Management Final
§ Support risk taking and innovating without punishment. § Discourage unbridled competition. § Guided to heed not just to what goal is achieved but also how.
Ethical cultures
Type of influence tactic Express or implied promises and trading favors
Exchange
Type of influence tactic Pooling resources with others
Coalition tactics
Power to punish, coerce into doing things
Coercive power
Stage where conflict occurs, 2 types
Cognition and personalization 1. Perceived 2. Felt
§ arriving at a solution agreeable to all through open and thorough discussion § When parties in conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all parties, there is cooperation and a search for mutually beneficial outcome § Parties tend to solve a problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view § Win-Win scenario
Collaborating
Power based on having broad body of knowledge, being an expert at something
Expert power
Vision, skills, and resources, no plan
False starts
· Emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility
Felt Conflict
· Ability to perform standardized activities in a highly efficient manner
Strengths of Mechanistic organizations
Treat the strain
tertiary
5 Conflict management styles (intentions)
1. Avoiding 2. Accommodating 3. Competing 4. Compromising 5. Collaborating
3 types of span of control
1. Broad 2. Tall 3. Moderate
3 categories that could cause conflict
1. Communication 2. Structure 3. Personal Variables
3 Loci of conflict - Where the conflict occurs
1. Dyadic 2. Intragroup 3. Intergroup
3 Types of stressors
1. Episodic/traumatic 2. Chronic 3. Hassles
3 Types of Hard Sanctioned influence tactics
1. Exchange 2. Coalition tactics 3. Legitimating tactics
3 broad organizational strategies
1. Innovation Strategy 2. Cost Minimization 3. Imitation
7 primary characteristics of organizational culture
1. Innovation and risk taking 2. Attention to detail 3. outcome orientation 4. people orientation 5. team orientation 6. aggressiveness 7. stability
Process Models of change
1. Lewin's process model of organization change 2. Kotten's process model of organization change
When we can't reach an agreement, we bring in 2 types of people
1. Mediator 2. Arbitrator
3 types of common stressors/strains
1. Physiological 2. Psychological 3. Behavioral
2 types of power
1. Position Power 2. Personal Power
5 stages of conflict process
1. Potential opposition or incompatibility 2. Cognition and personalization 3. Intentions 4. Behavior 5. Outcomes
5 stages of negotiation process
1. Preparation and planning 2. Definition of ground rules 3. Clarification and justification 4. Bargaining and problem solving 5. Closure and implementation
4 types of non-sanctioned influence tactics
1. Pressure 2. Information control 3. Minimizing others contribution 4. Blaming
3 approaches to managing stress
1. Primary 2. Secondary 3. Tertiary
2 models of stress process
1. Psychological model 2. Biological model
5 Types of soft sanctioned influence tactics
1. Rational Persuasion 2. Inspirational appeal 3. Consultation 4. Ingratiation and impression management 5. Personal Appeals
3 Types of Personal Power
1. Referent Power 2. Expert Power 3. Information Power
3 Types of position power
1. Reward Power 2. Coercive Power 3. Legitimate Power
Occupational stress model 5 parts
1. Role Ambiguity 2. Role conflict 3. Workload 4. Interpersonal conflict 5. abusive supervision
3 Types of influence tactics
1. Sanctioned Soft 2. Sanctioned Hard 3. Non-Sanctioned
3 types of conflict
1. Task Conflict 2. Relationship Conflict 3. Process Conflict
6 Elements of an Organization's Structure
1. specialization 2. departmentalization 3. chain of command 4. span of control 5. Centralization 6. Formalization
4 types of culture
1.The collaborative and cohesive clan 2. The innovative and adaptable adhocracy 3. The controlled and consistent hierarchy 4. The competitive and customer focused market
§ Power is the potential to influence § Power is often based on dependencies -I depend on my boss for assignments, salary, and he depends on me for some things § Power is given by followers § Power can be exercised downward, upward and laterally § Power can be afforded to individuals and/or groups
Aspects of power
Consequences of influence tactics
resistance compliance commitment
§ Un-freezing · Create motivation to change § Change · Learn a new way § Re-Freezing · Solidify the new normal
Lewin's process model of change
Which strain? § Body, headaches, muscle aches, lower back pain, illness, high blood pressure
Physiological
§ activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but that influence the distribution of advantages within the organization.
Political Behavior
§ Emphasize building on employee strengths. § Rewards more than it punishes. § Emphasizes individual vitality and growth.
Positive organizational cultures
o Attraction - Who applies o Selection - Who gets hired o Attrition - Who stays (voluntary and involuntary turnover)
ASA Framework
§ concern that the other party's goals be met but relatively unconcerned with getting own way § A party who seeks to appease an opponent may be willing to place the opponent's interests above his or her own, sacrificing to maintain the relationship
Accommodating
o Can act more quickly to solve problems o More people provide input into decisions o Employees are less likely to feel alienated from those who make decisions that affect their work lives
Advantages of decentralized organization
are we more in your face or polite
Aggressiveness
Vision, resources, and plan, no skills
Anxiety
· Has authority to impose an agreement · Call in a mediator, let me hear both sides. Hear offers and rationale. · Arbitrator decides on one offer
Arbitrator
§ Symbols of culture in the physical and social work environment
Artifacts
3 levels of culture
Artifacts values assumptions
Deeply held beliefs that guide behavior and tell members of an organization how to perceive and think about things
Assumptions
Hard influence tactics, aka -Pressure, legitimating tactics, coalition tactics, and exchange lead to ...
At best compliance! At worst resistance
Soft influence tacts aka rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, integrating, and personal appeals leads to ..
At worst compliance, at best commitment
o Everything needs to be precise and exact
Attention to detail
§ the right to influence another person - managers have this, but doesn't mean folks have to listen
Authority
§ deliberate decision to take no action on a conflict or to stay out of a conflict § A person may recognize a conflict exists and chooses to withdraw from or suppress it
Avoiding
· Give and take step · They have concerns, do you have any wiggle room?
Bargaining & problem solving
§ Stage Where conflict becomes visible. Includes statements, actions, and reactions by conflicting parties, usually as overt attempts to implement their own intentions
Behavior
Which strain § Drug, alcohol abuse, smoking, risk taking behavior
Behavioral
focused on the body's physiological responses to stress
Biological model
· Seeks to eliminate chain of command, has limitless spans of control, and replaces departments with empowered teams
Boundary-less organization
Span of control type 1 Manager, 48 workers 13 managers, 36 workers 7 managers, 42 workers
Broad Tall Moderate
· the degree to which decision-making is concentrated at a single point in the organization.
Centralization
· an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom. · Two complementary concepts o Authority § Right to tell somebody what to do o Unity of command § People should only have 1 boss
Chain of command
§ Types of stressors that have the potential to lead to goal attainment (pressure to complete a task, and time urgency).
Challenge Stressors (Eustress)
Vision, skills, resources, plan
Change
Content model of change
Change Confusion Anxiety Frustration false starts
· Ongoing working conditions
Chronic stressor
· Prepare & Set goals · BATNA (best alternative to negotiated agreement · Manage time · Manage 1st offers & concessions
Claiming value
· Give proposal to client and they respond, and you clarify concerns
Clarification and justification
· Wrap it up and implement the agreement
Closure and implementation
o When conflict arises from miscommunication o Ex) Susan says her job is frustrating b/c boss means one thing but she thinks he means another thing
Communication
§ satisfying own interests; willing to do so at other party's expense § When one seeks to satisfy his or her own interest regardless of the impact on the other parties in conflict
Competing
§ each party gives up something to reach a solution § No winner or lose § Willingness to rationalize the object of the conflict and accept a solution with incomplete satisfaction in both parties
Compromising
§ Power is neutral - it isn't good or bad, it depends on how it is exercised § Power corrupts § Power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others § Power leads to overconfident decision making - decision making errors § POWERLESSNESS undermines organizational effectiveness - workers feel like they get bad break and have no power causing organizational deviance
Concept of Power
§ A situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more parties
Conflict
Skills, resources, and plan, no vision
Confusion
Type of influence tactic participation
Consultation
§ Controls costs tightly, refrains from incurring unnecessary expenses, and cuts prices in selling a basic product, like Walmart § Mechanistic structural option
Cost Minimization
· Gather info · Discover priorities thru offers & concessions · Build the relationship
Creating value
Consequences of Political behavior
Decreased job satisfaction increased anxiety and stress increased turnover reduced performance
· Scope of work, definition of terms, ground rules set - who will be there, where it is
Definition of ground rules
o What is the utility of engaging in politicking? o How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any hard or potential harm it will do to others? o Does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice?
Determining if political actions are ethical
§ the goals of the parties are in conflict, and each party seeks to maximize its resources § Win Lose
Distributive bargaining
Conflict between 2 people
Dyadic
§ Conflict that hinders group performance § Ex) A highly personal conflict that distracts the group
Dysfunctional conflict
o Culture as a Liability § Barriers to change § Barriers to diversity § Barriers to Acquisitions and Mergers
Dysfunctional effects of organizational culture
§ The process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power needed to make decisions affecting themselves and their work. § Assumes power is NOT zero-sum § Assumes social power is unlimited § The more power you give, the more you have § When you treat people responsibly, they act responsibly § Employees must be willing and capable § Contextual barriers have to be removed
Empowerment
· Reflected in the way individuals actually behave
Enacted values
· Uncommon events, big things that happen but don't happen often - furlough employees, worker getting hurt
Episodic/traumatic stressor
· What members of an organization say they value
Espoused values
Part of principled negotiation § 2 people fighting over an orange. They walk away with half an orange. The issue was one wanted the peels for cake, and the other wanted the inside for OJ. If they focused on interests, they both would've walked away entirely happy
Focus on interests, not positions
· the degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized (Rules, procedures, and protocols that must be followed).
Formalization
Vision, skills, and plan, no resources
Frustration
§ Supports the goals of the group, improves its performance, and is a constructive form of conflict § Ex) A debate among members of a work team about the most efficient way to improve production can be functional if unique points of view are discussed and compared openly
Functional Conflict
groups employees by their specialties, roles, or tasks, Sales department accounting marketing
Functional Structure
§ Culture as an asset · Culture can significantly contribute to an organization's bottom line. · There are many more cases of business success stories because of excellent organizational cultures than there are of success stories despite bad cultures, and almost no success stories because of bad ones.
Functional effects of organizational culture
§ Culture provides a sense of identity to members and increases their commitment to the organization § Culture is a sense-making device for organization members § Culture reinforces the values of the organization § Culture serves as a control mechanism for shaping behavior
Functions of culture
Part of principled negotiation § Generate more and more. Think of all possible alternatives and maybe we can find an alternative that leaves both happy
Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do
· Relatively minor annoyances like finding parking
Hassle stressor
o Employee has little discretion and input into how job is done
High formalization
§ Types of stressors that keep you from reaching your goals. Examples are red tape, office politics, or confusion over job responsibilities.
Hindrance Stressors (distress)
o Through Artifacts -Structure -Ceremonies, Rituals and Rites -Stories and Legends -Language -Symbols o Through Leadership -What leaders pay attention to -How leaders react to crises -How leaders allocate rewards -How leaders hire and fire individuals o ASA FRAMEWORK
How culture is established, transmitted, and maintained
Confronting and negotiating Changing structure superordinate goals expanding resources changing personnel
How to deal with conflict
§ Try to minimize risk and maximize opportunity for profit, moving new products or entering new markets only after innovators have proven their viability § Organic/mechanistic structural option
Imitation
§ the process of affecting the behaviors, thoughts, and feelings of another person
Influence
I have a piece of information that people don't, so that secret gives me power
Information Power
Type of influence tactic strategically withholding or sharing information
Information control
Type of influence tactic Influencing others to like us
Ingratiation and impression management
§ Strives to achieve meaningful and unique innovations § Organic = structural option
Innovation Strategy
o try things out, take risks without fear of punishment, learn new things
Innovation and risk taking
Part of principled negotiation § Base whether you won or not on objective things, like data § Ex) Salary comparison to average salary
Insist that the results are based on some objective standard
§ the parties' goals are not seen as mutually exclusive, but the focus is on both sides achieving their objectives
Integrative negotiation
Stage where conflict handling intentions arise
Intentions
§ Intercede for someone in trouble § Obtain placements for favored employees § Exceed budget limitations § Procure above-average raises for employees § Place items on meeting agendas § Access to early information § Have top managers seek out their opinion
Kanter's symbols of power
§ Explained Lewin's Process Model § Un-freezing · Establish the Need for Change · Form a Powerful Coalition - powerful people on board · Create a Sense of Urgency - need it now or it won't go well · Establish a Vision of the Future · Listen § Change · Communicate the Vision - here is the target · Involve and Empower - involve and empower people to take action · Develop the Plan · Create/Celebrate Short Term Wins · Adjust the Plan § Re-Freezing · Demonstrate positive impact of change · Recognize individuals - reward too · Tell Success Stories - I remember when he came thru · Create Legacies
Kotter's process model of change
Power that comes from agreement/from a formal position
Legitimate Power
o Job behaviors are relatively non-programmed and employees have a great deal of freedom to exercise discretion in their work
Low formalization
Competence Political skill Powerful coalitions Strong sponsorship Stay positive make others feel valued
Managing organizational politics
§ Characterized by highly routine operating tasks achieved thru specialization, strictly formalized rules and regulations, tasks grouped into units, centralized authority, narrow span of control, and decision making that follows a chain of command § SIMPLIFICATION STANDARDIZATION CONTROL
Mechanistic Organizations
· Try to facilitate an agreement · "Company can't give you salary you want, but they can give you training" · "But ..." · Mediator goes back and forth looking for ways for 2 to agree, can fail
Mediator
§ Wastes time, energy, resources § Less information sharing, productivity § More organizational politics § More job dissatisfaction, turnover, stress § Weakens team cohesion (when conflict is within team)
Negative outcomes of functional conflict
§ joint process of finding a mutually acceptable solution to a conflict § More satisfactory outcome
Negotiation
§ flexible networks of multitalented individuals who perform a variety of tasks § Best in fast-changing environments § Require low job specialization § Utilize self-control and self-direction of employees § Highly democratic and participative
Organic organizations
§ Refers to a system of basic assumptions that create shared meaning held by an organization's members
Organizational Culture
§ Division of labor § Patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and power to direct labor within an organization
Organizational structure
o Focus on how we hit target and get sale
Outcome orientation
Stage where outcomes of conflict occurs
Outcomes
value people
People orientation
· Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise
Perceived conflict
Type of influence tactic Asking others
Personal Appeals
Which power is better, personal or position?
Personal Power
Conflict that arises because you don't like somebody
Personal variables
§ Fuller debate of decision choices § Decision assumptions are questioned § Potentially generates more creative ideas § Improves responsiveness to external environment § Increases team cohesion (conflict with other teams)
Positive outcomes of functional conflict
§ the potential to influence another person § it could be that we have this, but we are not influential § bosses have the potential to have this, but they may not be influential
Power
· Background, before negotiation process begins · What's your history, their history · Key thing: have a BATNA ---Best alternative to negotiated agreement -------Having a BATNA takes pressure off, you don't need to reach agreement if you have acceptable BATNA
Preparation and planning
Type of influence tactic demanding compliance with coercion, intimidation, and threats
Pressure
prevent the stressor
Primary
1. Separate the people from the problem 2. Focus on interests, not positions 3. Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do 4. Insist that the results are based on some objective standard
Principled negotiation
Conflict that is about how the work gets done
Process conflict
groups employees into units by products, service, customer, or geographic market area
Product or geographic structure
Which strain? § Anxiety and depression
Psychological
Focused on the appraisal of the environment to stress
Psychological model
Type of influence tactic reason logic or facts
Rational persuasion
power based on the idea that I look up to, respect, and want to be that leader
Referent power
conflict that focuses on interpersonal relationships
Relationship conflict
Power to give a rise, pay to get to do things Schrutebucks
Reward Power
§ competing demands, secretary needing to do tons of things, deciding which to do first
Role Conflict
§ not sure what I should be doing
Role ambiguity
Prevent the strain
Secondary
Part of principled negotiation § Focus on the issue you're negotiating, don't try and best the person
Separate the people from the problem
Common Organizational Structures
Simple Structure Functional Structure Product or geographic structure Virtual Organization Boundary-less organization
§ most widely practiced in small businesses in which the manager and the owner are one and the same. § Strengths · Simple, fast, and flexible. · Inexpensive to maintain. · Accountability is clear. § Weaknesses · Difficult to maintain in anything other than small organizations Risky - everything depends on one person
Simple structure
· How many employees a manager can efficiently and effectively direct.
Span of control
· Division of labor, how narrow or wide a job is · Goes back to job designs · High OF THIS is associated with o Time and motion studies o Simplification o Repetitive work o Increasing efficiency
Specialization
Lack of change
Stability
o Something in the external environment that is impacting me in a negative way o Dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, demand, or resource related to what the individual desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important
Stress
o The thing in the external environment that bugs us o All these are BAD
Stressor
o Ex) C and M have much in common, but one thing at work causes conflict. C makes sales on credit, but M has to deny some of the sales b/c her job is to minimize credit loss. Nothing personal, just the requirements of the job o Variables that can cause conflict -Size of group -Leadership style -Member-goal compatibility -Reward systems
Structure
Conflict that relates to the content and goals of the work
Task conflict
work together on things
Team orientation
o Family, companies tend to treat employees as family
The collaborative and cohesive clan
o Customer in mind when decision making o Amazon
The competitive and customer focused market
o Careful methodical decision making o McDonald's
The controlled and consistent hierarchy
o Temporary, on the fly, startup culture, new ideas o Apple
The innovative and adaptable adhocracy
§ Does the behavior respect the rights of all parties? § Does the behavior treat all parties equitably and fairly? § Does the behavior produce a good outcome for people both inside and outside the organization? § As a manager you are responsible to protect the rights, welfare and dignity of your employees.
Using power ethically
· Typically, a small, core organization that outsources major business functions · Also referred to as a modular or network organization · Highly centralized, with little or no departmentalization
Virtual Organization
· Subunit conflicts · Unit goals dominate · Slow to change
Weaknesses of mechanistic organizations
· Benevolence · Strong sense of purpose · Trust and respect · Open-mindedness
Workplace spiritual cultures
· recognizes that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community.
Workplace spirituality
· Grouping jobs together so common tasks can be coordinated by o Functions performed o Type of product or service the organization produces o Geography or territory o Process differences
departmentalization
Type of influence tactic build enthusiasm with emotions, ideas, value
inspirational appeal
conflict between groups or teams
intergroup
2 worst parts of occupation stress model
interpersonal conflict abusive supervision
Conflict within a group/team
intragroup
Type of influence tactic Based on authority, right, or support from superiors
legitimating tactic
§ too much to do or too hard - overload, underload = not enough or too easy work - monotonous
workload
