Marine Exam

Coriolis Force

* Water particles move faster as they move away from the equator - Water particles will deflect to right in Northern Hemisphere & left in Southern Hemisphere → Gyres

Important Dates for History

- 1602: Formation of VOC - 1602: Discovery of Australia, William Janszoon (Duyfken) - 1611: Discovery of Brouwer Route, Hendrik Brouwer - 1617: Brouwer Route made compulsory, VOC - 1658: Vergulde Draeck wrecked off Ledge Point - 1712: Zuytdorp wrecked off Shark Bay

What does the artefact collection include?

- 27,000 artefacts - Navigational equipments - Cargo, building materials - Medical supplies - Personal possessions - Remains of humans & animals - Sails & rigging

Desalination Plants

- 48% of Perth's water need is supplied by desalination - Kwinana (18%) & Binningup (30%) - 150 billion litres per year - Salt = $333 million in 2019 Economic value = $333million - Provides climate-independent source of water for critical human needs • Economic development - industry & agriculture

Wreck of the Zuytdorp 1712

- A VOC ship from the Netherlands - Zuytdorp means 'South Village' - Was on its way to trade in Batavia, it never arrived & was never searched for - Found in 1954 South of Shark Bay - 286 passengers on board Artefacts Found? - Silver coins - Broken bottles - Cooking pots - Ship's Bell Historic Significance? - Coins: Minting processes, where minted & currency metals - Metals: Composition, refinement of metals, types of metals commonly used - Ship's Bell: Identity of ship

Mangroves

- A salt tolerant shrub or small tree growing often in low oxygenated mud in intertidal coastal saline or brackish water. - Provide habitat protection Location: Kimberley & Pilbara Regions

What does ANCODS stand for? What did it result in & affected shipwrecks?

- Agreement between Australia and the Netherlands Concerning Old Dutch Shipwrecks - Artefacts obtained from wrecks on WA coast originally shared between Australia & Dutch Museums - All artefacts placed into one collection in WA museum - Ships included: Batavia, Vergulde Draek, Zuytdorp, Zeewijk

WA's major fisheries

- All low-volume, high-value fisheries, account for 90% of market value WA Rock Lobster: - One of the best managed fisheries in the world - Accurate data → high tech sampling - Corrects sustainable yield calculations - High value → good money Abalone:

Racks

- An adjustable system where oysters are enclosed in plastic mesh bags that're hung from lines suspended between wooden or plastic posts or raised above the floor, to prevent unwanted consumption - Type of rack method varies according to species of shelled organism - Racks are generally used for growing edible oysters

Why is it best to leave an artefact where it is?

- An artefact could directly relate with the places history - Unless you have the skills, leave it

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)(200NM)

- Area beyond & adjacent to territorial sea - Doesn't exceed 200NM from baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. - Australia has sovereign rights for exploring & exploiting, conserving & managing all natural resources of waters above the seabed & subsoil together with activities such as production of energy from waters, currents & wind. - Jurisdiction extends to the establishment & use of artificial islands, installations & structures, marine scientific research, protection & preservation of marine environment and other rights & duties.

What is the first step for preserving marine artefacts?

- Artefacts are placed in a solution where salt is drawn out of them - After time & testing there's no more salt coming into the solution

Biotic Factors (BRUV)

- Baited Remote Underwater Video - Records fish diversity, abundance & behaviour of species - Understands changes in fish numbers & diversity over time - Low environmental impact - Cheap & sustainable in long term - A metal frame that has cameras and a bag of bait attached is lowered onto the sea floor.

Off-bottom racks

- Both vertically suspended and/or horizontally above the ocean floor Advantages: - No unwanted nutrients are consumed as they're raised - Don't need to be fully submersed in water → no need to control water quality - Less loss of population due to weather Disadvantages: - Oysters have weak & brittle shells - More money & work spent keeping the gear of failing

Biotic Factor (Transect & Quadrats)

- Can be used together to provide more accurate results & to know where to conduct survey again - Quadrat is placed along a transect line

Fish Tagging (Smart Positioning or Temperature - SPOT)

- Capture range of data every few mins & transmit whenever fish comes to surface - More accurate than pop-up tags - Common for shark tagging, always poke fins out of water

Carbon Cycle

- Carbon is used to form structures in & around the cell, required to produce sugars used as fuel for cells - Fossil fuels are the main energy source Sub cycles of carbon- - Rapid: Exchange between living things - Long Term: Carbon sinks, fossil fuels, etc. Processes the carbon cycle through organisms- - Photosynthesis: CO₂ gas → C₆ H₁₂ O₆ in producers - Food Chains: Consumers eat producers, consume sugars - Respiration: C₆ H₁₂ O₆ → CO₂ in consumers & producers - Long term storage of carbon in the ocean is the dead organisms sink & break down - Organic matter compressed into sedimentary rock. Carbon stored as limestone for long time.

Issues: Interaction with wildlife (aquaculture)

- Carefully grown organisms are high value targets for predators → won't survive in the wild - Predators are often protected species - Other organisms are attracted to uneaten food or waste products

Describe the "Trials" history

- Carrying cargo, on way to Batavia, for spice trading - Wrecked in 1622 on Ritches Reef near Montebello Islands - Almost 100 sailors died - Relics recovered including canons

Osmotic Pressure

- Caused by different concentrations on two sides of membrane - Force that causes water to move across membrane - Can counter force of gravity Hypotonic: Less concentrated solution Isotonic: Balanced concentration Hypertonic: More concentrated solution

Classification (Purpose)

- Classification is done using dichotomous key or Identification keys Purpose: - Provide acceptable scientific name - Work out relationships between different groups of animals & plants - Aid in identification - Describe an individual - Scientists can communicate & share information about organisms - Understand patterns of development of life

Abiotic Factors (Turbidity)

- Cloudiness/haziness of liquid caused by suspended solids - Measured in NTU Why is it measured? - Tracks phytoplankton in the ocean - Predicts health of estuaries - Can indicate problems in marine environments such as pollution, nutrients, algae blooms

Sea Cages (What are they?)

- Consists of massive nets/cages that hold & grow juvenile aquatic species until they reach a size to sell off to the marker Locations: Kimberly, Cone Bay, Jurien Bay & Broome

Hydrostatic Support

- Displacement ships float by displacing their own weight in water - SWATH - Submarines

Solvent Properties

- Dissolves more substances than any liquid "Universal Solvent" (water) Refractometer: Measures difference in refraction of light compared to fresh water

Who is Hugh Edwards? What contribution did he make to maritime history?

- Diver, Journalist, Shipwreck hunter & author - Co-finder of Batavia & Zeewijk - Lead WA museum staff to significant shipwrecks - Involved in discovery of ther wrecks

Rules of Twelfths

- Divides the time & height by 12 Tidal range: Formula works on height of water that changes between the tides Steps to find height of tide: Step 1: Find tide range (High tide - Low tide) Step 2: Determine time in hours from low tide to desired time Step 3: Use rule of twelfths Step 4: Apply fraction to determine tide increase Step 5: Add to low tide to find depth at desired time

Regulations

- DoF work with & employs scientists to create rules & regulations for both commercial & recreational fisheries. Regulations include: Size limits: Allow fish to reach maturity & reproduce to continue species. Bag Limits: Amount of fish of species a person can take in one day. Prevents overfishing Possession Limits: Exist if going on holidays & place of resident Licences: Enable fisheries to limit number of people fishing. - Enables fisheries to ban people who don't follow rules - License required for: Rock Lobster & Abalone Equipment Restrictions: Exists on equipment you fish with - Special size escape gaps are required for cray pots Open Seasons: Exist for species (Abalone, Rock Lobster) - Consequences for breaking rules

What should you do if you find a marine artefact?

- Don't move the object, but take photos of it - Record exact location & date & time you found it - Contact relevant maritime authorities & let them know about it - The older it is , the less likely you are to keep it

Why are population dynamics important?

- Enables fisheries to determine acceptable fishing limits for species based on growth & reproductive rates, relative fertility & current fishing efforts placed on them - To know how many fish we can fish, need to predict size of population in the ocean

Issues: Spread of disease/parasites (Aquaculture)

- Exist everywhere in natural environment, however much more prevalent when organisms live in high density - Stressed organisms are less resilient to disease Stress is due to: - Aggression from other animals - Poor water quality - Higher temps - Excess rotting food - Oxygen levels dropping - Increase waste products (ammonia) -These all promote spread of disease • Foreign diseases can be introduced more easily

Continental Shelf (Beyond 200NM)

- Extends beyond 200NM from TSB - Australia has sovereign rights over the continental shelf for exploring & exploiting mineral & other non-living resources of the seabed & subsoil, with sitting organisms. - Has jurisdiction to marine scientific research and other rights & responsibilities

Leeuwin Current

- Extends down WA coast during winter - Starts in warm, low-salinity waters off north-western coast. These less dense waters cause sea level to rise, causing Geostrophic currents.

Abiotic Factors

- Floats with the current - Can be tracked by satellites or boat sonars - Monitors water current • Measuring direction, speed, temperature & salinity

Natural Gas (Extraction)

- Fossil fuel from layers of buried animals & plants, that have been exposed to high temps & pressure - The plants & animals originally got energy from sun, energy remains trapped as carbon in the natural gar VALUE Gas = $35 billion LOCATION - Onslow, WA - Supplies 20% of WA's gas needs

Dutch East India Company (VOC)

- Founded in 1602 - Used sailing ships to buy spices in East Indies (Batavia) & bring them to Holland to sell - Had over 4,785 ships

Bottom Racks

- Generally horizontal upon the ocean floor Advantages: - Ability to produce robust & hearty shells Disadvantages: - Large lost to mother nature by suffocation under mud, eaten by predators, frozen by cold waters or ice that takes them out into the ocean

Why is aquaculture necessary?

- Global demand for seafood is continually increasing • Most wild fish stocks are at or over the maximum sustainable yield - If wild stocks alone are used to supply demand, all fisheries will die out - Need to fill the gap between supply & demand, therefore farm grow seafood instead of catching it from the wild.

Fish Tagging (Pop-up Satellite Archival Tags - PSATs)

- Great if fish don't travel far - 3% of conventional Billfish tags showed again - Designed for Billfish, Shark, Tuna tagging - Record everything standard tag, plus after time frame they break off from fish & transmit data to satellite - Very expensive

Fish Tagging (Archival Tags)

- High-tech version of spaghetti tag - Tells where a fish ended up & info along the way - Records location, water temperature & depth fish travels - Not too expensive & easy to attach - Need someone to hand it in to get data

'Maximum Sustainable Yield'

- If number of boats increases, catches won't be sustained & they decline as the rate of addition of new fish or 'recruitment' is exceeded by total mortality - Fisheries want the level of fishing below the level which causes decline

Fish Population Dynamics for Sustainable Fisheries

- If these rates are measured over a different time intervals, the harvestable surplus of a fishery can be determined.

Nitrogen Cycle

- Important for the production of proteins & DNA of living organisms - Nitrogen is converted into a useable form for living organisms by nitrogen starting through bacteria that converts into atmospheric nitrogen into biologically useable forms → "Nitrogen Fixation" Process: - Ammonification, nitrification & denitrification processes performed by marine bacteria. - Primary production & decomposition are limited by the available supply of Nitrogen. - Combustion of fossil fuels & use of nitrogen-containing fertilisers in agriculture Eutrophication: Condition of nutrient enrichment, increasing biological productivity & biomass. Can reduce oxygen availability in water. Dead Zones: Algae & micro-organisms that feed on them using oxygen in cellular respiration, can cause the death of organisms & result in low-oxygen, species depleted areas.

The Brouwer Route

- In 1611, Dutch captain Hendrik Brouwer discovered a faster route to Batavia - Used Roaring Forties (Trade winds) at Lat 40º south, sailing East (increasing travel speed) before turning North to Batavia - Halved travel time from Holland to Batavia to 6 months - By 1617, Brouwer Route was compulsory for sailors of VOC Issues: - No way to determine Longitude at time • Has to sail for 7000km East & turn North at Amsterdam Island

Effect of salinity on density

- Increased salinity = increase density - Increasing salinity = more salt in the same volume of water - More salt = more mass in same volume of water - Changes in salinity are affected by: • Evaporation - increase salinity • Precipitation - decrease salinity • Rivers - decrease salinity • Seawater freezing - increase salinity

Cardinal Marks

- Indicate compass direction of safest water - Pass east of East cardinal, south of south cardinal, west of West cardinal & north of North cardinal North Cardinal Mark: • Both cones point up • Black at tip of pillar • Continuous flashing East Cardinal Mark: • Cones point up & down • Black at top & bottom • 3 flashes South Cardinal Mark: • Both cones point down • Black at bottom • 6 flashes + 1 long flash West Cardinal Mark: • Cones point inward • Black in middle • 9 flashes

Recirculation Systems (What are they?)

- Indoor, tank-based systems where fish are grown at high density under controlled environmental conditions - Water must be continually treated to remove waste & to add oxygen - From the fish tanks the water flows to a mechanical filter, then to a biological filter before it's aerated & stripped of CO₂ Locations: Chapman Valley, supplies Silver Perch & fingerlings (Near Geraldton)

Issues: Impacts of facilities & structures

- Intensive systems produce nutrient rich waste water • Promote eutrophication of waterways • Contamination from other chemicals - Ecosystems destroyed to make room for forms • Coastal areas, removal of mangroves etc. - Pollution during construction of complex systems - Structures in ocean can harm & kill animals that get caught

Sea Ranching (What is it?)

- Involves introducing juveniles into the natural environment where they're allowed to grow without containment structures - Juveniles are placed on the sea bed, usually in the form of a slurry, by a length of pipe or by hand. - Area is closed to commercial trawling while animals grow * Extensive Method

What controls does the act provide?

- It's illegal to remove items from historic shipwrecks without consent of WA museum - All historic wrecks in territorial waters property of Australian Government - All wrecks are under direct control of WA museum - Anyone who finds a wreck must provide info to WA museum - It's an offence to remove, damage or destroy wreck artefacts - Payment of reward for find is at discretion of WA Museum - WA museum has power to declare protected zone around wrecks (Zuytdorp Wreck)

Maintenance: Electrical System

- Keep electrical systems clean, dry & corrosion free - Spray terminals, electrical connectors with corrosion-retarding agent. - Check navigation lights always

Why did we need the shipwrecks laws?

- Lots of looting & valuable artefacts were lost - Looters used dynamite to access the treasure, ruining, degrading other parts of wrecks & endangering lives of other divers - Artefacts were damaged in poor recovery techniques - Artefacts not conserved properly by amateurs - Lack of & loss of historical records

Issues: Sustainability of sourcing wildstocks

- Major cost for aquaculture = food - Major criticism = food Main Issue: Removal of wild fish to manufacture food for formed fish Moral Issue: Wild fish are a reliable source for people in developing countries

WA's Managed Fisheries

- Management controls used in management of commercial fisheries are primarily Input Controls: - Controls what goes into the water (limiting number of licences, gear restrictions, seasonal closures & limits total fishing time) Output Controls: - Controls what comes out of the water (Limit quantities of fish that can be landed) Additional Controls: - Permanently closing areas to fishing to protect important habitats - Specific measures to protect juvenile or breeding fish

What does the act mean for treasure hunters?

- Many wrecks after this weren't reported due to lack of financial reward to finder - Long period where money wasn't being rewarded to finders - Little recognition was given - Slowed down/hampered finds - Secretive looting happened with artefacts being taken overseas - No diving allowed in restricted zones (Zuytdorps)

Isolated Danger Marks

- Marks danger with navigable water all round. - Pass as well clear as possible Light: • White light • Flash in groups of two • Has 2 spheres on top

Biotic Factors

- Monitoring a marine ecosystem means obtaining data from the same area over a period of time - Transects need to know distance & direction so it can be replicated again • Setup: Run in a specific direction for a specified length - Photoquadrats allow to be analysed at a better stage

Displacement Hull

- Move through the water by pushing the water aside & designed to cut through the water with little propulsion. - Displaced water weighs the same as the boat, when placed in the water - Limited to slower speeds - Allows travel to be more smooth through water E.G. Sail boats & Cruise Ships

WA Laws Protecting Wreck Sites

- Museum Amendment Act 1964 - Maritime Archaeology Act 1973 (WA) - ANCODS: Agreement between Australian and the Netherlands Concerning Old Dutch Shipwrecks

Osmosis

- Natural process - The movement of water through a membrane from a region of low solute concentration to high concentration • Water will always move to higher concentration of salts - Always trying to balance concentrations - Passive transport → doesn't require energy

El Nino & Fishing

- Nutrient-rich cold water flows close to surface creating ideal conditions for Phytoplankton during non El Nino events - During El Nino event, sea levels drop, making warmer water drift towards S.A., cutting off the upwelling

Deep Seas > 400m

- Ocean depths beneath the photic zone, where light from the surface has all but disappeared - At 1000m, little light disappears completely - Animals dependant on food bought by it sinking - Low temps down deep, metabolic rates are slowed, which reduces food requirements

"Treasures" found off WA coast from wrecks

- Pieces of eight - Gold sovereigns - Diamonds - Rare pottery - Pearls - Lead - Copper

Hatcheries (What are they?)

- Place for artificial breeding, hatching & rearing through the early life stages of animals - Brood stock are spawned at the hatchery to produce larvae. - At the end of the larval cycle moved into settlement tanks - Remain in a nursery system until they're an appropriate size to be transferred off-site to grow-out forms - Hatchery is in a sheltered facility Location: Albany Shellfish Hatchery

Weather Map - Synoptic Chart

- Provides good visual overview of approaching weather (Cold Fronts - high pressure & tropical cyclones) - Don't provide specific details about wind strength or wave height - Help identify trends in what's happening now & what's likely to happen over next few days Winds: - Caused by movement of air from high to low pressure systems, doesn't glow directly from one to other Cold fronts: - Associated with frontal features is squalls & rain within the passage of front followed by showers behind the front Sea and land breezes: - A near shore event caused by heating of land during the day Sea (Wind waves): - Caused by wind currently blowing called 'Sea waves' - Created from a sea breeze generation zone are often lower than the waves of large scale winds - If sea breeze blows from similar direction to existing wind, it'll join forces & build bigger waves Swell: - Caused by winds from far away. - Swells with longer time difference between each wave crest have greater physical distance between each wave crest. Factors affecting visibility: - Poor visibility has effect on orientation. - Requires you to slow down & keep a better look out - Bureau's marine forecast includes indication of conditions that lead to reduced visibility or lightning risk (Heavy rain, Fog)

Effect of light

- Red colour disappears = black & brown - Blue colours still visible - 0% after 150m - Extra

Duty of care

- Responsible for safety of vessel, crew & passengers - Must not endanger any other vessel - Must be ready to assist other who need help

Maintenance: Fuel

- Running out, disabling engine from dirt or excess moisture in it, & expositing it to fire risks are possibilities Fire/explosion risks: - Fuel for engines or stoves, common in vessel fires/explosions - Leaks in systems & ventilation are usual problems Fuel system: - Check & change filters often - Keep tanks topped up & close when not in use to prevent condensation occurring, putting water in fuel - clean fuel out fuel tanks yearly

Safe Water Marks

- Safe water all round - Marks seaward end of channels into port - Used to mark centre of channel Light: • White light • Multiple flashing rhythm

Abiotic Factors (Secchi Disk)

- Secchi disk is lowered off the boat - It's lowered vertically until it just disappears, this is called the "Secchi Depth" - Measures the clarity of the seawater - Indicates the amount of phytoplankton at sea surface - From measurements, helps map ocean's phytoplankton.

Surface & subsurface lines (What is it?)

- Series of parallel ropes buoyed to the surface via floats or anchored to the sea floor - Animals are grown in panel like blankets, cages or ropes that are suspended from the main line. Location: Albany, Abrolhos Islands (Black Pearl) & Cockburn Sound (Green Algae)

Why do scientists look for shipwrecks?

- Shipwrecks have a story attached to them - The artefacts found tell a bit more history than books

Benefits to a growing aquaculture industry in WA

- Significant job opportunities in regional areas - Indirect employment includes transportation, contruction & provision of goods & services - Tradies, electricians, carpenters, gas welders, boat operators & divers can all help in improving aquaculture

Light

- Solar radiation provides light for photosynthesis, supporting marine ecosystems - Energy from the sun is important for Climate, Winds & Major Ocean Currents - They depend on radiation reaching Earth, heating different areas to different areas.

Velocity of Sound

- Speed of sound depends on medium through which it travels - Sound travels 4x faster underwater - Humans determine direction of sound from difference in time taken to reach both ears - Too fast, can't "hear" direction of sound • Can't tell where boat comes from

Aquaculture Challenges

- Spread of disease: Likely due to larvae often arriving from many different location - Biosecurity - Environmental Management - Increasing demand for high quality seafood - Management of waste

Reasons for shipwrecks along WA coast

- Storms - Cyclones - Shallow Reef - Purposely sunk or abandoned after 'use by' date, not sea-worthy - Accurate longitude not possible - Didn't turn North early enough

Types of underwater remains around Australia

- Submerged Settlements - Harbour works - Refuse deposits - Shipwrecks

Ponds (What is it?)

- Successful ponds must be properly sized & built - Careful assessment of water availability, quantity & quality Location: Bremer Bay Abalone

Density

- Sun alters density by changing temperature & salinity of waters • Sets up density dependent currents "Thermohaline Circulation"

Wind Formation

- Sun heats atmosphere, creates winds & moves sea surface through fiction • Water dragged along → surface currents - Sun heats atmosphere unevenly, hotter at equator than poles - Hot air at equator rises → creates areas of low pressure • When hot air cools & falls → creates areas of high pressure - Spinning of Earth cause systems to move • "Trade Winds" , as trade winds drag along the water → cause currents

Differences in Density

- Sunlight most direct on equator - As water cools & becomes more dense, water moves away from equator. It then sinks, forcing the water underneath, back to the equator - Water heats up when it moves towards the equator, becomes less dense & rises to surface, pushing water above back towards the poles.

Hydrodynamic Support

- Supported by moving water. At slower speeds, they are hydrostatically supported Planing Vessels - Hydrodynamics pressure developed on the hull at high speeds to support the vessel. Limited loads, high power requirements Hydrofoil - Supported by underwater foils, like wings on an aircraft. Dangerous in heavy seas. No longer used by United States Navy Planing Hull - Supported by the hydrodynamic pressure developed under a hull at high speed - "V" or flat type shape - Commonly used in pleasure boat, patrol boat, missile boat, racing boat Hydrofoil Ship - Supported by a hydrofoil, like wings on aircraft - Fully submerged hydrofoil ship - Surface piercing hydrofoil ship

Wreck of Vergulde Draeck 1658

- The 'Gilt Dragon' (Golden Dragon) - Ship of VOC - Was on its way to Batavia to trade spices - Wrecked of Ledge Point - 193 crew onboard, with 75 survivors Artefacts Found? - Beardman Jugs - 40 Silver Guilder Coins - Ballast Bricks Historical Significance? - Coins: Minting processes, where minted & currency metals

Maritime History

- The SPICE TRADE influences the history of sailing routes & maritime exploration in the 15th-17th centuries. - Governments, companies & merchants became rich by buying & selling spices - The quickest & cheapest way to transport spices from East Indies to Holland was sailing ships. - Much time & effort was spent building fast, large cargo ships & exploring/charting safe & fast sailing routes to spice islands

Territorial Sea Baseline (TSB)

- The line from which the seaward limits of Australia's Maritime Zones are measured - Includes breadth of territorial Sea, the seaward limits of contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone & sometime the continental shelf.

Special Marks

- Traffic separation schemes - Has multiple body shapes Light: • Yellow light • Has other rhythm than the Cardinal, isolated danger or safe water marks

Brouwer Route: Dutch Experience

- Unable to calculate Longitude, Dutch ships sailed too far East & became wrecked on WA shores - Over 1,400 ships wrecked - Those that survived explored, mapped & charted the areas - Majority of early exploration & charting of WA coast was undertaken by the Dutch

Reverse Osmosis

- Unnatural process - Requires energy - Expensive - Concentrated solution is pressurised - Water molecules are forced through membrane • Salt cannot pass through membrane as particles are too large - Lots of energy & pressure is required as it needs to overcome osmotic pressure

Buoyant Control

- Use Buoyancy control device (BCD) to change density & determine if positive, negative or neutral - Add air to BCD = increase volume - Increase volume = decrease density - Less dense than water, more buoyant force - Weight belts used to counter buoyant force of wetsuit

Estimating 'Sustainable Yields'

- Use math equations & computer models to estimate how many fish can be caught on a sustainable basis, without endangering the whole stock

Distillation

- Used to separate liquid from a solid 1. Evaporate liquid by heating → vapour 2. Condense vapour by cooling

What is a maritime artefact?

- Usually man-made object that comes from the marine environment - Whether it comes from a shipwreck or it its washed up on the beach - Something that has some historical relevance or story attached

Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Spice Trade

- VOC was an Amsterdam based company, that traded spices from 1602 - 1796 - In 1602, Dutch Government gave VOC a 21 year monopoly on trade of spices in Holland (no competition) - VOC became powerful that it was able to imprison & execute convicts, negotiate treaties, create it's own currency, establish colonies & wage war

Issues: Food (Aquaculture)

- Various species farmed have different diets - Usually not possible to deliver a species natural diet • uneconomical - Food is manufactured & often delivered as pellets - Her bivorous fish - relatively easy to produce food - Carnivorous fish - require protein → more difficult to produce food - Fishmeal - Baitfish

Aerostatic Support

- Vessel rides on cushion of air. Lighter weight, higher speeds, smaller load capacity ACV - Air Cushion Vehicles - Hull Material: Rubber - Propeller: Placed on deck - Amphibious operation SES - Surface Effect Ships - Side hull: rigid wall (steel) - Bow: Skirt - Propulsion System: Placed under the water jet propulsion - Propeller: Not amphibious operation

Coastal Waters (3 NM)

- Water between limits of Australian States & Northern Territory & a line 3NM seaward of the territorial baseline - Management of offshore resources • Fisheries & Petroleum - Below seabed & water column - TSB used to determine Coastal waters

Heat Capacity

- Water conducts heat 25 times faster than air - Longer dive = more heat loss - Deeper dive = more heat loss - Less exposure protection = more heat loss - Equipment: Wetsuit, Gloves, Boots

Contiguous Zone (24NM)

- Water contiguous to territorial sea, the outer limit being 24NM from TSB - Australia may exercise control to prevent & punish infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws & regulations within its territory or territorial sea

Viscosity (Thickness)

- Water has higher viscosity than air - Humans travel through water slowly (Body shape) - Fish travel through water fast (Shape & Fins) - Divers wear fins to help move through water with ease

Territorial Sea (12NM)

- Water not exceeding 12NM from TSB - Australia's sovereignty extends to the Territorial Sea, its seabed, subsoil & air space above it. - Limitation on Australia's exercise of sovereignty in territorial sea is the right of innocent passage for foreign ships.

Water Cycle

- Water on the Earth's surface cycles rapidly but most water is found underground. - Water cycle driven by sun's energy, which warms water causing it to evaporate. - Moves water into atmosphere in vapour form - Vapour condenses into clouds & falls as precipitation. - As it reaches surface, may evaporate or sink into ground. Transpiration: Water enters through the plants roots & travels upwards through vascular tubes made from dead cells & is evaporated through pores called stomata found in leaves - Water cycle drives other cycles.

Maritime Museum of WA

- Work at the museum is to register, document & research the shipwreck collections to identify components of the ship & its content - Documentation starts at shipwreck site, as soon as objects are raised & continues back at museum - Gathering info from archival & other sources, piecing it together can be time consuming - Once artefacts identity & origin are established, an interpretation of the way ships were built, of life on board, trade & other commercial shipping activities, can be developed

Aquaculture General Processes

1) Hatchery Operation: Produced fertilised eggs, larvae or fingerlings 2) Nursery Operation: Nurses small larvae to fingerlings or juveniles 3) Grow-out Operation: Farms fingerlings or juvenile to marketable sizes

Principles of fishery science

1) Many young fish die, before they reach maturity (Reproductive) or are a catchable size Natural causes of death: - Starvation - Predation Recruited: Eventually grow large enough to be captured by fishing gear - Number of fish of youngest age to reach harvestable size - Fisheries sometimes catch too many fish.

Ways temperature, wind & gravity drive thermohaline circulation

1. Sun heats North of equator in Atlantic ocean & drives it from Gulf Stream North, heating the atmosphere in cold Northern areas. - Loss of heat to atmosphere makes water cooler & denser 2. Gravity causes it to sink, as more warm water is transported North, more cooler water sinks & pushes water along ocean floor 3. Cold bottom water returns to surface due to mixing & wind-driven upwellings

Desalination

1. Water is extracted from ocean using wells or intake structure → low speed intake allows organism to escape 2. Water is pre-filtered → removes larger particles 3. Then fed through high pressure pumps → high enough to overcome osmotic pressure 4. Water passes through membranes, desalted water (permeate) exits filter under low pressure 5. Concentrated salt water (Brine) exits at high pressure & is pumped into energy recovery device

Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)

A calculation of the monthly differences in air pressure between Tahiti & Darwin. - Sustained negative values indicate El Nino - Sustained positive values indicate La Nina

Biotic Factor (Quadrat)

A frame used to isolate an area to study & record species present within it - Quadrats measure abundance & diversity - Usually 1m in length - Has square intervals - Record species within each square interval Advantage: - Inexpensive Disadvantage: - Inaccurate

Scavengers

A special group of animal consumers that eat dead animals & plants (Crabs & Prawns)

Comfort

A state without pain or constraint

Steel/Iron

Advantages: - Cheap - Very strong - Immune to attack from marine life - Easy to work - Never leaks - Fireproof Disadvantages: - Rusts > requires considerable maintenance - Needs framing & stiffening - Distorts when welded - Heaviest hull > high fuel costs - Very magnetic > affects compass Uses: - Used in sheets or plates either as a while hull or isolated structures - Boats with displacement hulls Maintenance: - Requires sandblasting if painting

Surface & Subsurface lines

Advantages: - Cost effective/cheap to run - Low maintenance - Sustainable - Automatically cleans water thus improving water quality - Doesn't interfere with naturally occurring processes - Doesn't obstruct sea floor (excluding anchor) Disadvantages: - Slow → long harvesting process - Can exhaust plankton population if grown out of proportion - Some species of shellfish are pests & can grow to plague proportions if escaping farm & growing in natural habitat

Fibreglass

Advantages: - Easy to mass-produce - no rot or rust > corrosion free - Easy to make moulds - all parts will be true to form - Little maintenance - Economically viable - Strong & lightweight Disadvantages: - Cracking may occur due to extreme flex in one spot - Requires overlay > issue with osmosis - Burns easily - Requires skill for construction - Toxins during construction Uses: - Ship hulls - Mass-produced yachts - Trailer boats - Small to medium-sized boats > mass-produced Maintenance: - Fibreglass pox > older boats that were constructed in buildings without temperature control. Pits on the surface due to seawater seeping through holes.

Ponds

Advantages: - Fish are protected from the open → inland & get nurturance - Reduced cost of feeding - Control water quality Disadvantages: - Disease spreads easily - Can pollute water systems with excess nutrients & faecal matter → due to large number of fish

Wood

Advantages: - High strength in relation to weight - Will not sweat inside as much as others - Aesthetic appeal - Positive buoyancy Disadvantages: - Weakest material - Leaks - Rots - Decoy hazard > due to fungi - Burns Uses of wood: - Planking - Stringers - Chines - Ribs - New yacht design Challenges/Maintenance - Obtaining suitable length/width - Need to dry out moisture content - Timber shrinks when drying - Require preservatives (treated)

Hatcheries

Advantages: - Out of season production - Genetic improvement - Reduce dependence on wild caught juvenile - Replenishment Disadvantages: - Environmental damage - High density → diseases - Waste is released to local water sources, polluting them - Raising fish in confined areas & killing them in painful; ways causes pain & stress on the fish

Sea Cages

Advantages: - Profitable because it doesn't require on shore land - Human interaction is limited - Well-managed sea cafe farm will have little environmental impact - Faeces falls through the mesh floor → requires less maintenance Disadvantages: - Carnivorous species need a lot of fish meal → need 5kg of fishmeal to grow a 1kg carnivore to marketable size - High density → disease can spread very easily - Mass escapes

Freshwater Aquaculture

Advantages: - Reducing water needs - Reducing discharge volume - Optimal conditions as there is more control Disadvantages: - Increased spread of fish lice - Coastal areas destroyed to make room - Can disturb natural environment - High concentration → can spread disease easily

Sea Ranching

Advantages: - Requires extremely small amounts of inputs → more economical - Fish roam their natural environment, food costs are minimal Disadvantages: - Marking of organisms is harder due to smaller organisms - Hard to ensure ownership of stocks due to remote location - Stocks that escape become public property - Vulnerable to predation Location: Flinders Bay, Augusta (Abalone)

Recirculation Systems

Advantages: - Requires less water than ponds • Due to recycled water - Can be located in more areas - Culturing more product in a smaller volume (Intensive) - Can produce year round - Environmentally compatible Disadvantages: - High capital cost & high investment in equipment - Operational cost is high due to electricity, oxygen inputs & system maintenance - Highly trained staff is required - Constant power supply - Failure of single system results in catastrophic cases

Aluminium

Advantages: - Very light - Doesn't rust - If welded, no leaks - Immune to attack from marine life - Non-magnetic Disadvantages: - Very expensive > up to 10x steel - Not fireproof - Will break down rapidly in the presence of steel, copper, brass or mercury due to electrolyte reaction Uses: - Used in sheets or plates either as a whole hull or isolated structures - Good for lightweight dinghy's - Small craft Maintenance: - Due to electrolyte reaction, connections with other metals must be insulated and copper/mercury based on anti-fouling paint should not be used - Difficult to construct

Plastic

Advantages: - Will not rust or corrode - Will not puncture - Will not crack - Will not require polishing or protection from the sun Disadvantages: - Not as structurally stiff as fibreglass or aluminium - Plastic boats are limited in size - Don't look as nice

Classification of ship by support type

Aerostatic Support - ACV (Air Cushion Vehicles - SES (Surface Effect Ships) Hydrodynamic Support (Bernoulli) - Hydrofoil - Planing Hull Hydrostatic Support (Archimedes) - Conventional Ship - Catamaran - SWATH - Deep Displacement Submarine - Submarine - ROV

Density

Amount of matter in a specific volume Density = Mass/Volume - More dense object has more mass in same volume than less dense object Hydrometer: Measures difference in density compared to fresh water.

Walker Circulation

An atmospheric circulation of air between Aus & South America. - It's responsible for creating ocean upwelling off the coasts of Peru. - This brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks.

Primary Producer

An autotrophic organism at the base of food chain, also called "autotroph" Autotroph: Produce own food

Fishery

An entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. - May involve capturing wild fish or raising fish through fish farming or aquaculture

Estuary

An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Characteristics: - Filters nutrients & pollutants from land runoff, providing nursery grounds for many species of fish & birds - Removes toxins, sediment & nutrients as water flows from land to sea. Location: Wellstead Estuary

Archimedes Principle

An object partially or fully submerged in a fluid will experience a resultant vertical force equal in magnitude to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced by the object - Buoyant force of ship is calculated from displaced volume by ship Displacement Ship: - Conventional type of ship - Carries high payload - Low Speed SWATH: - Small water plane area twin hull - Low wave-making resistance - Excellent roll stability - Large open deck - Disadvantages: Deep draft and cost Catamaran/Trimaran: - Twin hull - Other characteristics are similar to the SWATH Submarine

Heterotroph

An organism that gets its nutrition from feeding on other organisms - Directly or indirectly, rely on autotrophs for energy & matter needed to survive

Ocean Currents around Australia

Antarctic Circumpolar Current: - Powerhouse for global climate - 'Lungs' of the Earth - Connects Atlantic, Pacific & Indian Oceans Leeuwin Current: - Influence on distribution of marine life & WA's weather - Near North West Shelf on WA's coast East Australian: - Slows south along east coast Indonesian Through follow: - Carries water westward from Pacific to Indian Ocean - Warm tropical water from this current influences character of Leeuwin current

Emergencies

Assisting others: - Required to tune in to radio, as you must stay available to assist others - You should respond to urgency calls for assistance Lifejackets: - Required to put lifejackets & may involve moving people to different parts of the vessel, or preparing them to abandon vessel - Check no danger of emergency getting worse - Check what informal means of emergency Sending distress signal: - Decide if need outside help - Radio is best to use - Flare or waving arms best if theres someone close - Flashing mirror can attract attention within visible range - Also use Radio, EPIRB, Flares or Phone

What makes it difficult to find artefacts?

At the surface doesn't look like much but underwater they can be bigger & heavier

Australian Fishing Zone (Within outer limits of EEZ)

Australian Fishing Zone means: - Waters adjacent to Australia within the outer limits of the EEZ - Waters adjacent to each external territory within the outer limits of the EEZ but doesn't include: • Coastal waters within limits of a State or internal Territory • Waters that are 'excepted waters'

Effective use of materials

Balance of: Cost, Environmental consideration, Aesthetics, Functionality (How easily the vessel is constructed from the material, how long it lasts, how easy it is to repair or customise, good buoyancy

Safety Equipment

Bilge Pump: - All boats must carry a bilge pump. - Boats under 7m may carry a bailer of a bilge pump Fire Extinguisher: - Boats with an inboard engine or carrying hydrocarbon heating or cooling appliances must carry an approved fire extinguisher Anchor: - An efficient anchor and line must be carried - Needed in unprotected waters Lifejacket: - A lifejacket must be carried for every person on board - Needed in unprotected waters Flares (in date): - At least two hand help red flares & two hand-held orange flares must be carried. - Two parachute flares may be carried with the two hand help red flares & a smoke canister with smoke flares. - Needed in unprotected waters EPIRB (in date): - Must be carried if proceeding more than 2NM off shore Parachute flares (in date) - Minimum of two parachute flares must be carried with two hand held red flares - Needed more than 5NM from shore Marine Radio: - Needed if more than 5NM off shore

Biochemical Cycles

Biochemical Cycle: When an element or compound moves between it's various living & non-living forms & locations in the biosphere. - Energy flows through on ecosystem & is disappointed as heat, but chemical elements are recycle.

Hull

Body of a vessel

Water Pressure

Boyle's Law: Pressure of given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant temperature - Increasing pressure = decreasing volume - Lungs shrink when free-diving - Regulator gives air at current water pressure

Marine Aquaculture

Breeding of organisms that live in the ocean

Advanced fishing technologies

Catching Technologies: Longlines - Round up massive amounts of fish at one time Location Technologies: Radar, Sonar, Spotter planes Able to travel & fish down further: - Bigger boats etc. - New fish species can be targeted, especially fish that take long to breed Large ships with processing facilities catch & process fish at sea: - Can stay at sea for longer & catch more fish

Geostrophic Currents

Caused by sloping sea surface • Due to trade winds pushing water to "pile up"

Wind Patterns

Caused by uneven heating on Earth surface

Emergency: Fire

Causes of fires: - Overheated oil on galley stove - Overloaded or incorrectly wired electrical system - Poor engine room housekeeping - Leaking fuel or gas lines - Poor refuelling technique Engine room ventilation: - Vessel's powered by petrol engines have little way of preventing stray sparks, have 2nd rate fuel systems or in compartment with poor ventilation - With inboard, check installation - Check engine room regularly & sniff close to bilge Refuelling Precautions: - Turn off everything that uses electricity, gas or liquid fuel - Send passengers onshore - Have fire extinguisher close by - Know how much fuel is needed - Check bilge pump for spillage LPG Appliances: - Needs to be correctly installed - Cylinder stowed away above deck where vapour can run over side of vessel - When finish cooking, turn off gas at cylinder & let gas keep burning until out, then turn off

Food Chain

Chain which describes the passage of food from primary producers to consumers

Nutrient Cycling

Chemical components that make up living organisms get recycled.

Salinity

Concentration of salt dissolved in seawater - Higher salinity = more salt dissolved - g/L, grams per litre, 35g/L - Ppt, Parts per thousand, 35 ppt - % per weight, percentage by weigh, 3.5% - Essential for shipping, determines draft of ship, required for safe loading of ships & monitors waste water produced by mining & construction

Reefs

Coral Reef: Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals Tropical Reefs: A reef is a bar of rock, sand, coral or similar material, lying beneath the surface of water. Many reefs result from abiotic processes Characteristics: - Hard coral consists of million individual coral polyps living together as a colony. - Soft Corals are flexible & are supported by tiny limestone spiky structures & tend to be brightly coloured Location: Ningaloo Reef

Freshwater aquaculture

Culturing of species that are native to streams, lakes & rivers

Population Dynamics

Definition: Describes ways in which the population changes by; • Birth • Death • Emigration • Immigration - Basics for understanding changes fisher patterns & issues • Habitat destruction, predation & harvesting rates

Maritime Archaeology

Definition: Scientific study of material remains of man & his activities on the sea - Provides information relating to maritime history that's hard to obtain from documentary sources - Cargo's of wrecked ships provide information about Australia & European History

Aquaculture

Definition: The keeping, breeding, hatching, culturing or harvesting of aquatic species. Key Conditions: Clean water, stable temperature (doesn't very much over the year), matched water quality to natural habitat, food. - Major factor that has lead to overfishing is advances in fishing technologies

Cost effectiveness

Degree to which something is effective or productive in relation to its cost. Considering efficiency, maintenance & production costs

Draft

Depth of water needed to float a vessel

Planing Hull

Designed to rise up & glide on top of water, when enough power is supplied. - Skim along at high speed, ride on top of water instead of pushing water aside - Flat-bottomed & vee-bottomed hulls - Allows boats to travel more rapidly across water E.G. Small powered vessels, Jet Ski

Original Dutch (Monsoon) Route - Holland to Batavia (Jakarta)

Disadvantages: - Took 12 months to sail from Holland to Batavia - Sailing along equator: hot, humid, depression, food & water spoilt lead to sickness & death on board

Freeboard

Distance from the water to lowest point of the boat where water could come on board

Craft Design Features

Efficiency, Comfort, Safety and Cost effectiveness are affected by hull design & characteristics of the construction materials used.

Emergency: First Aid & Seasickness

First Aid: - Knives, fishing gear, venomous sea life, galleys & engine area provide opportunities for injury - Take first aid course - Carry suitable first aid kit Seasickness: - Preventive measures: • Check if passengers are prone • Non-medication remedies or acupuncture bands • Avoid greasy foods & alcohol • Sit at lowest motion area (Stern) • Stay in open air - If seasickness strikes: • Try getting underway again • Bad seasickness can dehydrate people, encourage them to sip water

Bow

Front of a vessel

Boat Equipment

GPS: - Gives instant latitude & longitude position Depth Sounder: - Aid to navigation by confirming position with chart's depth details Nautical Charts: - Provide detailed information including depths, tidal streams, navigation hazards & anchorages. - With a chart & compass you can work out your position & find a course back to shore if rain, fog or smoke obscure land

Somatic Growth

Growth of individual fish in terms of their length & weight - Scientists use this to multiply it by the number of fish they predict is in that population to determine stock biomass

Gyres

Gyres: Large system of circulating ocean currents - Caused by trade winds & Ekman Spirals - Regulates temperature - Hot water has more energy - Heat from the sun on the ocean, alters the density of ocean surface water directly by changing its temp & salinity Eddies: Large circulating bodies of water Major Currents: - North Pacific (Above Australia) - North Atlantic (Above South America) - Indian (Left of Australia) - South Pacific (Right of Australia) - South Atlantic (Right of South America)

Dissolved Gases

Henry's Law: Increased water pressure causes more gas to dissolve into body tissue - Slow ascent allows gas to diffuse into bloodstream & respiratory system, breathe out - Rapid ascent, gas bubbles out of tissue = decompression sickness "The Bends" - Deeper dives = more gas dissolved - Longer dives = more gas dissolved - Dive computer keeps track of dissolved gas & how long you can dive for

La Nina

How is occurs? - Trade winds get stronger & it pushes more warm surface water to Aus. - Warmer water evaporates more at Aus, which makes Walker Circulation stronger. - More evaporation & precipitation, which leads to floods & cyclones - More upwelling at S.A. & Leeuwin current is supercharged. Effects on WA: - Warmer water runs down West & South coast due to Leeuwin current stronger.

El Nino

How it occurs? - Trade winds weaken & the warm water gets pushed back go S.A. - Evaporation & Precipitation move back to middle of Pacific, much less upwelling - Temps in Aus increase causing droughts but less cyclones Effects on WA: - Cooler water down west & south coast due to Leeuwin Current - Strength of current reduced

Density (Boat)

How much material is packed into some particular volume

Multi-Hull

Hull Type: Displacement Advantages: Has greater stability because of wide beam Disadvantages: Needs larger area when turning

Round-Bottomed Hull

Hull Type: Displacement Advantages: Moves easily through the water even at slow speeds Disadvantages: Has tendency to roll unless it has a deep keel or stabiliser

Deep-Vee Hull

Hull Type: Planing Advantages: Gives smoother ride than flat-bottomed hull in rough waters Disadvantages: Takes more power to move at same speed as flat-bottomed hull. May roll or bank in sharp turns

Flat-bottomed Hull

Hull Type: Planing Advantages: Has shallow draft- - good for fishing in small lakes & rivers Disadvantages: Rides roughly in choppy waters

Rigid Inflatable Boats

Hull/Vessel Design: - A deep V-shape hull, whilst some are more shallow - Good for speed an wave piercing - It's a planing hull, that skips across the water, when given enough water Materials + Cost & Availability: - Hull is made from Fibreglass or Aluminium - both rather expensive - that's why it's only used for the small hull of the boat - The bottom and floor are made with PVC - It's strong lightweight plastic, it's very flexible and waterproof - Is very cheap and available - Surrounded by Rubber and other inflatable material - cheap and available Applications: -RIB's are used as rescue crafts, safety boats for sailing, emergency boats. - Dive boats and tenders for larger boats and ships Storage: - Can be stored inflated or deflated, increase damage risk when deflated - Are smaller in size and takes up less room in warehouses and harbours - Can also be stored onto ships Special Features: - Not many, kinda simple boats - But they have benches, storage cases and the front of the boat usually - Can have attached shade and umbrellas Layout: - Take a look at these pictures for a better insight

Yachts

Hull/Vessel Design: - Can have variety of different hull types, but will always be displacement - Made of aluminium - Very light, doesn't rust, doesn't leak, immune to attack from marine life, doesn't distort as much as steel when welded and doesn't mess with magnetic compass on boat. - Also made of fibreglass - Easy to mass produce, doesn't rust or rot, little maintenance, economically viable, flexible and with stands shock loads, doesn't leak, strong and light weight - Small yachts are typically shorter than 10m - Near-shore yachts typically exceed 14m Types of Yachts: Leisure - Sail or power vessel commonly used for pleasure, cruising or racing Racing - A sail or power boat that's primary focus is speed and the ability to race Specialised Equipment: - Pool - Massage Room - Movie Theatre - Dining Room - Bar Storage: - To store a yacht, you would have to buy/rent a slip on a dock - During winter, dry storage may be the best option to protect the yacht from bad weather Vessel Layout/Accommodation: - Can have several decks - Depending on size, a cruising yacht is likely to have at least two cabins, a main salon and a forward stateroom. - In smaller yachts, the salon is likely to have convertible berths for its crew or passengers. - Typically, the salon includes a dining area, which may have a folding, built-in table. The salon is typically contiguous to the galley. - A cruising yacht is likely to have a head (bathroom) with a marine toilet that discharges waste into a holding tank. - Larger yachts may have additional staterooms and heads. There is typically a navigation station that allows planning the route. Task Specific Features: - Used for personal recreation, can have very extensive variety of additional features - Depending on size can include a pool, staterooms, movie theatres, dining rooms - Large bridge including bow thrusters and radars.

Diving Boats

Hull/Vessel Design: - Dive boats are comprised of displacement hulls or catamaran hulls. - The boat itself must remain stable and so displacement hulls are used to achieve this. The boat must remain stable to accommodate for the tanks and passengers, and to keep them safe. - The boat must also be able to go fast so the ability for planning is desired Speed is desired to get to the dive site quickly - Catamaran hulls are used for stability with the benefit of a shallower displacement and thus able to be used in shallower water. - Displacement hulls are used because they can easily remain stable and do not require as much fuel as other hulls Specialised Equipment: - Spare Tanks - Life Rafts - Storage area - Dry areas - Spare masks/fins/snorkel Storage: - Needs to have sufficient space carry divers and all their equipment - Should have specific racks for dive tanks, with buckles to secure them, as well as storage for other moveable heavy dive gear - On larger boats, there may be enough room for an air compressor, recompression chamber and chase boat Vessel layout/accommodation: Lowest deck- - Engine and storage area. Lower deck- - Cabins for the passengers that are usually 2 people per cabin. - Freshwater showers and bathrooms for after the dive. Main deck- - Dining/social room along with the kitchen, crew bedrooms, open space and the bridge (ship command centre). Task-specific features: - Easy access to the water from the deck - Tank racks - Stable hull - Camera table - Freshwater showers - Gate - Gear bench - Ladder - Rinse Tanks - Swim Platform

Commercial Fishing Boat

Hull/Vessel Design: They're displacement hulls as they don't need to travel at high speeds and must be stable, they often travel long distances with a lot of weight on board and therefore the displacement hull is most efficient for this purpose. - Some boats have keels at bottom of hull to keep stability at slower speeds, this enables consistent productivity on board. Wave piercers. Made of steel Specialised Equipment: - They have big, hydraulic cranes, bolted metallic arms used for draggin nets, some boats have specialised ramps at the back of the boat to drag fish in the nets up into the back of the boat for processing. - Commercial fishing boats, for fish species only, contain conveyer belts where fish can be collected, processed and packaged all at the same time Storage: - Boats are constructed wider to accommodate for more capacity for storage - These commercial fishing boats have systems called RSW (refrigerated sea water systems) - For the boats that spend lots of time out at sea, this system keeps all the fish frozen for prolonged periods of time - On board freezing systems is also becoming increasingly popular as fisheries that are close to the shore are becoming fished out, so these vessels need a place to store fish for extended periods of time - To maximise storage efficiency, boats are designed with gunnel storage, these are used for ropes and other smaller pieces equipment to minimise sun and salt damage. Vessel Layout/Accommodation: Stern - Ramp where the net is pulled up by cranes Centre - Feeder holes are placed near fish nets, size fish placed into feeder then move to conveyer belt where they're processed, once fish are processed, they're placed into central freezer Bow - Flybridge is usually above bow at front of boat to allow space in middle and back of boat for fish processing and storage - Overall layout of boat is designed so that the weight is evenly distributed Task Specific Features: - Commercial fishing vessels require large freezers to keep the catch cold when they're at sea - Also have cranes to off load their catch when they arrive at port. - They have outriggers and other winches to pull in their fishing nets and to roll them up when they're not in use.

Environmental impacts of desalination

Impact: 1. Marine life injured or killed during removal of seawater 2. High salinity waste water pumped into ocean • Will sink to sea floor 3. Chemicals used in processing released into ocean Attempted Solution: 1. Slow intake speed → fish can swim out 2. Brine water released through diffuser 3. Regular monitoring of waste water to prevent contamination

Why are historic shipwrecks said to have significance?

In Archaeology: - Snapshot of that era of history In Scientific: - Technology or Materials used, composition In Social: - Way of life at the time In Educational: - Teach students & public about way of life, navigational methods, etc In Economic: - Tourism, museums & diving

Lateral Marks

Indicating port & starboard sides - Port Marks: •Topped with red square. •Going upstream leave marks on port side •Red lights, that flash at any rhythm - Starboard Marks: •Topped with green triangle. •Going upstream leave marks on starboard side. •Green lights, flash any rhythm

Freshwater Aquaculture (What is it?)

Integrating fish farming, combating salmon lice with wrasse fish, recirculating aquaculture Location: Exmouth

Collision Avoidance

International regulations for preventing collisions at sea: Apply on waters in State & over world. Responsibility: Responsibility to avoid collisions. Must be ready to take action Lookout: Responsible to keep a lookout. Equipment such as radars, sounders & plotters should be used if it's poor visibility. Safe Speed: Requirement to travel at safe speed. It should allow for enough time to manoeuvre vessel to avoid a collision. Visibility, volume of traffic, background lighting & water depth are factors when determining a safe speed. Assessing risk of collision: A technique is to see whether line of sight to another vessel doesn't move ahead or drop back. Restricted Visibility: Fog or heavy rain can affect visibility. If restricted visibility you should: • Keep good lookout • Turn navigation lights on • Proceed at a safe speed that suits conditions • Be prepared to stop or avoid collision Sound Signals: • One short blast: Altering course starboard • Two short blasts: Altering course to port • Three short blasts: Engine going astern • Five short blasts: Unsure of intentions

Indigenous Communities (Marine Resources)

Issues: - Became landless & marginalised - Government didn't recognise ancient customary land rights until Mabo Case in 1990s - Issues include; land & sea rights, opportunity to hunt & fish and the need to be involved in environmental management

Classification

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Lead & Sectored Lights

Leads: - Pair of marks that when aligned form transit along a safe channel through shallow or dangerous - Used for approaches to anchorages - Steer to keep rear lead directly above from lead - Lit any colour Sectored Lights: - Indicate safe channel through shallow or dangerous waters - Three different colours for each sector of an arc - White sector means safe water - Red & green sector means avoid areas

Port Side

Left side of a vessel

Waterline

Line where hull meets surface of water

Logging On and Off

Logging On: - Mention vessel's name, registration number or call sign, departure time and location, destination, trip intentions, number of people on board, amount of fuel carried, and estimated time of return Logging Off: - Make contact when you return & must stick to trip plan

Keel

Main centreline or extension of hull that increases stability in water

Beam

Max width of a vessel

'Maximum Economic Yields'

Maximum Economic Yield: Number of fish that can be caught with maximum profit. - Manage to seek to maximise the profits - As fishery develops, more boats join, catch rates decline & total costs of catching each fish increases - If number of boats aren't controlled, fishery will grow until costs of catching a fish exceed the value of the fish. The fishery will then cease to be profitable

Distress Signals

Mayday Call: - Attract attention of land based radio stations & other vessels in area - State position, problem & number of people on boat Pan Pan Urgency Call: - Use when mayday distress cal cannot be justified but there;s an urgent message to transmit concerning safety of vessel or safety of a person Securite Safety Call: - Used if you wish to broadcast an important navigational warning - Safety call is more likely to be made by coast station & may include important strong weather warnings EPIRB Usage: - Only used in emergency situation & in imminent danger - Provides rescue authorities with approximate location of beacon Distress Flares: - Orange Smoke Flares: Day use only, safe use in petrol or oil covered water - Red hand-held flares: Both night & day use - Red Parachute Distress Rockets: Both night & day use Mobile Phone: - Useful backup communications system, can't replace marine radio because: • Other vessels in area can't hear emergency calls on phone • Phones difficult to locate using direction finding equipment • Radio provides better coverage & batteries last longer than phones

Overall Length

Measured from the tip of the bow to the stern of the vessel in a straight line

Thermohaline Circulation

Movement of water, forming a current, caused by differences in density, due to temp & salinity of the water - Also called the ocean conveyor belt - Controls distribution of temp & salinity

Harvestable Surplus

Number of individuals that can be harvested from population without affecting long term stability (average population size)

Maintenance: Oil & Propellers

Oil: - Put oil from drain screw to see if water appears, meaning it needs to be serviced Propellers: - Rubber bushing on an outboard propeller can fail - Removing propeller, hammering out small bends & filling jagged bits need to be kept in working order - Snagged fishing line can destroy gearbox seals & allow water in

Decomposers

Organisms that break down dead bodies of other organisms into simple compounds (Bacteria & Fungi)

Importance of Exploration & Mapping (William de Vlamingh)

Original Purpose: - Rescue mission - Exploring land on way to Batavia Key Events: - Found Hartog's plate - Updated & left own plate - Placed other plates on Rottnest - Mapped coastline in detail Outcome: - Rottnest & Swan river named by William de Vlamingh - First detailed maps produces of WA coastline - Allowed further exploration

Importance of Exploration & Mapping (Dirk Hartog 1616)

Original Purpose: - Spice trading in Batavia - Brouwer Route Key Events: - Discover WA - Left behind plate - Resulted in series of further explorations by the Dutch - First documented European landfall in WA Outcome: - Allowed others to know WA was 'there', in continue for exploration - Evidence of discovery

Petroleum Extraction (Oil)

PROCESS - Petroleum is formed from dead matter → Carnival & plant remains - Extracted through drilling holes into seafloor ISSUES - Catastrophic blowouts - Oil spills - Sonic booms, killing marine life - Affect echo-location in whales - Releases mud slurries & hydrocarbon lubricants VALUE Oil = $3 Billion LOCATION - Kwinana Oil Refinery, WA - Largest in Australia

Salt Extraction

PROCESS Concentration pools → Crystallisation pool →Harvesting (skimming the surface layer) → Washing (With brine) → Drying (In the sun, large piles) IMPACTS - Marine organisms (slow intake speed) - Ecosystems on land - Pollution from facilities WHERE - Hot, Dry, Sunny climate - No rain - Near ocean - Shark Bay VALUE Salt = $333 million

Biotic Factor (Transect)

Path where you count & record the species of study - Place rope with regular interval markings on it - Record number of species along each interval Advantage: - Inexpensive Disadvantage: - Inaccurate

Tropic Level

Position in the food chain that an organism is above, away from the primary producer. - Only 10% of the energy produced is obtained in an organism which eats it

Stern

Rear of a vessel

Dynamic Rate Functions

Recruitment: Means reaching certain size or reproductive stage, harvestable size Growth Rate: Measures growth of individuals in size & length Mortality: Includes harvest mortality & natural mortality

Plimsoll Line

Reference mark on ship's hull indicates max depth, that vessel can be safely immersed with cargo - Varies with ship's dimension's, type of cargo, time of year & water densities encountered in port & sea

Starboard Side

Right side of a vessel

Upwellings

Rising of cold, deep water from the ocean bottom - Can bring up nutrients that've accumulated from dying plants & animals

Seagrass Meadows

Seagrasses are flowering plants which grow in marine, fully saline environments. Characteristics: - Provide habitat for many species of fish - Absorb nutrients from run-off - Stabilises sediments, helping keep the water clear Location: Shark Bay

Food Webs

Shows networks of feeding relationships & gives idea of complex interrelationships that exist in a community.

What is the spice trade?

Spices include: Cinnamon, cardamom, saffron, ginger, pepper, nutmeg & turmeric - Spices were a luxury item & worth their weight in silver or gold Used for: - Preserving & flavouring food - Medicinal uses & embalming the dead - Making perfumes - Religious uses (incense) - Spices only found in East Indies - Demand was high but supply was LOW/DIFFICULT so traders charged HIGH prices

Technology improving aquaculture

Technology for growing in deeper waters: - Rarely done before as the pounding waves of the deep sea would damage equipment Offshore oil/gas technology: - Make offshore farms possible - Oyster/mussels can hang off floating lines instead of sitting on the ocean floor

Oldest known shipwreck off WA coast

The "Trial"

Stability

The ability of a vessel to return to the upright position after being heeled by an external force

Photosynthesis

The biological process of converting water & carbon dioxide into carbs by chlorophyll using light energy

Additional Safety Equipment

Tool Kit: - Carry tools to make small repairs & detail other checks First Aid Kit: - Supplemented with sunburn cream, seasickness tablets & cutting pliers for fish hooks - Kept in sturdy, watertight plastic container, clearly marked & secured in a reachable position. Fire Blanket: - Sometimes fire blanket is better than fire extinguisher - Used on burning oil or fat Life Buoy: - For throwing if person goes overboard - Easy to lose sight of someone in water or poor weather Torch: - Buoyant & waterproof torch is best - Doesn't substitute navigation lights Life Rafts: - Expensive - Most efficient of evacuating passengers & crew from sinking vessel & standard equipment on commercial vessels

Efficiency

Travelled distance, of passengers, good or any type of load; divided by total energy put into the transport propulsion means

Navigation Equipment

Two types of compass: Magnetic - Which points to Magnetic North Gyro - Which points to True North Magnetic Compass Position: - As far away from metal objects as possible - Well away from electrical wiring & instruments requiring electricity - Stable location, preventing vibration - Protected from elements (rain, run)

Nautical Mile (NM)

Unit of distance = 1 852m

Safety

Unlikely to cause danger. Safe for use in marine environment

Buoyancy

Upward force acting on submerged object - Positive buoyant objects rise - Negative buoyant objects sink - Neutral buoyant objects float at specific depth - Buoyant force needs to equal weight force

Buoyant Force

Upward force applied by a fluid on a submerged object

Trip Planning

Vessel - Needs to ensure vessel is sea-worthy, in good condition, suitable & properly equipped for planned trip and accept responsibility Suitability: - Vessel needs to fit purpose & is capable Motor Check: - For outboard motors, attach a flushing device & test start motor before leaving home Fuel for trip: - Carry 50% more fuel than needed Stability: - Measure vessel's eagerness to return to upright after being heeled by external force (Wind or waves) - Stability affected by total load, how it's distributed & how securely it's stowed. Buoyancy: - How much flotation & where it is placed determines how effective the buoyancy will be

Displacement

Water moving aside to make room for an object, why water level rise when an object is placed in fluid - Distance & direction of the object's change in position from starting point

Trip Planning (Weather)

Weather safety checks: 1. Are warnings current for your boating area? 2. Are there weather conditions affecting safe navigation & comfort? 3. What are the wind trends? 4. What are the wave conditions? 5. When is the next high and low tide? Sources of weather information: - Internet: Provides quick & light weight downloads for satellite internet & marginal mobile coverage - Marine Radio: Broadcasted on VHF channels 16 & 67. Volunteer marine search & rescue groups operate within boating hours Wind speed: - When wind is mentioned in forecasts, refers to average wind over 10min period Gusts: - Are increases in wind speed lasting for few seconds Squalls: - Sudden large increase in wind speed that lasts several minutes & suddenly dies Cyclones & Severe Weather: - Cyclone season is from November through to April.

Why do boats float?

Weight of a boat = Weight of displaced water

Hard Chine (V-shape planing hull)

What & How? - Hard chine = sharp corner at waterline - Feature prominently in V shape planing hulls - Corner means the underside has flat panels (planes) that push the boat up out of water at speed - Hull plane pushes down, water pushes back & lifts boat out of water - Newtons 3rd Law - Almost vertical side and sharp corner also helps boats remain stable when turning sharply Advantages: - Travel very fast without using a lot of fuel - Very little resistance at planing speed - Low draft at planing speed - Extremely manoeuvrable - Hard chine directs spray away from boat Disadvantages: - Need a powerful engine (No sail power) - Hard wave slamming at speed - Only small boats (max 20-24m) - Carry very little extra weight - Weight distribution very important

Wave Piercer (Cutting through waves)

What & How? - Long, fine bow, lower buoyancy - Designed to cut through waves rather than rise up and over - Not lifted as much due to bow shape Advantages: - Very good at maintaining speed in waves - Can be used in multi-hulls effectively - Less up & down motion - Less slamming from small waves - Smoother ride - Performs well in rough water Disadvantages: - Results in much more spray and green water - Deck will get wet - Need sealed hull or drainage from deck if open - Safety considerations for open top yachts - Expensive design - Need to be long and narrow

Trimaran (Three Hulls)

What & How? - One main central hull with two side hulls - Central hull provides buoyancy, side hulls provide stability - Central hull stays in water, one hull may rise out of water, other may be submerged, stability is maintained Advantages: - Extremely stable - even when heeling - Very difficult to capsize - Good for high speed - Can carry extra weight/cargo - Has space in central hull & cross deck -Can be used for large ships Disadvantages: - Greater water plane area - More drag - Expensive hull design, needs careful engineering

SWATH (Deep displacement catamaran)

What & How? - SWATH = Small water plane area twin hull - Catamaran with deep displacement keel underwater - Most of hulls sit above water, only two/four small keels in the water - Waves don't act on hull, most above & below - Force of wave acting on hull = water plane area - Less area = Less wave force - Displacement hull, not planing (Hydrostatic Support) - Primary Purpose = Provide smooth ride & glide through water even if rough - Transporting people Advantages: - Excellent stability in rough waters - Can be used for drilling rigs - Very little movement - Smooth ride for passengers - Large open deck space Disadvantages: - Storage only on main deck, limited weight carrying - Engine, fuel etc, all need to be on main deck - Expensive control system required for keels - No space in hull, only on deck Applications: - Research Vessels - Pilot Vessels - Crew transport

Catamaran (Two Hulls)

What & How? - Two, narrow hulls (amas) connected by cross deck, solid or webbing - Can be planing or displacement hulls, displacement are more common - Wide beam in total with narrow water plane for each amas - Can have less draft due to lack of ballast - Sail or engine power Advantages: - Very stable due to wide beam -Smooth ride - Low resistance due to small water plane - Can travel fast (less resistance) - Energy efficient (less resistance) - Very large flat deck space for people Disadvantages: - Carefully designed cross deck to connect amas - Expensive to produce - Can't carry heavy weight/cargo - Waves spray/hit underside - can get wet

Hydrofoil (Flying over water)

What & How? - Wings are mounted on struts under hull of boat - At significant speed, water movement creates lift & foil pushes hull out of water - As hull leaves water, hull accelerates, creating more lift - Lift force & weight force balance out & hull remains smooth & stable - Propulsion system mounted at foil level, below hull Advantages: - Significant reduction in drag - Very fast - Efficient when foiling - Very smooth & stable, hull is above waves - Foil not impacted by wave, as always under water - Good for carrying people & racing Disadvantages: - Much deeper craft - Higher risk of collision with submerged objects - Higher risk of injury to marine life - Expensive materials, need to be light & strong - Cannot carry excessive weight/cargo

Displacement Hull Design

What & How? - Normal hull shape of large ship or sailing yacht - Round bottom hull - Designed to be as streamlined as possible - Glide through water with little drag - Usually have deep keel for increased stability - Hydrostatic Support (water-stationary) Advantages: - Fuel/energy efficient at slow speeds - Carry significant weight - Smooth ride - Stable - Efficient on large scale (cargo ships) Disadvantages: - Slow - Max speed set by hull design - More rocking motion in smaller boats - Smaller boats impacted by swell

Fish Tagging (Spaghetti Tags)

What is it? - Attach a tag to a fish & release it - Point is to learn more about the fish - Looked at info about where fish ended up & now can see what they do along the way - Government relies on data to protect fish populations Spaghetti Tags: • Piece of tough plastic that attaches to fish. • Tags have ID code which registers online after release of fish • Once caught, they report the tag & see where it's ended up • They're cheap & easy to attach •But they rely on an angler reporting the tag. • Only tells where they ended up

Understanding safety equipment

Where is it stowed? - Lifejackets need to be accessible & ready for use, not locked away - Fire extinguishers should be stored in areas where fire is likely to occur - Flares should be kept dry & accessible - EPIRB should be in cockpit, where it can be reached quickly

Archimedes' Principle Further Explained

Why do things sink slowly? - The buoyant force, acting against gravity, it's why things way less in water - Displaced water and object take up the same amount of space - The difference between an object's weight on land and underwater is exactly the same as the weight of the water it displaced - Whether the buoyant force is strong enough to make something float depends on the object's density. - Bowling ball is denser than water, weighs more than the water it displaces, negatively buoyant, the buoyant force is weaker than the gravitational pull - Beach ball has an equal volume to water displaced which makes it float easily, displaces less than their own volume, positively buoyant - Boats can be made of stuff denser than water but just needs to be moulded into a shape that captures air, add enough extra space and you'll get to a point where an equal volume of water is heavier

Characteristics of maritime construction materials

Wood = Cost Metal = Environmental Fibreglass = Aesthetics Plastic = Functionality

Basic Fish Population Model

∆P= (G+R) - (M+C) ∆P= Change in biomass over year G= Growth of individual fish R= Recruitment of fish to population M= Natural Mortality C= Fish caught by fishery