conditions, contribute to meeting team and organizational goals, and feel a sense of belonging and commitment to the organization.

False

Engaged employees are controlled and coerced in the workplace until they grow into contributable employees.

False

Expectancy theory is based on the relationship among the individual's effort and performance and not on the desirability of outcomes.

False

Expectancy theory is concerned not with the thinking process that individuals use to achieve rewards but with identifying types of needs.

False

External and relatedness are the first two groups of needs in Aldefer's ERG theory.

False

Extrinsic rewards refers to the satisfaction a person receives in the process of performing a particular action.

False

Freedom from violence in the workplace is an example of physiological needs on the hierarchy of needs spectrum.

False

Gain sharing rewards employees with part ownership of the organization based on achieving performance goals.

False

Goal specificity, in goal-setting theory, refers to the difficulty level of goals.

False

Herzberg's two-factor theory divides work-related needs into two categories: hygiene factors and reward factors.

False

Hygiene factors are the same as satisfiers and are based on fulfillment of higher level needs including responsibility.

False

In Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, food, water, and freedom from violence are examples of physiological needs.

False

Job enlargement is a job design that incorporates achievement, recognition, and other high-level motivators into the work.

False

Process theories emphasize the needs that motivate people.

False

Punishment increases the likelihood that behavior will be repeated.

False

Research suggests that if people artificially increase the status attached to their jobs, they are still unlikely to change their perceptions of equity.

False

Rewards given by another person are intrinsic rewards.

False

Self-control is an individual's belief about his or her abilities to successfully accomplish a specific task or outcome.

False

The altering of jobs to increase both the quality of employees' work experience and their productivity is called reorganization.

False

The equality theory is a process theory that focuses on individuals' perception of how fairly they are treated in comparison to other people.

False

The expectancy theory attempts to define specific types of needs or rewards to establish that they exist and may be similar to other individuals.

False

The expectancy theory is a motivation theory based on the relationship between a given behavior and its consequences.

False

The highest level of need in Maslow's hierarchy of need theory is the need for growth and selfexpression.

False

The idea that failure to meet a high-order need may cause a regression to an already satisfied lowerorder need was put forth by Maslow.

False

The imposition of unpleasant outcomes on an employee is avoidance learning.

False

The job characteristic of autonomy influences the worker's experiencing meaningfulness of work.

False

Three categories of motivation theories are content theories, process theories, and reinforcement theories.

False

Two ways to classify rewards are extrinsic and monetary.

False

In goal-setting theory, which term refers to the need to get information to people about how well they are doing in progressing toward goal achievement? a. goal specificity b. goal difficulty c. goal acceptance d. feedback e. goal motivation

Feedback

____ is the extent to which doing the job provides information back to the employee about his or her performance. a. Feedback b. Assessment c. Evaluation d. Satisfaction e. Fulfillment

Feedback

In goal-setting theory, ____ refers to the idea that employees have to "buy into" the goals. a. goal specificity b. goal difficulty c. goal acceptance d. feedback e. goal motivation

Goal acceptance

Which term, in goal-setting theory, refers to the need to make goals highly ambitious but achievable? a. Goal specificity b. Goal difficulty c. Goal acceptance d. Feedback e. Goal motivation

Goal difficulty

In goal-setting theory, ____ refers to the degree to which goals are concrete and unambiguous. a. goal specificity b. goal difficulty c. goal acceptance d. feedback e. goal motivation

Goal specificity

Highroller Casinos provides good salaries and benefits, including bonuses of up to 25 percent of annual salaries. However, the company has been criticized for not establishing an achievement or recognition program for its employees. Which of the following best describes the company in terms of the two-factor theory? a. Good motivators, inadequate hygiene factors b. Good hygiene factors, inadequate motivators c. Good hygiene factors and motivators d. Inadequate hygiene factors and motivators e. None of the above

Good hygiene factors, inadequate motivators

Alden is a recent college graduate. He is unsure about his future. A counselor in his universety's career resources office recently told Alden that he had a high need for achievement. Based on this, what type of career should Alden pursue? a. He should look for work as a project manager. b. He should think about starting his own business. c. He should look for work in "corporate America," he is sure to climb to the top. d. He should play the Lotto. e. None of these.

He should think about starting his own business

Which motivation theory proposes that needs must be satisfied in sequence? a. Reinforcement theory b. ERG theory c. Hierarchy of needs theory d. Experiential learning theory e. Social learning theory

Hierarchy of needs theory

Which of the following is a content theory that proposes that people are motivated by physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization needs? a. Reinforcement theory b. Process theory c. Situational theory d. Hierarchy of needs theory e. Contingency theory

Hierarchy of needs theory

The majority of hourly workers at Formatting Unlimited are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. What would Herzberg recommend if your goal were to increase their level of satisfaction? a. Increase the level of hygiene factors b. Increase the level of motivators c. Decrease the level of motivators d. Decrease the level of hygiene factors e. None of these

Increase the level of motivators

Sally enjoys her job as a teacher, not because of the pay or benefits, but because she feels good about shaping the minds of tomorrow's leaders. Sally is motivated by: a. Power factors b. Leadership factors c. Hygiene factors d. Extrinsic rewards e. Intrinsic rewards

Intrinsic rewards

Which of the following is the application of motivational theories to the structure of work for improving productivity and satisfaction? a. Job design b. Job enlargement c. Job simplification d. Job characteristics e. Job enrichment

Job design

Which of the following combines a series of tasks into one new, broader job? a. Job simplification b. Job enlargement c. Job rotation d. Job characteristics e. Job lay-off

Job enlargement

A job design that incorporates achievement, recognition, and other high-level motivators into the work is referred to as a. job simplification. b. job rotation. c. job enlargement. d. job enrichment. e. none of these.

Job enrichment

Karen is a first line supervisor at Wolfs, Inc. She wishes to increase her employee's opportunities for growth and learning. Which of the following techniques should she use? a. Job enlargement b. Job enrichment c. Job rotation d. Positive reinforcement e. Continuous

Job enrichment

____ systematically moves employees from one job to another, thereby increasing the number of different tasks an employee performs without increasing the complexity of any one job. a. Job simplification b. Job rotation c. Job enlargement d. Job enrichment e. None of these

Job rotation

Larry is looking for ways to increase the number of different tasks that an employee performs without increasing task complexity. He should try a. job simplification. b. job enlargement. c. job rotation. d. job enrichment. e. job lay-off.

Joh rotation

The job characteristic of feedback provides the worker with a. employee growth-need strength. b. experienced meaningfulness of work. c. experienced responsibility. d. knowledge of actual results. e. demotivation.

Knowledge of actual results

Ricky is a manager at InfoServices, where she rewards the top sales employee every month by giving him or her a high-definition TV or PC. This is an example of what employee motivation program? a. Pay for performance b. Lifestyle award c. Employee stock ownership plan d. Flexible work schedule e. Team-based compensation

Lifestyle award

Which of the following is the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior? a. Commitment b. Motivation c. Satisfaction d. Rewarding behavior e. Behavior modification

Motivation

Which of the following are high-level needs, according to Herzberg, and include achievement, recognition, responsibility, and opportunity for growth? a. Hygiene factors b. Extrinsic factors c. Motivators d. Dissatisfiers e. All of these

Motivators

____ have the greatest impact, according to Herzberg, on job satisfaction. a. Hygiene factors b. Reinforcers c. Motivators d. Dissatisfiers e. All of these

Motivators

Denise has a desire to influence others, be responsible for them, and have authority over them. It can be described as her a. need for power. b. need for achievement. c. need for affiliation. d. need for relatedness. e. none of these.

Need for power

Which of these combines a number of tasks horizontally into one, new broader job? a. Job simplification b. Job rotation c. Job enrichment d. All of these e. None of these

None of these

Tim is a manager at Chuck's Construction. He sees little opportunity for advancement at Chuck's Construction, regardless of how well he performs. Which of the following expectancies is low for Tim? a. E -> P expectancy b. O -> V expectancy c. P -> O expectancy d. E -> V expectancy e. None of these

P -> O expectancy

According to Herzberg, ____ is an example of a hygiene factor. a. achievement b. recognition c. pay d. responsibility e. opportunity for growth

Pay

____ describe the most basic human physical needs, including food, water and oxygen. a. Self-actualization needs b. Physiological needs c. Esteem needs d. Belongingness needs e. Safety needs

Physiological Needs

Bruce publicly praises his employees when they have achieved their goals. Bruce hopes this will increase the likelihood of goal achievement in the future. This is an example of a. extinction. b. negative reinforcement. c. avoidance learning. d. positive reinforcement. e. none of these.

Positive reinforcement

Which of the following is the administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence following a desired behavior? a. Avoidance learning b. Punishment c. Positive reinforcement d. Extinction e. Suspension

Positive reinforcement

A high need for ____ is associated with successful attainment of top levels in the organizational hierarchy, according to McClelland. a. power b. achievement c. affiliation d. success e. expertise

Power

Which of the following theories concern the thought processes that influence behavior? a. Process b. Reinforcement c. Content d. Needs e. Maslow's

Process

Theories that explain how employees select the behaviors that allow them to meet their needs are known as a. content theories. b. contingency theories. c. process theories. d. need hierarchy theories. e. reinforcement theories.

Process theories

One of your fellow students is continually late to class. The professor has tried numerous verbal warnings and recently took points away from the student's grade. Based on the above, the professor's actions are consistent with which of the following reinforcement techniques? a. Negative reinforcement b. Punishment c. Positive reinforcement d. Avoidance learning e. Rewards enhancement

Punishment

____ is the imposition of unpleasant outcomes on an employee. a. Avoidance learning b. Punishment c. Positive reinforcement d. Extinction e. Avoiding punishment

Punishment

____ focus on employee learning of desired work behaviors. a. Contingency theories b. Situational theories c. Content theories d. Process theories e. Reinforcement theories

Reinforcement theories

Which of the following theories focuses on employee learning of desired work behaviors? a. Reinforcement theory b. ERG theory c. Hierarchy of needs theory d. Experiential learning theory e. Content theory

Reinforcement theory

Which of the following theories places an emphasis on behavior and its consequences? a. Two-factor theory b. Need hierarchy theory c. Reinforcement theory d. ERG theory e. Equity theory

Reinforcement theory

Frank is primarily driven by a need to establish close social relationships with other people. Alderfer would say he is motivated by a. growth needs. b. existence needs. c. relatedness needs. d. self-actualization needs. e. physiological needs.

Relatedness needs

On the continuum of empowerment, what is the highest level of empowerment that requires the most complex skills? a. Self-management b. Suggestion programs c. Participation groups d. Cross-functional teams e. Periodic briefings

Self management

According to Maslow, the highest order needs are a. self-actualization needs. b. physiological needs. c. esteem needs. d. belongingness needs. e. safety needs.

Self-actualizatoin needs

________ is an individual's belief about his or her abilities to successfully accomplish a specific task or outcome. a. Self-control b. Self-efficacy c. Self-reinforcement d. Autonomy e. Delegation

Self-efficacy

While job ____ can lead to greater task efficiencies, it has failed as a motivational technique. a. rotation b. enlargement c. simplification d. characteristics e. enrichment

Simplification

The core dimension of Hackman and Oldham's model of job characteristics that is based on the number of diverse activities that make up a job is known as a. autonomy. b. job enlargement. c. skill variety. d. task identity. e. feedback.

Skill variety

Which theory proposes that an individual's motivation can result not just from direct experience of rewards and punishments but also from the person's thoughts and beliefs and his or her observations of other people's behavior? a. Reinforcement theory b. Hierarchy of needs theory c. ERG theory d. Experiential learning theory e. Social learning theory

Social learning theory

Daisy tried to apply the job characteristics model to her workforce, but it only worked for some of her employees. Which of the following may be a reason why it did not work for everyone? a. Some of her employees are lazy. b. Some of her employees are low in growth-need strength. c. Some of her employees have a low need for power. d. All of her employees have high growth-needs. e. Some of her employees have low affiliation needs.

Some of her employees are low in growth- need strength

Which of the following refers to the degree to which an employee performs a total job with a recognizable beginning and ending? a. Task complexity b. Task identity c. Task significance d. Task structure e. None of these

Task identity

The degree to which the job is perceived as important and having impact on the company or customers is referred to as a. task complexity. b. task identity. c. task significance. d. task structure. e. task simplification.

Task significance

A high need for power often is associated with successful attainment of top levels in the organizational hierarchy.

True

According to expectancy theory, for an employee to be highly motivated, E-P expectancy and valence must be maximized.

True

Behavior that is positively reinforced tends to be repeated, and behavior that is not reinforced tends not to be repeated, as stated in the Law of Effect.

True

Employee engagement means that people enjoy their jobs and are satisfied with their work conditions, contribute enthusiastically to meeting team and organizational goals, and feel a sense of belonging and commitment to the organization.

True

Employee motivation affects productivity, and part of a manager's job is to channel motivation toward the accomplishment of organizational goals.

True

Employee stock ownership plans give employees part ownership of the organization, enabling them to share in improved profit performance.

True

Empowering employees means giving them four elements that enable them to act more freely to accomplish their jobs: information, knowledge, power, and rewards.

True

Esteem needs are those needs that relate to the desire for a positive self-image and to receive attention, recognition, and appreciation from others.

True

Experiential learning theory proposes that an individual's motivation can result not just from direct experience of rewards and punishments but also from the person's thoughts and beliefs and his or her observations of other people's behaviors.

True

Extinction is defined as the withdrawal of positive reward.

True

Factors that influence job satisfaction based on fulfillment of high-level needs such as achievement, recognition, and opportunity for growth are called motivators.

True

Goal acceptance, in goal-setting theory, means that employees have to "buy into" the goals and be committed to them.

True

Goal-setting theory proposes that managers can increase motivation by setting specific, challenging goals that are accepted as valid by subordinates, then helping people track their progress toward goal achievement by providing timely feedback.

True

Hygiene factors are the same as dissatisfiers and include company policies and procedures.

True

Job enlargement combines a series of tasks into one new, broader job.

True

Job enrichment is the application of motivational theories to the design of jobs for improving productivity and satisfaction.

True

Job rotation systematically moves employees from one job to another, thereby increasing the number of different tasks an employee performs without increasing the complexity of any one job.

True

Many companies are finding that creating a humane work environment that allows people to achieve a balance between work and personal life is also a great high-level motivator.

True

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory proposes that people are motivated by multiple needs and that these needs exist in a hierarchical order.

True

Motivation increases, according to the expectancy theory, when the worker believes that the successful performance will result by putting effort into a given task. This is called E-P expectancy.

True

One weakness of the use of punishment in organizations is that it fails to indicate the correct behavior.

True

Organizations that empower employees often reward them based on the results shown in the company's bottom line.

True

Physiological needs are the most basic human physical needs, which are reflected in the workplace as needs for adequate heat, air, and base salary to ensure survival.

True

Punishment is the imposition of an unpleasant outcome following undesirable behavior.

True

Self-reinforcement refers to an individual motivating him or herself by setting goals and ways of reaching them and then providing positive reinforcement to him- or herself when goals are achieved.

True

Skill variety, task identity, and task significance tend to influence the employee's psychological state of experienced meaningfulness of work.

True

The acquired needs theory proposes that certain types of needs are acquired during the individual's lifetime.

True

The administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence following a desired behavior is positive reinforcement.

True

The arousal, direction and persistence of behavior refers to motivation.

True

The degree to which the job is perceived as important and having an impact on the company or customers refers to task significance.

True

The equity theory focuses on individual's perceptions of how fairly they are treated relative to others.

True

The equity theory, by J. Stacy Adams, states that equity exists when the ratio of outcomes to inputs for one person is equal to the same ratio for another person.

True

The greater the level of skill variety, task variety, and autonomy in a job, the more employees will be motivated and the higher will be performance, quality, and satisfaction.

True

The group of theories that explain how employees meet their needs and determine their success are called process theories.

True

The implication of equity theory for managers is that employees indeed evaluate the perceived equity of their rewards compared to others'.

True

The implication of the two-factor theory for managers is clear. Providing hygiene factors will eliminate employee dissatisfaction but will not motivate workers to high achievement levels.

True

Valence is the perceived value of a reward or outcome.

True

Abbi works at Railroad Ties. Her bosses continually indicate that her motivational level is low. Abbi agrees, but is unwilling to work harder until the company changes the types of reward it offers its employees. Which of the following is low for Abbi? a. E -> P expectancy b. O -> P expectancy c. Valence d. Motivators e. O -> E indicators

Valence

Which of the following describes the value or attraction an individual has for an outcome? a. Motivators b. Valence c. O -> V expectancy d. P -> O expectancy e. E -> V expectancy

Valence

At Rightway Industries, new hires spend a significant portion of their first week of training just walking around the factory, observing other workers and watching them get rewarded for doing their jobs well. This is an example of: a. Vicarious learning b. Self-efficacy c. Self-reinforcement d. Delegation e. Experiential learning

Vicarious learning

_________ occurs when an individual sees others perform certain behaviors and get rewarded for them. a. Vicarious learning b. Self-efficacy c. Self-reinforcement d. Delegation e. Experiential learning

Vicarious learning

On the continuum of empowerment, employees who are self-managed a. give input. b. participate in decisions. c. are responsible for decision process and strategy. d. have no decision discretion. e. make decisions.

are responsible for decision process and strategy