MASTER
development of hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
- brain develops from neural tube in prenatal life - tube composed of three swellings - hindbrain and forebrain later divide into
Hindbrain Principal Structures
- cerebellum - medulla oblongata - reticular formation
forebrain principal structures
- cerebral cortex - basal ganglia - limbic system - thalamus - hypothalamus
Conditioned Stimulus
A normally neutral stimulus that has been turned into one which evokes a reflexive response.
Primary Reinforcer
A treat that the organism responds to naturally, such as a dog treat. It is seen when classical and operant conditioning are used hand-in-hand.
Positive Punishment
Adds an unpleasant consequence in an attempt to reduce the behavior. Such as punishing a thief for stealing.
Mesolimbic Pathway
Also called a reward pathway.
Little Albert
Experiment which demonstrates generalization because a child was conditioned to fear a white rat, but a stuffed white bunny also scared the kid.
the four Fs of the hypothalamus
Feeding, Fighting, Flighting, and fcking
Latent Learning Experiment/example
Involves rats running through a maze performing just as well in the absence of an incentive throughout and only rewarded at the end for completing compared to rats that were learned to run through with standard operant conditioning where they were rewarded along the way
Operant Conditioning
Links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors.
VR stands for _______, but it also can stand for ____ (mnemonic)
Mnemonic for remembering how effective variable-ratio scheduling is. - Variable-Ratio ; Very Rapid and Very Resistant to extinction
difference between negative reinforcement and positive punishment
NR - removal of a bothersome stimulus to encourage a behaviour PP - addition of a bothersome stimulus to reduce a behaviour
Reinforcement
Operant conditioning consequence that attempts to increase the likelihood that individual will perform a behaviour; reinforcement is best for the beginning of acquisition because it unambiguously informs the subject which behaviour is correct
Punishment
Operant conditioning consequence that is used to reduce the occurrence of a behaviour
Preparedness
Predisposition to learning behaviors that coincide with their natural behaviors. ex. giving a bird food in response to pecking, while is something they do naturally when searching for food - works well
Discrimination
Process by which an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli. - opposite of generalization - Pavlov's dogs could have been conditioned to discriminate between bells of different tones... association could have occurred with one tone but not the other
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a time interval has concluded. - ex. rat gets pellet only every 60 seconds (pressing lever in between will result in nothing)
Instinctive Drift
The difficulty faced when trying to teach behaviors that work against their natural instincts; when innate behaviours overshadow learned behaviours ex. trying to teach raccoons to place coin in piggy bank, when they would instead rub between their hands because this is what they do to wash food instinctively
Observational Learning
The process of learning a new behavior or gaining info by watching others.
Dishabituation
The recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred. - second stimulus is presented late in habituation of original stimulus - second stimulus interrupts, causes increase in response to original stimulus - temporary; always refers to changes in response to original stimulus, not new one
neuropsychology
The study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.
Learning
The way in which we acquire new behaviors; change in behaviour that occurs in response to a stimulus
Escape Learning
Type of negative reinforcement in which the role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists. ex. taking an aspirin to escape an already existing headache
Avoidance Learning
Type of negative reinforcement that is meant to prevent/avoid unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen ex. studying for an exam so you don't do poorly (removal of a bad stimulus = possible bad score)
Conditioned Reinforcer
Used classical conditioning to pair something like a clicker with a primary reinforcer. It is also called a secondary reinforcer. It is seen when classical and operant conditioning are used hand-in-hand.
The different reinforcement schedules have differing effectiveness...
VR>FR>VI>FI - VR is fastest for learning a new behaviour and is most resistant to extinction; have the fastest response rate (
Generalization
When a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus can evoke the same conditioned response.
Extinction
When an organism has become habituated to the conditioned stimulus because it has been presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times ; leads to no longer presenting conditioned response
types of associative learning
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
layers of meninges
dura mater (outermost), arachnoid mater, pia mater (innermost)
types of negative reinforcement
escape learning and avoidance learning
Prosencephalon
forebrain; divides into telencephalon and diencephalon
basic subdivisions of the brain
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
Mesencephalon
midbrain
Acquisition
process where reflexive, unconditioned stimulus is used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
thinning
reducing the frequency of rewards for a given action in operant conditioning
midbrain function
sensorimotor reflexes
Diencephalon
thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland
meninges
thick sheath of connective tissues that covers brain
supraspinal circuits
used in scenarios that require input from the brain or brainstem
Classical Conditioning
when biological, instinctual responses are used to create associations between two unrelated stimuli
John Dewey
- also in functionalism - 1896 article about reflex arc - breaks process of reacting to stimulus into discrete parts
how is the front of the eye divided?
- anterior chamber (in front of iris) - posterior chamber (between iris and lens)
sensorimotor stage
(0-2 years) - smell, hearing, touch etc. + active; develop object permanence
Trust vs. Mistrust
(1 Year) Erikson's first stage, infants learn to trust as their physical and emotional needs are met. If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone. Virtue is hope, and failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust.
Malthusian theory of population growth
- human population increases exponentially while resources increase at a slower linear rate - population growth rate can be slowed by preventative checks and positive checks
Modeling
- imitative learning Factor in determining an individual's behavior by which they learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them. - observational learning is strongest when model's words are consistent with actions
types of long-term memory
- implicit - explicit (semantic and episodic)
Mental Set
- inability to see a problem from a new perspective - inclination to use old methods to solve new problems
normal memory decay (forgetting)
- initial rate of decay is highest right after material is first learned then plateaus over time unless material is review
retina
- innermost layer of eye - contains photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical info for brain
mixed methods design
- integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches - allows for more comprehensive understanding of topic
exhaustion stage
- last stage of GAS - prolonged stress produces arousal with depleted energy - makes the body more vulnerable to negative health effects - decreased resistance to stress again
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- magnetic field to interact with H - maps out H-dense regions
Hermann von Helmholtz
- measured speed of nerve impulse in terms of reaction time
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
- radioactive glucose injected and absorbed into body; glucose metabolism in brain - dispersion and uptake throughout target tissue is imaged
behavioural response patterns to reinforcement schedules
- ratio schedules = produce rapid response rates - interval schedules = produce slower response rates - fixed interval produced increased behaviour just before the reward and decreased behaviour just after
cognitive changes in adulthood
- reaction time increases steadily in early adulthood - time-based prospective memory declines with age - fluid intelligence peaks in early adulthood - crystallized intelligence peaks in middle adulthood - both intelligence types decline with age
social support
- refers to people who provide network of love, help, resources throughout one's lifetime - strong social support can lead to better health because it lessens the impact of stress - 5 types: 1. emotional - love, affection, intimacy 2. esteem - encouragement, confidence 3. tangible - money, resources, food, place to sleep when needed 4. informational - advice, info 5. companionship - mere presence, sharing in an activity
division of labour
- refers to specialization of tasks/employement in society that are interdependent - advantages: increased efficiency and production, decreased costs - disadvantages: increased boredom/monotony and labour exploitation, decreased quality
hindbrain functions
- refined motor movements - vital functioning (breathing, digestion) - arousal and alertness
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
- same base technique as MRI - specifically measures changes associated with blood flow; detects blood oxygenation - useful for monitoring neural activity
identity foreclosure
- second of Marcia's identity statuses - high commitment, low exploration - people have committed to an identity that they have been assigned (typically b y parent or authority figure) without contemplation or exploration
resistance stage
- second stage of GAS - can last for hours (exercise), days (exam szn), months (studying for MCAT) - body attempts to resist stressor and establish new equilibrium - increased resistance to stress; hyper-adrenal function
Opioids
- semisynthetic derivatives of opium - Oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin.
capital
- something possessed by an individual that gains advantage in society - can be accumulated and converted into other desired outcomes like higher social status - 3 major types: social, cultural, economic
structural plasticity
- sprouting (increased connections between neurons) - rerouting (new connections between neurons) - pruning (decreased connections between neurons) - does not happen quickly - delay
Biological Basis of Parkinson's
- substantia nigra (in basal ganglia) is not as prominent in parkinson's patients - SN contains dopaminergic neurons, therefore a loss of them ONLY = the problem - basal ganglia = responsible for motor movements, cognition, etc. - presence of lewy bodies in diseased neurons (clusters of alpha synuclein protein in neurons)
panic disorders
- sudden burst of sheer panic and intense fear - panic attacks - heart palpitations, sweating, shortness of breath in response to stimuli that dont normally warrant that type of stress
Illness experience
- symbolic interactionist perspective that examines how individuals understand and cope with serious or chronic illnesses that impact daily life and self-identity - 3 strategies of illness: 1. illness work = gathering info about illness, seeking treatment, taking meds, other illness-related activities 2. everyday work = other daily activities unrelated to managing illness but are still impacted by one's illness i.e. working 3. biographical work = making sense of illness for oneself and others, i.e. explaining illness to coworkers, friends, etc.
Type II error
- the incorrect acceptance of a null hypothesis - leads to incorrect conclusion that there is no difference between groups when there actually is (false negative)
Type I error
- the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis - leads to incorrect conclusion that there is a difference between groups (false positive)
identity moratorium
- third of Marcia's identity statuses - low commitment, high exploration - people are trying new activities and are thinking about career paths, but have not yet decided
criteria needed to be diagnosed with substance use disorder
- use: - using increasingly large amounts - experiencing increased cravings - strong desires to use - spending more and more time recovering from/trying to get substance - failing to cut back/down - experiencing problems related to work/school/etc. obligations - presence of withdrawal - presence of tolerance
sclera
- white part of eye - thick structural layer covering exposed portion of eye - does not cover cornea
computed tomography (CT)
- x-rays taken at diff angles, processed by computer to cross-sectional slice images of tissue
discriminant/divergent validity
tests that constructs that should have no relationship do, in fact, not have any relationship.
synaptic plasticity
the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time, in response to increases or decreases in their activity
Self control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification; influences how we behave
test-retest reliability
a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions
spreading activation
a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks.
CAT scan (CT scan)
a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography
Symbolic Interactionism
a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, objects, symbols, events, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions
priming effect
the activation of certain associations, thus predisposing your perception, memory, or response
Cognitive theory of personality
the analysis of your own perceptions, thoughts, and feelings
Impression managment
the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen on the front stage and how they actively manifest their sense of self in social interactions; worked on during backstage, aka training area for impression management; characterized by flattery (complimenting people), boasting (bragging), ingratiation (behaving in a way that will get others to like you)
total fertility rate
the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle - influenced by external cues - light and feeding - circadian biomarkers = cortisol, melatonin, core body temp - controlled by suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus ; photoreceptors in retina project info to SCN which then acts on pineal gland to regulate melatonin levels (low light = upregulates melatonin)
Thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
peripheral route persuasion
the case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by more superficial cues
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
Self image
the characteristics that a person sees in himself or herself
Overconfidence bias
the degree to which people are sure of their belief is greater than the accuracy of that belief; their thoughts, opinions, beliefs are infallible. - contributed by confirmation bias
cultural imperialism
the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture
Tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
Brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions; Midbrain, pons, medulla.
reticular activating system
the part of the brain that is involved in attention, sleep, and arousal
Central Executive
the part of working memory that directs attention and processing
phonological loop
the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
Mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel simple stimuli increases liking of them ex. hearing a song over and over again will increase your chances of liking the song
state-dependent memory
the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed
material culture
the physical things created by members of a society i.e. food, phones, clothing
Blindspot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
cultural relativism
the practice of judging a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through lens of one's own culture - there is no absolute right or wrong, different cultures themselves can be valid
Frustration agression principle
the principle that frustration creates anger which can generate aggression
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
Kin selection
the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives
Socialization
the process by which individuals learn the values, beliefs, and norms of their society and learn to function as members of that society by internalizing those factors
Identification (freud)
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos
Globilization
the process in which countries are increasingly linked to each other through culture and trade
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
Deviance
the recognized violation of cultural norms
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Dishabituation
the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation
Bureacracy
the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations
Gustation
the sensation of taste
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
Just Noticable Difference Threshold
the smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time
Mass Media
the spread of communication, such as newspapers and radio, that reach millions of people.
information overload
the state of being overwhelmed by the enormous amount of information encountered - can lead to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice made
master status
the status that one identifies with the most and dominates other statuses that may be held ex. more of a wife than a daughter
Activity theory
theory of adjustment to aging that remaining physically and socially active improves quality of life for older adults
Social cognitive theory
theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment; people learn through observing others Unlike behaviourism (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important. • Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors (ex. opinions/attitudes of friends and family) can influence your beliefs. - Bandora - Bobo Doll experiment
trichromatic theory
theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green
authoritarian personality
a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status - use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves
Ventral Tegmental Area
a portion of the midbrain that produces dopamine; sends to • Amygdala, Nucleus accumbens (controls motor functions), Prefrontal cortex (focus attention and planning), Hippocampus (memory formation).
Cocaine
a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid; interferes with serotonin
Alzheimer's disease
a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning
opponent-process theory
a psychological and neurological model that accounts for a wide range of behaviors, including color vision
diathesis-stress model
a psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences.
Unconditioned Response
a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses, based on an average number of responses - ex. "get reward on average of 3 responses" = reward sometimes after 2 times, sometimes after 4 times, etc.
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
gender role
a set of expected societal norms for males or for females
Dementia
a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes
Out group
a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition
Race
a socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people
conduction aphasia
a speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fasciculus
Factor Analysis
a statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits - used by Cattell, Eysenck, but NOT Allport
odds ratio
a statistical technique for expressing the relationship between variables by comparing the odds of different occurrences (>1 = greater odds)
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; typically after a mental break from problem; A-ha moment - valuable, occurs infrequently
ecstasy
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
MRI
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
we want to satisfy needs in particular order. physiological-> safety -> love/belonging ->esteem-> self-actualization
Secularization
weakening of social and political power of religious organizations as religious involvement declines
acronym for personality disorder clusters
weird, wild, worried = A, B, C A = PSS = psychology sociology section = paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal B = banh = borderline, antisocial, narcissistic, histrionic C = ADO = cya! = avoidant, dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders
Vehicular control
what experimental group does without the directly desired impact
independent variable
what is manipulated
dependent variable
what is observed, expected to change based on manipulation of independent variable
fundamental attribution error
when a person assigns specifically too much weight to internal causes and ignores external factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior
Chi-square
when all variables are categorical, looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other - null vs alternative hypothesis
social isolation
when community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream, based on their own religious/cultural/other beliefs
temptation
when desires conflict with values or long term goals
Medicalization
when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment - ex. fidgety kid diagnosed with ADD when he really just has the energy to want to go run outside
Self stigma
when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society
Actor observer bias
when individuals attribute their own behaviour to external factors (observers) but attribute behaviour of others to internal factors (willful actors) - pretty much the same thing as fundamental attribution error but includes the perspective of YOU yourself too not just others
Intersectionality
when multiple different social categories (race, gender, class) of overlap with one another and contribute to discrimination and oppression - people hold several statuses that must be considered together in understanding an individual's overall perspective and experience ex. being black AND a woman
retrospective/prospective review
when past records are examined for a study / when researchers proposed to review incoming data
Identification
when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone famous
identification
when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual; refers to the acceptance of other peoples ideas without thinking critically about them Ex: football player people admired and bought his jersey, but then he engaged in domestic violence and once it was made public the identification of this player by people dropped significantly.
Framing effects
when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased (or framed)
conjunction fallacy
when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event
stereotype boost/lift
when positive stereotypes about social groups cause improved performance ex. Asian kid being reminded that "Asians are good at math" perform better on a math test than kids who were not reminded
embedded field study
when researchers pose as participants
eidetic memory
ability to recall with great accuracy an image only after brief exposure - extreme example of iconic memory that ensures few minutes - in children, not really in adults
Sexual Dysfunctions
abnormalities in performance of sexual activity
Dissociative Disorders
abnormalities of identity/memory. Multiple personalities, or lost memories for 'important' part of their lives i.e. forgetting the entire part of your life where you were in a bad marriage
apnea
absence/obstruction of breathing
Extrinsic behavior traits
absent when animals are raised in isolation
Oedipus/electra complex
according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father - electra for girls
Manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
Latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
Non-inherited behavioral traits
acquired only through observation/ expereince
Methadone
activates opiate receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and can't experience the high because receptors are already filled
compulsion
activities that one must do, often related to obsessions - ex. washing your hands 3 times because of your obsession that they are dirty
Encodrine response to stress
adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine, and cortisol
3 components of attitude
affective - feel or have emotions about certain thing, shapes attitude ex. scared of spiders = emotion = attitude towards spiders behavioural - how we act or behave towards something ex. i will avoid or scream when seeing spiders = actions = influence attitude cognitive - form thoughts and beliefs, have knowledge about some thing ex. i believe spiders are danger = belief in danger in spiders = influences attitude
social desirability bias
describes the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others like the experimenter
case control study
design that compares information about groups with an illness against people without the illness
Mechanoreception
detection of pressure, vibration, and movement, perceived as touch, hearing, and equilibrium
Discrimination
differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities - can be individual and institutional
Individual discrimination
discrimination carried out by one person against another
illness anxiety disorder
disorder in which the patient is concerned with the actual idea of being ill, often lack or have minimal somatic symptoms
mental disorder (broad definition)
disorder of the mind; causes distress/disability
coma
disruption of the connection between prefrontal cortex and reticular formation
pathological defence mechanisms
distort reality o Denial - person pretends something hasn't happened. Most important defence mechanism. (acronym: PATHOLOGICAL liar/denier) § Ex; if someone has breast cancer, they just deny the fact that they do.
formal curriculum
explicit, official content taught through educational system i.e. physics, chem
Dreaming
75% occurs during REM - longer, more vivid than NREM dreams - once we enter stage 2, mental experience shifts to dreamlike state
Internal validity
extent to which a causal conclusion can be drawn from a study; it refers to if a study is well constructed i.e. using large random samples, accounting for confounding variables, etc.
self awareness
extent to which a person fixes their attention on their own self concept
physiological effects of THC
eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased HR, increased appetite, lowered BP
mediating variables
factors that are positioned between the independent and dependent variables but do not affect the relationship between them; provides a relationship between an IV and DV
moderating variables
factors that increase or decrease strength of association between IV and DV
types of collective behavior
fads, mass hysteria and riots
Change Blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
bias
failure to be objective
Ivan Pavlov
famous for classical conditioning experiments on dogs
B.F. Skinner
father of behaviourism - theory that all behaviours are conditioned - associated with operant conditioning
message characteristics
features of the message itself, such as the logic/clarity, how well written, number of key points in the argument etc.
culture shock
feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, or even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices. Ex. Moving countries
factors that contribute to total growth rate (3)
fertility, migration, mortality
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight
Primacy bias
first impression is more important than later data
Subtypes of Intelligence
fluid and crystallized intelligence
Biological theory of personality
focus on biological contributions to certain traits because person's genome contributes to formation of personality -influenced by heredity -'baseline' temperament - inherited/genes = traits = behaviour/personality (also influenced by environment)
Consummate behavioral traits
fully developed right away, at first performance. Not influenced by experience
3 types of taste buds
fungiform (anterior), foliate (side), and circumvallate (back)
non-binary
gender identities that are not exclusively male or female; gender that falls outside the binary model
generalized axiety disorder
general state is tense and uneasy to a point where it influences their life - anxiety must last for 6 months+ - continuous high level of anxiety
Negative control
group with no response expected
in-group
group you are affiliated with based on identification - ex. ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.
7 universal emotions according to Ekman
happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise (ASDFG(loomy=sad)H on keyboard) and also contempt; do not require a high level of cognition
PTSD
having lingering memories and nightmares for over 4 weeks about past event that impacts them in daily life - TRAUMA = traumatic experience, re-experience, avoidance, unable to function, month or more of symptoms, arousal increased
Paraphilic Disorders
having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli
Clinical trials
highly controlled interventional studies
which brain structures were developed earlier
hindbrain and midbrain - basic survival structures more located at base, where more complex functions located higher up
Rhombencephalon
hindbrain; becomes metencephalon (medulla oblongata) and myelencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
Barbiturates
historically used as anxiety-reducing and sleep medications that are prone to overdose, and have therefore been mostly replaced by benzodiazepines. - ex. amobarbital and phenobarbital
social psychology
how individuals think, feel, behave in social situations
demand characteristics
how much of behavior was influenced by how they thought experimenter wanted them to behave describes how participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that's what experimenter wanted them to do.
side effect discrimination
how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. (Institutions - economics, politics, law, medicine, business and are all interrelated, and discrimination in one area can effect another- it is an side effect) - ex. black man gets unfair verdict of guilty, now has criminal record. future potential employers are swayed and they discriminate unintentionally because of another institution
unintentional discrimination
how policies can discriminate unintentionally either via side-effect discrimination or past-in-present discrimination
Signal Detection Theory
how we make decision under conditions of uncertainty - discerning between important stimuli and unimportant "noise"
dissociation theory of hypnosis
hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness
cyclothymic disorder
hypomania + dysthymia (persistent mild depression) - less severe form of bipolar pretty much
components of sensory memory
iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory
Internalization
idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief publicly and genuinely believe it. Stronger than other types of conformity. Ex: start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior
test validity
indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results
Thomas Theorem
individual's response or reaction to a situation is the result of their interpretation of the situation - aka our actions are based on our perception of reality
McDonaldization
when social structures (heath care, education) increase efficiency, quantity, standardization, automation, calculability, predictability, uniformity, control at the expense of individuality, quality, skilled workforce
Innate Behavior
A behavior that is developmentally fixed.
Arcuate Fasciculus
A bundle of axons connecting Broca's area to Wernicke's area, allowing for the appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production.
amyloid plaques
A characteristic of Alzheimer's disease in which clusters of dead or dying neurons become mixed together with fragments of protein molecules.
Secure attachment
A child uses a person with whom they are attached as a secure base. That person's presence gives child the security to explore. They are upset when the person leaves but easily comforted when the person returns. - about 60% of babies
GABA Receptor
A chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane.
Daydreaming
A common variation of consciousness in which attention shifts to memories, expectations, desires, or fantasies and away from the immediate situation.
risk ratio
A comparison of the risk of some health-related event such as disease or death between two groups.
episodic buffer
A component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long term memory (eg. relating information you are processing to a previous memory)
Maintenance Rehearsal
A type of controlled processing in which one repeats a piece of information to keep it within the working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short-term memory and eventually long-term memory.
Acoustic Encoding
A type of controlled processing in which one stores the way something sounds.
Visual Encoding
A type of controlled processing in which visualizing a concept helps to gain the information it holds. - weakest one
Hawthrone Effect/ Observer effect
A type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.
learning via social cognitive theory?
Attention Memory Imitation Motivation (am I motivated) - these 4 things determine if you will learn something Ex. Want to teach you to draw a star. In order to learn it, need a long enough attention span, the memory to remember it, and be able to imitate it. Question is, are you motivated enough to do it? If so, you do it.
EEG
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
Capitalism
An economic system based on private ownership of capital/production with market economy based on supply and demand
Lev Vygotsky
An educational psychologist who proposed that the engine that drives cognitive development is the child's internalization of their culture, including interpersonal skills, societal rules, symbols, and language. - as child develops her skills and abilities are still in formative stages - with help of adults and other children the skills can develop further (instruction from teacher, watching another child perform the skill)
Spotlight model of attention
Attention is restricted in space and moves from one point to the next. Areas within the spotlight receive extra processing
Psychology of aggression
Averse events; Learning that aggression is rewarding; Observing models of aggression
Babbling
An important precursor to language that begins in the first year of life; happens to all children - hearing children = reaches highest frequency between 9-12 months - deaf children = ceases soon after it begins
Perceptual error
An incorrect perception of a stimulus
Coercive organization
An organization by which its members do not have a choice ex. prison
reciprocal determinism
Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment; our behaviour, internal cognition and environment all influence each other
function of nervous system
Basic = motor, sensory, automatic Higher = cognition, emotions, and consciousness
Basilar tuning
Basilar membrane is organized in a certain way that we can hear frequencies from 20-20000 hz
Trait theorists (4)
Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, 5 Factor Model
the devil/reverse halo effect
If we have an overall negative first impression, they get an overall decrease in each of their skills because of our impression - we see people in a worser way
The halo effect
If we have an overall positive first impression, we start to analyze all their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skills. They get an overall boost in each of their skills because of our impression - we see people in a better way
Homeostasis and drugs
If you're cocaine addict, your brain starts to recognize external cues like room, needles, etc. and knows it's about to get big dose of drug. Brain tells body to get head start - lowers HR before you take drugs. Why you need higher dose over time.
pleasure principle
In Freud's theory, the principle on which the id operates—seeking immediate gratification with no willing to compromise or wait - ex. i want the candy now
Zone of Proximal Development
In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they recieve proper guidance and instruction. Studied what children can or cannot accomplish without help.
Universal Ethical Principle stage
Postconventional Stage of Kohlberg's Moral Theory people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences. Very few people who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi
naturalistic observational study
involves observing participants in their every day lives; no manipulation of variables i.e. researchers monitoring a chat room after a violent event to see how different kinds of people respond
ethnographic research
involves observing social interactions in real social settings. o ex. studying the experience of role strain through observation can increase our understanding of how physicians cope with the challenging demands of extending life with interventions while accepting the reality of death.
content analysis
involves systematic coding and interpretation of human communication i.e. online media
agoraphobia
irrational fear of crowds and enclosed public spaces
phobias
irrational fears of specific objects or situations - focused anxiety
Ethnocentrism
judging other cultures from the perspective/position of your own culture - viewing our own culture is superior
Narcolepsy
lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep (uncontrolled sleep attacks) - symptoms = cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic/hypnopomic hallucinations
Wernicke's area
language comprehension
Feminist Theory
macro and micro level perspective of society that focuses on gender inequalities (differences in power between men and women in society) - type of conflict theory
functionalist perspective on mass media
main role is to provide entertainment, agent of socialization, enforcer of social norms
esteem support
mainly provided by people like therapists, coaches, teachers, etc. include expressions of confidence, encouragement, letting you know they believe in you
Emotional Support
mainly provided by those who are closest to you include love, affection, trust, caring
Informational support
mainly provided via sharing information with us or giving us advice - includes article on the flu that you read when you are sick
Other dream theories
maintain brain flexibility; consolidate thoughts to long-term memory and "cleaning up" thoughts; preserve and develop neural pathways
Language Acquisition Device
Noam Chomsky noted that syntactic transformations occur almost effortlessly for children, and therefore believed in an innate ability, characterized as a theoretical pathway in infant brains that allows them to process and absorb language rules.
Problem Solving
Non-behaviorist approach to learning that can be seen when a problem is present, but the subject does not know the solution, perse, but through trial and error they figure out the solution.
global aphasia
Nonfluent aphasia w/ impaired comprehension. Both Broca's and Wernicke's areas affected.
Secondary Drives
Not directly related to biological processes, but are thought to stem from learning. - ex. drive to attend medical school to become a doctor, or emotion based like the desire for love
Alpha Waves
Occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed. They are somewhat slower than beta waves. They are more synchronized than beta waves.
Stage 1
Occurs as soon as you doze off and is characterized by theta waves. - EEG shows irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages
Stage 2
Occurs as you fall into a deeper sleep. EEG shows theta waves with sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Egocentrism
Occurs during the preoperational stage and refers to the inability of a child to imagine another person's point of view or how they may think or feel
Centration
Occurs during the preoperational stage and refers to the tendency to focus only on one aspect of a phenomenon, or the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape - ex. child things one large pizza is more than two small pizzas even though they have the same amount of pizza
Dementia
Often begins with impaired memory, but later progresses to poor judgment and confusion. - personality changes - most common causes = Alzheimer's disease, vascular (multi-infarct) dementia ( high BP and repeated microscopic clots in brain)
tokenism
One minority character is added to a movie as a stand in for the entire group
Requirement of Working Memory
One must integrate short-term memory, attention, and executive function. This means that the frontal and parietal lobes are also involved.
Jean Piaget
One of the most influential person in developmental psychology. - believed that there are qualitative differences between the way children and adults think so lifespan is divided into four stages of cognitive development...
Normative organizations
Organizations motivated based on morally relevant, shared goals having positive sense of unity and purpose ex. religious groups, churches/sects
Schema
Organized patterns/clusters of behavior and thought. It can include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events.
Authoritarian parenting style
Parenting style in which parents are demanding and unresponsive toward their children's needs or wishes; very strict, break will of child, involves punishment
Secondary Circular Reactions
Part of the sensorimotor stage in which manipulation is focused on something outside of the body, such as throwing toys from a high chair. The child repeats the action due to a response from the environment, like parent picking up toy.
Primary Circular Reactions
Part of the sensorimotor stage where there is repetition of body movement that originally occurred by chance but is repeated because child finds it soothing - ex. thumb sucking
Migram's Obedience Study
Participants ("teachers") instructed to give electric shocks to another person ("learner") pretending to be shocked. 65% of participants shocked all the way - shows the phenomenon of complying with an authority figure
Social contract stage
Postconventional Stage of Kohlberg's Moral Theory right and wrong determined by society's rules, which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. • Ex. for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Postulates that a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance. - performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal, optimal and intermediates - varies by diff tasks - simpler tasks require more arousal than complex tasks
Individualism and Exchange
Pre-conventional Stage of Kohlberg's Moral Theory recognize that there is not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints.
3 (+2) Moral Development Stages
Preconventional (obience vs punishment, individualism and exchange) Conventional (good boy and good girl, law and order) Postconventional (social contract, universal ethical principle)
Obedience vs. punishment stage
Preconventional stage of Kohlberg's development; reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment.
Cost signaling
Pretty much helping out others because you want to let them know you are a big deal/rich/have resources benefits the altruist by allowing them to establish a "reputation"; one that allows him her or her to say, "look how great I am. I've contributed to people who are less fortunate!"
Tonotypical mapping
Primary auditory cortex has parts specialized for varying frequencies
GABA
Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Hippocampus
Primary storing place of short-term and working memory; responsible for consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory
Marijuana Category
Psychologically, it falls under the categories of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen.
Gender inequality Theory
Second feminist theory. The difference between men and women in terms of wealth and status.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Secreted by the anterior pituitary in response to increased levels of CRF. Its secretion leads to the release of cortisol.
Corticotropin Releasing Factor (CRF)
Secreted by the hypothalamus to trigger the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone.
Melatonin
Secreted by the pineal gland. - related to sleepiness - retina is directly connected to hypothalamus, which controls pineal gland - decreased light = release of melatonin - peaks during sleep and remains relatively low during waking hours
Neurocognitive Models of Dreaming
Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective and cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes.
Delta Waves
Seen during slow-wave sleep in stages 3 and 4. - low frequency, high voltage
Theta Waves
Seen during stage 1 and stage 2 sleep.
K-Complex
Seen in stage 2 (N2) to suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also, help sleep-based memory consolidation. Even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping. "that touch was not threatening, stay asleep brain"
Sleep Spindle and K-Complex
Seen in stage 2 sleep when the person is relatively difficult to awaken.
Political isolation
Segregated communities are politically isolated and have weaker influence on politics
Spotlight Model of Attention
Selective attention - takes info from 5 senses, but doesn't pay attention to everything. We are aware of things on an unconscious level.
General Adaption Syndrome
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion. - stressors can elicit different patterns of response or stereotyped physiological patterns of response (ex. women will respond with tend and befriend
Treisman's Attenuation Theory
Sensory Register -> attenuator -> perceptual processes -> cognitive processes
Glycine
major inhibitory neurotransmitter in spinal cord
absolute mobility
means that living standards/class are increasing in absolute terms: You are better off than your parents, and your children will be better off than you. (think absolute values in terms of math; there are no negatives).
face validity
measure of how representative a research project is 'at face value,' and whether it appears to be a good project the degree to which a lay person who takes a cursory look at an experiment agrees that an experimenter is measuring what they say they are measuring; whether it "seems right" to participants and researchers
predictive validity
measure of how well a test predicts abilities. It involves testing a group of subjects for a certain construct and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future
fertility rate (general definition)
measure of number of people being added to given population through birth as opposed to immigration
concurrent validity
measures how well a test matches up with a benchmark test, which is usually another valid measure of the same construct
Myelencephalon
medulla oblongata
volunteer study sample
members who want to participate in study are included; can lead to nonreprensentative samples ex. using sample of children who want to participate to draw conclusions about all children
mnemonics
memory aid using acronyms or rhyming phrases
Explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
Cults
more radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems, lead by charismatic leader; but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long
secondary deviance
more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that results in stigmatizing behavior Ex. Teammates of an athlete label players behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him a terrible player. Reaction will be he needs to continue to use steroids to be a better player. Reaction might be to use steroids more frequently or try more dangerous forms of drug. Repeated deviance gives him a reputation of deviance and the stigma of deviance stays with him for the rest of his career
Existential self
most basic part, the sense of being distinct and separate from others - constant - relationship with other objects and realizing that you are separate from that
Complex behavior
most behaviors are between innate traits and learned traits
Injection
most direct, intravenous means goes right to vein. Takes effects within seconds. Can be very dangerous
Geographical proximity
most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships
Libido
motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc − Central to psychoanalytic theory is libido. Libido is natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind. When this energy is stuck/fixated at various stages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects. Fixation at a particular stage is what predicts adult personality. Ex. someone fixated at oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits/overly talkative when they grow up.
Need based theory
motivation is described as how we allocate our energy and resources to best satisfy these needs... so motivation determines which behaviours are most important to pursue, how much effort will be taken, and for how long effort will be maintained
desires
motivations associated with pleasure or release from displeasure
efferent neurons
motor neurons
Frontal Lobe
motor, prefrontal, Broca's area
Vertical movement
movement between social classes or strata
Horizontal movement
movement in the same class ex. moving from 1 company to another that pays the same
gender fluid
moving across genders
Morphemes
multiple building blocks that words are composed of, each of which connotes a particular meaning.
Task similarity
multitasking is easier when they are dissimilar tasks than similar tasks
task difficulty
multitasking is easier with two simple tasks than with two difficult tasks
task practice
multitasking is easier with well practiced tasks than with unfamiliar tasks
Nature vs. Nurture
name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior
Randomized controlled trial
people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs
continuity theory
people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime; attempt to maintain habits and behaviours from their youth. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging.
Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis
people understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world
Treisman's Attenuation Theory
Sensory register => attenuator => perceptual processes => cognitive processes. Instead of a complete selective filter, you have an attenuator which can dampen but not eliminate input from the unattended ear.
Deutch and Deutch's Late Selection Theory
Sensory register => perceptual process => selective filter => conscious. Selective filter decides what is passed on to conscious awareness.
Broadbent's Early Selection Theory
Sensory register => selective filter => perceptual process => conscious. Perceptual process decides what is passed on to conscious awareness.
Echoic Memory
Sensory: auditory memory.
Iconic Memory
Sensory: visual memory.
Segregation
Separation of people based on racial, ethnic, or other differences and giving them access to a separate set of resources within the same society
Multiple Intelligences
Seven defined types of intelligence including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
Depressants
Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in relaxation and reduced anxiety. - aka anxiolytics because they reduce anxiety - primary effect is binding to GABA, increasing the effect of GABA which is an inhibitory NT - ex. alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
Negative Punishment
Reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed, like removing something the subject enjoys. Such as no TV for a misbehaved child.
Sleep Cycle (and some facts)
Refers to a single complete progression through the sleep stages. - makeup of cycle changes throughout the night - 50 mins in children, 90 mins in adults (4-6 cycles per night) - SWS predominates early in the night, REM predominates later in the night - the time spent in REM sleep increases in duration for each subsequent sleep cycle in the night, with the last cycle containing the most REM sleep (aka REM is shortest earlier in the night and longest during the early morning hours/right before waking up) - children spend more time in SWS than adults
Attention
Refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment (sensorium)
Syntax
Refers to how words are put together to form sentences. The order of words has an effect on the meaning of the sentence. - ex. understanding the difference between "nathan has only 3 apples" vs "only nathan has 3 applies"
Intuition
Refers to the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence. What the person does "feels correct" to them. - often developed by experience
Semantics
Refers to the association of a word with some meaning.
Pragmatics
Refers to the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge. - manner we speak in may differ depending on audience or our relationship to that audience - ex. may ask a stranger on a bus for a seat differently than how you would ask your friend - affected by prosody
Prosody
Refers to the rhythm, cadence, and influence of our voices; all of which affects pragmatics.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior. - ex. rat gets food pellet after every third press of lever
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of that behavior, with the number varying randomly around some average - ex. rat getting pellet after every 2 pushes, then 8, then 4, then 6
Variable-Interval Schedule
Reinforce a behavior the first time it is performed after varying time intervals have concluded. - ex. rat gets pellet after 20 s, then 80 s, then 10 s
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. A type of fixed-ratio schedule.
Prospective Memory
Remembering to perform a task in the future.
Benzodiazepines
Replaced barbiturates for the purpose of reducing anxiety and aiding in sleep. - ex. lorazepam, alprazolam, diazepam, clonazepam
quasi-experimental design
Research method similar to an experimental design except that it makes use of naturally occurring groups rather than randomly assigning subjects to groups.
Whole Report
Response to an iconic sensory memory experiment in which the participant is asked to repeat as many letters as she can when presented with a grid of numbers, usually only three to four out of nine.
Partial Report
Response to an iconic sensory memory experiment in which the participant is asked to repeat only one row when presented with a grid of numbers, and they can do so with perfect accuracy.
Sleep Deprivation
Results from one night without sleep or multiple nights with poor-quality, short sleep Results in irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance and slowed reaction time. - extreme cases can cause psychosis
Recall
Retrieval and statement of previously learned information.
Urban renewal
Revamping older parts of the city, can lead to gentrification
Insentive theory
Reward, intangible or tangible is presented after an action
physical and emotional components of depression
Sadness + SIG E CAPS § Suicidal thoughts: low self-esteem, low mood § Interests decreased: lack of interest (anhedonia) § Guilt: § Energy decreased - lethargy (feeling fatigued) § Concentration decreased - trouble making decisions § Appetite disturbance (increased or decreased) § Psychomotor changes/symptoms (agitation or retardation) § Sleep disturbances (increased or decreased) § + Weight gain or loss.
Instinct Theory
Says that people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts.
Concrete Thinking
Schizophrenics tend to use this because they lack the ability to have abstract thought. - some mental disorders lose ability to think abstractly
Somnambulism
Sleepwalking. Usually occurs during slow-wave sleep in N3 and N4. - eat, talk, sex, drive all while sleeping and returning to bed to wake in the morning with no recollection
Optimism bias
The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us; we underestimate the probability that bad things (cancer, car accident) will happen to us - similar to self positivity bias (pretty much the same thing)
Somatosensation
The body senses, including body position, touch, skin temperature, and pain.
source characteristics of persuasion
The characteristics of the person or venue delivering the message, such as expertise, knowledge, and trustworthiness
target characteristics
The characteristics of the person receiving the message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood, and other personal factors
target characteristics of persuasion
The characteristics of the person receiving the message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood, and other personal factors
Cocaine Origin
The coca plant is grown in the high-altitude regions of South America. - cocaine can be purified from these leaves or created synthetically
what connects the bridge between observable and mental approaches to personality development theories?
The cognitive theory, a bridge between classic behaviourism and other theories like psychoanalytic. Because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behaviour, and has a lot in common with behaviour theory.
Alertness
State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think. - able to perceive, process, access info, and express info verbally - physiological arousal - higher cortisol levels, EEG shows brain in waking state
Dual-Coding Theory
States that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information. ex. the word dad and the picture of a dad can recall the same info - this redundancy increases the chances of retrieval and using the info effectively when cued
Arousal Theory
States that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal. seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above their optimum level
Expectancy-Value Theory
States that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal, and the degree to which a person values achieving the goal; if a person expects to reach a goal and values that goal highly, they will need less motivation to achieve it and vice versa - individuals are motivated to act based on expected outcomes of their behaviours - involves 3 factors: 1. expectancy - belief that one will be actually able to achieve desired outcome 2. instrumentality - belief that one has control over desired outcome 3. valence - involves value placed on desired outcome
Cortisol
Steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex, related to the sleep-wake cycle. Contributes to wakefulness. - levels of cortisol increase early morning because increased light = release of CRF = release of ACTH = stimulates cortisol release - peaks immediately after waking and is lowest just before sleep
Information Processing Model Part 2
Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain to be useful in decision making.
Retrieval Cues
Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior
Neutral Stimuli
Stimuli that do not produce a reflexive response.
Stress
Strain that experienced when an organism's equilibrium is disrupted
Appraisal Theory of stress
Stress arises less from actual events and more from our interpretation of events; our evaluation of a stimulus determines our emotional response
Social Stigma
negative societal beliefs about a group, including the view that the group is somehow different from other members of society - includes prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination
distress
negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body. It happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you some way (physically or emotionally) and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat.
Carl Jung
neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" that links all humans together - personality is influenced by archetypes: 1. persona - aspect of personality we present to world 2. anima - man's inner woman (emotional behaviour in men) 3. animus - women's inner man (power-seeking behaviour in women) 4. shadow - unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, actions in our consciousness
How is alertness maintained?
neurological circuits in prefrontal cortex at very front of brain - fibers from prefrontal cortex communicate with reticular formation to keep cortex awake and alert
neustress
neutral type of stress. Neustress happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you. For example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful, but your body doesn't perceive that stress as good or bad for you so you aren't affected
primary deviance
no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong. Ex. All athletes of team use steroids, so the act of a player is not labeled as deviant and his actions go unnoticed.
Free Recall
no cues in recalling
Latent Period Stage
no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills.− Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation
Random mating
no selective mating in which animals chose mate depending on phenotype
Nonmaterial/symbolic culture
nonmaterial aspects of a society used to communicate and convey meaning i.e. values, beliefs, behaviors, social norms, laws
convenience study sample
nonrandom sample of most easily accessible members of a population; can lead to nonreprensentative samples ex. using sample of Chinese immigrant children to draw conclusions about Chinese children
Mores
norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group's values of right and wrong); deemed highly necessary to the welfare of society. Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Ex. Truthfulness. Don't have serious consequences. ex. a muslim girl moving in with her boyfriend before marriage would result in her parents being very angry and resulting in moral consequences
Laws
norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. Ex. Public figure lies under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. There is a punishment for the crime
Social scripts
norms that dictate how to behave; exist in every culture and serve to spread info about appropriate way of acting in various situations
Inflexible behavioral traits
not modifiable by experience
age-specific fertility rate
number of live births per year for every 1000 women of a certain age group
social influence theory of hypnosis
people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles
3 things needed for a social movement to form
relative deprivation, feeling of deserving better, conventional means are useless
Evolutionary view on motivation
role instincts play in motivation. Think about baby, cries, sleep, eats. Basic instincts all humans have.
social exclusion
The outcome of multiple deprivations that prevent individuals or groups from participating in core society economically, socially, civically (eg. voting); involuntary
What did Piaget believe about his stages?
The passage through each of these stages is a continuous and sequential process in which completion of each stage prepares the individual for the following stage.
Hyperglobalist perspective
The perspective that globalization is driven by legitimate forces, that national boundaries/specific nation states are becoming less important, and the world is becoming one unit.
Primacy Effect
The portion of the serial position effect that allows us to remember the first few items of a list. We are usually able to remember the first few items for longer than the last few.
Recency Effect
The portion of the serial position effect that allows us to remember the last few items on a list. Weaker than the primacy effect.
Grey matter
The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in cell bodies of neurons rather than axons. Unmyelinated.
physical attractiveness stereotype
The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.
Gatekeeping
The process by which a small number of people/corporations control what info is presented to the media
Accommodation
The process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information.
Assimilation
The process of clarifying new information into existing schemata.
Confabulation
The process of creating fabricated, vivid memories in an attempt for the brain to fill in the gaps. - example of creation of false memories
Encoding
The process of putting new information into memory.
Shaping
The process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors. - ex. training your dog to do a trick; reward him every time he does one part of it right and then when he gets it only treating him when doing the full move
Adaptation
The process that Piaget believed how we process new info - comes about by assimilation and accommodation
Fertility
The production of offspring within a population
Arousal
The psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli.
Motivation
The purpose, or driving force, behind our actions.
Homeostasis
The regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions. - usually controlled by negative feedback loops
social inequality
The resources in a society are unevenly distributed
demography
The scientific study of population characteristics i.e. race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, class, SES
Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Musical, Visual-Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal
The seven categories of the multiple intelligences.
Disengagement Theory
The view that aging makes an older adult withdraw from social relationships/society as society withdraws from them
Social Interactionist Theory of language development
Theory of language development that focuses on the interplay between biological and sociological processes. Language acquisition is driven by a child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner. The brain groups sounds and meanings together; as child interacts with others, certain brain circuits are reinforced while others are de-emphasized resulting in atrophy of those circuits - language is developed via biological (due to normal brain development) and social (due to interaction, reinforcement, desire/motivation to communicate) factors
paradoxical sleep
sleep during REM that has HR, breathing patterns, EEG mimicking wakefulness but the individual is still asleep - dreaming most likely to occur here, and memory consolidation
NonREM 3
slow wave sleep. Characterized by delta waves. Where walking/talking in sleep happens.
C Fibers
small diameter, unmyelinated
Suburbanization (suburbs)
small movement away from cities to have larger homes
A-delta Fibers
smaller diameter, less myelin
mania
state of high optimism, high energy, high self esteem, euphoria, risky behaviours without thought of consequence, delusions of grandeur (unrealistic thoughts) Mania acronym: DIG FAST (Distractibility, Insomnia, Grandiose, Fleeting thoughts, Agitation, Speech (pressured), Thoughtlessness (risky behavior)
allostasis
systems that keep homeostatic systems in balance
Evolutionary game theory
tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring and those genes will become more common in successive generations
thermoception
temperature perception
Conformity
tendency for people to bring behaviour to line with group norms; "peer pressure"; adopt the behaviours, attitudes, values of members of a reference group; can be related to normative influence i.e. privately disagree but publicly go along with behaviour, or informative influence Ex: Imagine you are part of a group asked to train a dog. Group decides to train it with a shock color and you agree
Out group derogation
tendency to attribute more negative qualities to out-groups vs in-group
Representativeness Heuristic
tendency to compare things (people, events) to existing mental prototypes when making judgements ex. mental prototype = nurses tend to be women, so assuming a woman in scrubs is a nurse rather than a doctor = inaccurate heuristic
Social Loafing
tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated Ex: in group project of a presentation, they put in less effort and perform poorly.
self-reference effect
tendency to recall info best when we put it in the context of our lives
cognitive bias
tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment
convergent validity
tests that constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related
Signs of damage to LMN
atrophy of skeletal muscle, fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle), hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle - how much muscle is contracted when person is relaxed), hyporeflexia (decreased muscle stretch reflex)
4 elementary mental functions
attention, sensation, perception, memory
prejudice
attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. Ex. CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team.
class consciousness
awareness of one's place in a system of social classes, especially (in Marxist terms) as it relates to the class struggle - realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression and exploitation. Involves seizing and obtaining means and redistributing the means of production among the workers
Genital Stage
back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others.− No adult fixation - person is mentally healthy.
internal capsule
band of projection fibers that runs between the basal nuclei and the thalamus
Reciprocal altruism
behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future
Taboos
behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior. Ex. Incest, cannibalism
Feeding and Eating Disorders
behavioural abnormalities related to food, ex. anorexia, bulimia
self-efficacy
belief in one's abilities to succeed in a particular situation. Developed by Bandora due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem
optimism bias
belief that bad things happen to others but not to us
behaviorists and language
believe language is just conditioned behavior
how did Piaget explain learning?
believed that infants learn mainly through instinctual interaction with the environment - ex. grasping reflex, and through experience with it they learn it is possible to grasp objects
what waves characterize our brain when we are awake?
beta and alpha
MEG
better resolution than EEG, but more rare because requires a large machine and special room to shield it.
Companionship support
between friends, reliance on each other as companions while engaging in social activities - includes giving someone sense of social belonging,
types of conformity and obedience (3)
compliance, identification, internalization
cultural capital
comprises the nonfinancial and nonsocial assets of a person (education, intelligence, knowledge, skills, attractiveness, talent, etc.) that confers advantage in society
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
compulsions are unwelcome thoughts that occur repeatedly, distress/disability from obsessions or compulsions. - characterized by obsessions (recurrent, persistent thoughts that induce anxiety) and compulsions (recurrent, repetitive behaviours used to relieve anxiety of obsessions)
Meritocracy
concept that people achieve social position solely based on ability and achievements; birth/parental background doesn't matter - Highly idealized, extreme social mobility, equal opportunity based on a combination of talent and effort
social construct
concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money
corticospinal tract
connections between brain and spine
inter-rater reliability
consistency in the interpretation of a measure across different observers
reliability
consistent results with repeated experiments - should produce same results within same person or across new subjects - aka replicability or reproducibility
Herbert Blumer
continued Mead's work on symbolic interactionism... proposed 3 tenants to explain it: 1. We act based on meaning we've given something. Ex. tree is place to rest. 2. Different people assign different meanings to things. We give meaning to things based on social interactions, ex. someone tells us tree is infested with ants. But we have different views of the tree and we act differently. 3. The meaning we give something isn't permanent, ex. something bites my back, so might not sit under next tree one finds.
upper motor neurons
control muscles of limbs and trunk, while LMNs that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of head and neck.
Trait Personality Theory
describes personality by looking at patterns of behaviour via traits A personality trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior combination of traits = personality
nuclear family
- basic social unit/grouping in society - consists of two coupled adults and their kids
Language
Written, spoken, or signed form of communication that is fundamental to the formation of communities.
sexual orientation
a person's sexual attraction to people of certain genders
Mead's theory of identity
"I" - is the spontaneous and less socialized part of the self. "me" - is the part of the self that is formed in interaction with others and with the general social environment and aligns with socialized and conforming aspects of self
Formal operational stage
(12+) - reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences. Where sophisticated moral reasoning begins to take place.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(2 Years) Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. Virtue achieved is will (independence). If child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame.
preoperational stage (Piaget)
(2-7 years)- When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play. Very egocentric - no empathy.
Initiative vs. Guilt
(3 to 5 years) Children learn to assume more responsibility by taking initiative but will feel guilty if they overstep limits set by parents--resolution: purpose Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. Virtue they reach is a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make. If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt - as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy.
concrete operational stage
(7-11 years ) -Learn idea of conservation
identity vs. role confusion
(Years 12-18) Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society. In this stage, the child has to learn rules, so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. Virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique. Can cause rebellion/unhappiness.
Intimacy vs isolation
(Years 19-39) Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families try to find love and relationships. Completion leads to comfortable relationships, avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness.
Generativity Vs Stagnation
(Years 40-65) Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture.. Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities, so develop sense of care for others. Negative outcome is they feel stagnate and unproductive.
Industry vs. Inferiority
(Years 6-12) Erikson's stage, when the child learns to be productive Where teachers take an important role in a child's life, and child works towards competence. Child will gain greater significance and self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Will feel industrious, but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior. Some is good though, so child has modesty.
integrity vs despair
(Years 65+) Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives slowing in productivity. Contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilt about past or unaccomplished, dissatisfied. Virtue is wisdom, but if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death.
neurotic defence mechanisms
(acronym: 4RID) o Intellectualization - taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation. Separating emotion from ideas o Rationalization - making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself. Can have false logic or false reasoning. o Regression - acting like a baby in some situations ex. throwing temper tantrum, start whining. o Repression - unconscious process where thoughts pushed down to unconscious o Displacement - person angry at someone but displaces it to someone else (a safer target). Ex: mother who is mad at her husband gets mad at her child o Reaction Formation - unconscious feelings that make person do complete opposite. Ex. A mother who bears an unwanted child may react to her feelings of guilt for not wanting the child by becoming extremely solicitous and overprotective to convince both the child and herself that she is a good mother.
dissociate identity disorder
- 2+ distinct personalities exist in single body all having influence on persons thoughts and behaviours, but are distinct in mannerisms, emotional responses, etc...... characterized by 1. 2+ personalities and 2. amnesia
Jung's dichotomies of personality
- Extraversion (E, orientation toward the external world) vs. introversion (I, orientation toward the inner, personal world) - Sensing (S, obtaining objective information about the world) vs. intuiting (N, working with information abstractly) - Thinking (T, using logic and reason) vs. feeling (F, using a value system or personal beliefs)
Conditions of self actualization
- Growth is nurtured by when individual is genuine, one has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. - Second is growth is nurtured through acceptance from others - allows us to live up to our ideal selves. genuine + acceptance = self concept
Mesocorticolimbic pathway
- Meso = "midbrain" - where VTA (Ventrotangmental area). Specifically, the soma of neurons that use dopamine are located at VTA. - cortico = "cerebral cortex", axons project to frontal and temporal lobe of cerebral cortex. (axons of the VTA neurons project to other areas of the brain and release dopamine to cerebrum areas). - limbic = "collection of structures inside of the brain" involved in emotions/motivations/etc. - Often divided into mesocortical pathway (VTA to the frontal lobe) and mesolimbic pathway (VTA to limbic structures)
biopsychosocial model of depression
- biological factors ex. 5-HTTPLR gene that is associated with depression but only if individual is in high stress environment - psychological factors a) behavioural theory - learned helplessness b) cognitive theory - cognitive distortions (continue to think about negative thoughts); attribution (link negative things to internal causes) - sociocultural/environmental factors - ex. co-rumination/empathy (having a roommate with depression increases ur chances, and empathizing with them too) - ex. low socioeconomic status
Core nations
- Western Europe and US. - Strong Central Government with enough tax to support it - Economically diversified, industrialized, and independent of outside control - Strong middle and working class - take/exploit resources from poorer countries and lead the global economic market through the export of goods around the world
self-fulfilling prophecy
- a belief or prediction about something/someone/oneself (which may or may not be true) that influences the behaviour of the person who believes it (or the person the belief is about), which causes the belief to come true - positive feedback loop - beliefs (im bad at chem) impact expectations (i wont do well on the chem test anyways so why bother) which then influence behaviour (not studying); results failing the test from not studying) then reinforce the belief (i failed so i was right, im bad at chem)
conflict theory
- a macro-perspective that emphasizes behaviour of social groups (rather than individuals) and states that conflict arises when resources (wealth, power) are unequally distributed throughout society - predicts that class conflict results from members of highest social classes possessing most of the resources compared to members of lower classes leading to a struggle for limited resources
confidence intervals
- address how well a sample statistic (i.e. mean) estimates a true population value by providing a range of values that is likely to contain the population parameter of interest - done via error bars - can help determine statistical significance - when CIs dont overlap = statistically significantly difference (the opposite is not always true i.e. if CIs overlap they may or may not be statistically significant)
facts on alcoholism
- alcoholism is higher for ppl of low socioeconomic status, but these ppl recover sooner and at higher rates - tends to run in families - children of alcoholics tend to have major depressive disorder - long-term consequences = cirrhosis and liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal cancer, brain disorders
cerebrospinal fluid
- aqueous solution where brain and spinal cord rest - produced by specialized cells that line ventricles (internal cavities) of brain
humanistic therapy / person-centered therapy
- attempts to empower individual towards self actualization and greatest self - therapist uses unconditional support, positive regard, empathy to encourage patient to reach their fullest potential
cognitive behavioural therapy
- attempts to recognize maladaptive thoughts and destructive/unproductive behaviours and develop more positive/healthy thought patterns and coping strategies - ex. desensitization (gradual exposure to feared stimulus while using coping techniques), challenging and replacing maladaptive self-talk (internal critique) ; rewarding healthy behaviours (classical and operant conditioning) ; observing others (observational learning) ;
psychoanalytic therapy
- attempts to uncover how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shape our behaviours - various techniques used to analyze our unconscious - ex. free association (sharing any thoughts, words, etc. that come straight to mind) ; dream analysis
Baddeley and Hitch 4-part working memory model
- central executive - regulates attention and task switching - other 3 are controlled by central executive: - visuospatial sketchpad - allows us to manipulate visual and/or spatial info (i.e. reading a map) - episodic buffer - responsible for temporal processing (understanding timeline of events) and integrating info from long term mem into working mem (i.e. remembering how to multiply when figuring out waitress tip) - phonological loop - allows us to manipulate spoken and written info (i.e. reading a book)
how to improve self control
- change environment: make object of your temptation harder to get while making better/healthier options easier to get - operant conditioning - classical conditioning - deprivation, but this actually ends up in wanting it more = ego depletion
what blood vessels supply the eye with nutrients?
- choroidal vessels (intermingled between sclera and retina) - retinal vessels
cornea
- clear, domelike window in front of eye - gathers and focuses incoming light
iris
- colour part of eye
schizophrenia basic facts
- combination of genetics and environment causing brain abnormalities - high dopamine levels - causes change in behaviour, specifically how one thinks and acts (delusions of persecution/reference (neutral environmental event is meant to have a personal or special meaning)/grandeur (believing they are a famous person or has unusual unique powers)/control, hallucinations, flat affect aka lack emotion) - starts off with prodrome = period of time before full on schizophrenia where symptoms start to become present like decrease in social functioning
forebrain functions
- complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes - movement - emotion and memory - sensory relay station - hunger and thirst; emotion
activities of daily living
- decline in intellectual abilities in adulthood is linked to how long an older adult retains ability to function in these activities i.e. eating, bathing, dressing, etc. - not a uniform decline - higher levels of education, socialization, stimulating environment can protect against decline
kinship
- describes how individuals in society are related to one another - 3 major types: 1. consanguineal - genetically related individuals 2. affinal/affinity - marriage 3. fictive - related by means other than genetics and marriage; chosen/voluntary kin i.e. adopted children, godparents, etc. - also defined by degree of relatedness: 1. primary - members of nuclear family, i.e. parents, spouses, child, siblings 2. secondary - one degree removed from nuclear family/primary kin of nuclear family i.e. grandparent, mother in law, aunt, etc. 3. tertiary - two degrees removed from nuclear family/secondary kin of nuclear family i.e. mother's uncle, brother in laws mother
muscles of iris
- dilator pupillae (opens
sleep deprivation causes
- disrupted REM and SWS = diminished memory - negative effects on cognitive performance, mood, problem solving, motor skills
Franz Gall
- earliest theories that behaviour, intellect, personality might be linked to brain anatomy - phrenology; if particular trait was well-developed respective brain region would swell swelling causes expansion of skull which can be used for assessment - proven false
Marcia theory of identity development
- evaluate psychological processes of individuals based on their level of commitment and degree of exploration - yields 4 identity statuses: 1. identity diffusion 2. identity foreclosure 3. identity moratorium 4. identity achievement
typical IQ test details
- ex. Wechsler Scales of Intelligence - normalized to mean of 100 with std of 15 - therefore 68% of scores will be between 85 and 115
Paul Broca
- examined behavioural deficits of people with brain damage - specific functional impairments can be linked with specific brain lesions - Broca's area
William James
- father of American psychology - functionalism - studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments
signs and symptoms of depression
- feeling helpless and discouraged - low self esteem - lack of energy - lack of focus - low mood - weight fluctuations - sleep fluctuations
Sir Charles Sherrington
- first inferred existence of synapses
identity diffusion
- first of Marcia's identity statuses - low commitment, low exploration - people lack direction, have not explored options, have not committed to particular career path or future
Pierre Flourens
- first person to study functions of major sections of brain - extirpation/ablation - various brain parts surgically removed and behavioural consequences observed - concluded that brain has specific parts for specific functions, removal of one part weakens whole brain
alarm stage
- first stage of GAS - occurs during first few minutes of stress response - SNS prepares body to act (fight or flight) - decreased resistance to stress
behaviourism
- focuses on how individuals behaviour is shaped solely by environment - interplay of how reinforcement and punishment shape behaviour
5 factor model of personality
- found in all people of all populations. − Openness (independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical), − Conscientiousness (careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not), − Extroversion, − Agreeableness (kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly), − Neuroticism. • Use acronym OCEAN
identity achievement
- fourth of Marcia's identity statuses - high commitment, high exploration - people have explored their options and typically feel confident about who they are and what they want to do in the future
Fundementalism
- going back to traditional, strict religious beliefs as a reaction to secularization
limbic system
- group of neural structures associated with emotion and memory - aggression, fear, pleasure, pain
brainstem
- hindbrain and midbrain - most primitive region of brain
educational stratification
- mechanisms that produce inequality in educational access (good schools available to students) and outcomes (graduation rates, college matriculation) - perpetuates inequality in society; students with low social standing have fewer options (i.e. limited access to good schools and teachers) thus continuing the cycle
biomedical model of depression
- monoamine hypothesis - depletion of monoamine NTs in CNS directly causes depressive symptoms - serotonine, norepinephrine, dopamine
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
- negative = "pathological deficits" aka the absence of appropriate behaviours and emotions - apathy (lack of motivation) - social withdrawal - flat effect (emotional flattening/monotone speech) - poverty (lack) of speech - anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure)
characteristics of physical dependence of drug addiction
- neurochemical changes: repeated drug exposure can change [NTs] in synaptic cleft, modify strength or # of connections between neurons, alter NT production, change # NT receptors - withdrawal symptoms: nausea, insomnia, headaches - tolerance: mediated by neurochemical changes i.e. increase in # receptors that respond to drug, decrease in endogenous substances that are mimicked by drug
qualitative research
- nonnumerical data (ex. words) - exploration focused - inductive: identifies patterns or themes - used for studying complex processes - often uses focus groups or other small samples to better understand phenomena
parallel play
- normal part of behaviour of preschool-aged children (<8) - children will play alone but still observe other children playing and will adjust their behaviour in response - but do not directly play/interact with other children - as they age they are more likely to interact and play together
how are aging and memory related?
- not much degeneration in recognition or skill-based memory i.e. general information retrieval is still intact (semantic memory, crystallized intelligence) - certain types of recall can remain strong ex. semantic material, prolly bc older ppl have larger semantic network than youngins - prospective memory mostly intact when primed by trigger event (ex. remembering to buy milk when passing by store) - time-based prospective memory does decline (i.e. remembering to take meds every 7am)
quantitative research
- numeric data i.e. using questionnaires - measurement focused - deductive: tests hypotheses - used for determining relationships between variables
sampling bias
- occurs when study participants are recruited from a population non-randomly; some have higher likeliness of being chosen - can result in nonrepresentative samples: does not reflect the overall characteristics of population of interest
snowball study sample
- one member of population participates in study, refers others who also participate; can lead to nonreprensentative samples ex. using single immigrant child and the friends he recruits to draw conclusions about all immigrant children
Elaborative Rehearsal
- one of the ways that info is consolidated into long term memory - the association of new information with information already stored in long-term memory in an effort to commit the new information to long-term memory.
cerebral cortex
- outer covering of cerebral hemispheres
preventative checks
- part of Malthusian theory of population growth - decrease birth rate - usually voluntary i.e. waiting to marry, having fewer children
positive checks
- part of Malthusian theory of population growth - increase death rate; slow population growth by shortening lifespan - can be small scale (increased deaths from flu) or large scale (epidemic wiping out half the population) - large scale = Malthusian catastrophes; dramatically reduce population to level that available resources can easily sustain i.e. war, famine, etc.
defining characteristics of flashbulb memories
- people tend to be very confident about their memory even after a long time has elapsed - people are able to vividly recall specific details, even ones that are insignificant - people are able to vividly recall their emotional state at time of event
Misinformation Effect
- phenomenon where our memories can be affected by outside sources - Exhibited by the experiment where subjects saw a picture where a car stopped at a yield sign then saw written descriptions like a car stopped at stop sign; when asked to recall images they insisted on seeing car at stop sign
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
- positive = "pathological excesses" aka the addition of things that are not normal - hallucinations - delusions (false beliefs) - disorganized/incoherent speech - disorganized/agitated behaviour - catatonic behaviour (cannot speak, move, respond)
primary and secondary aging
- primary = aging of biological factors and physical body - secondary = behavioural factors like diet and exercise
types of memory consolidation
- procedural (knowledge on HOW to do something) --> REM - declarative (knowledge about facts and things, THAT something is something) --> SWS
racialization
- process by which one group (the dominant group) designates another (a subordinate group) with a racial identity often based on shared group qualities i.e. physical attributes (skin colour), behaviours (religious practices), etc. - dominant group has more social power and exerts social control over subordinate group
individual influences on behaviour (according to psychoanalytic theory)
- projection, reaction formation, regression, sublimation
push and pull factors
- push factors: describe why people move away from their native countries i.e. unemployment, war; drive emigration - pull factors: describe why people move to a new country i.e. education, opportunities for girls; drive immigration
status/prestige
a person's social honour or popularity in society
cocktail party effect
ability to attend to only one voice among many
index of dissimilarity
A measure of segregation that indicates how isolated two groups are from each other in a particular area or city from 100 to 0
opiates
-naturally occurring form of opium - includes morphine and codeine
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables
3 steps of looking glass self
1) How do I appear to others? 2) What must others think of me? (shy, intelligent, awkward) 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions).
3 parts of Freud's psychoanalytic theory
1) Id at the bottom, it's the unconscious part. It develops after birth and demands immediate gratification. 2) Ego - part of conscious & uncons. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, judgements, & seeks long-term gratification. 3) Superego - develops around age 4, and it's our moral conscience. Also part of conscious and unconscious. • Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified - when overgratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It's a conflict between these 3 mental structures - ego, id, and superego. They're all competing for demand, so in conflict. ♦ Ex. Id is on one shoulder and it's not getting immediate gratification, then we have superego on other shoulder, preaching to id about what's moral, and ego is in middle as moral oversight. ♦ The ego is part of the conscious and unconscious mind, so it acts as mediator between the unconscious desires of the id and the moral demands of the superego.
Social circle that are involved in stigmas
1) self 2) family 3) society 4) media
4 Major Categories of Stressors
1) significant life changes 2) catastrophic events 3) daily hassles 4) ambient stressors (things that we have little control over and might not even realize it is causing stress ex. pollution. anything that causes physiological or psychological negative reactions i.e. noise, light pollution)
rational techniques of just world hypothesis
1. Accept reality 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system
assumptions of rational choice theory (3)
1. Completeness (every action can be ranked), ex. A is preferable to B which is preferable to C. (A>B>C) 2. Transitivity (since A is preferable to B is preferable to C, therefore, A is also preferable to C). (same as math A >B >C, Therefore A>C). 3.) Independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a fourth option X, won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options. Just add it in to existing order. (A>B>C, & B>X>C, Therefore: A>B>X>C).
Sources of self-efficacy to determine if strong or weak
1. Mastery of experience - performing a task successfully will raise self efficacy 2. Social modeling - seeing people like ourselves complete the same task 3. Social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control mood in difficult situations can improve self-efficacy
4 main points of culture
1. People share culture in society 2. Culture is adaptive 3. Culture builds on itself 4. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next
behavioural theorists (2)
1. Skinner - strict behaviourist, associated with concept of operant conditioning. Uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease a behaviour. 2. Pavlov - associated with classical conditioning, ex. the Pavlov dog experiment. Places a neutral stimulus with an unconditional stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. Ex. ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating.
breathing related sleep-wake disorders
1. brain - central sleep apnea: - problems with brain regulating ventilation - 5+ apneas per hour sleep - results in Cheynes-Stroke breathing 2. upper airways - obstructive sleep apnea: - airways are obstructed due to soft tissues around neck relaxing at night, causing restricted air flow - causes snoring, gasping, etc. - 15+ apneas /hour sleep (polysomnography) 3. lungs - hypoventilation disorder: - not able to ventilate lungs properly, therefore buildup of CO2 and lack of O2
major theories of language and cognition interplay
1. cognition (thought-related mental processes like thinking, planning, reasoning) shapes language - cognition either completely controls language (universalism) or just influences language (Piagetian) 2. language shapes cognition (aka sapir-whorf hypothesis) - language either just influences cognition (linguistic relativity) or completely controls cognition (linguistic determinism) 3. language and thought develop independently and simultaneously - vygotsky said social interaction precedes and is necessary for both language and cognition which are initially separate and then later merge
common barriers to efficient problem solving
1. confirmation bias 2. mental set 3. functional fixedness
views of institutions (2)
1. conservative view - institutions are natural byproducts of human nature 2. progressive view - institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful
irrational techniques of just world hypothesis
1. denial of situation 2. reinterpreting the event - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim
5 characteristics of ideal bureaucracy
1. division of labour - people are trained to do specific tasks to increase efficiency 2. hierarchy of organization - each position is under supervision of higher authority; not all people of organization are equal 3. standardization - written rules and regulations increase uniformity and continuity 4. impersonality - same impersonal criteria applied to all increases equality 5. employment based on technical qualifications - hiring based on qualifications and not favouritism/personal rivalries
bases of power model
1. expert power = motivates by using knowledge on subject matter; best for central processing route 2. referent power = exerts control by appealing to other's desire to belong to a group/fit in; best for peripheral processing rout 3. legitimate power = exert power through legitimacy of their role i.e. the president 4. coercive power = exert control through fear and threat; would probably influence both
5 stages of Demographic Transition
1. in pre-industrial societies, birth and death rates are high and population growth is low 2. as society industrializes, death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increases 3. as society urbanizes, birth rates decline as access to contraception increases 4. in developed societies, birth and death rates are both low and population growth is slow 5. future speculation - hypothetically, for developed societies with very low birth rates, population may decline
functions of antidepressant medication (4)
1. increasing production of NTs within presynaptic neuron 2. promoting release of NTs from axon terminal into synaptic cleft 3. blocking reabsorption (reuptake) of NTs into presynaptic neuron 4. decreasing breakdown of NTs within presynaptic neuron (NTs that have been removed from presynaptic cleft)
medication for schizophrenia (2 types)
1. neuroleptic - conventional, typical, first generation 2. atypical - second generation - both effective in reducing positive symptoms - neuroleptics have a greater risk of side effects and worsening negative symptoms (i.e. sedation, cognitive dulling, psychomotor disturbances like tremors)
types of measurements
1. nominal - based on labels i.e. what is your gender, what is your hair colour, do you believe in God (binary nominal) 2. ordinal - order of values i.e. on a scale from 1-5 how happy are you 3. interval - order of values with equal intervals in between and no measurement of 0 (known difference between them) i.e. temperature 4. ratio - tell us about order/range of quantitative responses, exact values between units with equal spacing, and have absolute 0 ex. number of times someone has gone to Church in the past month
5 considerations when examining gender/sexual orientation:
1. sex - biological; XX or XY, but some intersex people have 1 or 3+, so express different sex characteristics 2. identity - gender; masculine/feminine - behaviors, roles, activities in society 3. expression - gender that is expressed outwardly 4. attraction - gender that you are romantically attracted to 5. fornication - gender that you are sexually attracted to (2-5 are a part of identity and don't need to align with sex)
3 types of personality assessments
1. subjective = patients project their own feelings, thoughts, perceptions onto assessment stimuli yielding results that are up for interpretation (and possible inaccuracy at that) 2. objective = measures specific personality characteristics based on a set of discrete options i.e. doing the Myer-Briggs personality test 3. projective = requires the patient to respond, and then response is assessed for meaning
Cranial nerves
12 pairs of nerves that carry messages to and from the brain
Personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Semantic Encoding
A type of controlled processing in which one puts the information into a meaningful context. - strongest one - more vivid = better, especially when in content to our own lives
Timeline of language acquisition
9 to 12 months: babbling 12 to 18 months: about one word per month 18 to 20 months: "explosion of language" and combining words 2 to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more) 5 years: language rules largely mastered
Counterculture
A culture with lifestyles and values that oppose and reject norms/values of dominant culture
Tolerance
A decrease in perceived drug effect over time.
Habituation
A decrease in response to a stimulus due to repeated exposure. Like first year med students treating a sever laceration.
Aphasia
A deficit of language production or comprehension.
Alcohol
A depressant that increases activity of the GABA receptor. This causes generalized brain inhibition, resulting in diminished arousal. - behaviour is less inhibited bc centers in the brain that prevent inappropriate behaviour are also depressed - increases dopamine levels, causes a sense of mild euphoria - at higher doses, logical reasoning and motor skills are affected, fatigue can result
Recognition-Primed Decision Model
A doctor is able to sort through a wide variety of information in order to match a pattern. With practice and experience, it becomes accessible without awareness. - ex. ER doctor with experience can tell which patients are having heart attacks without looking at EKG or vital signs
Ecclesia
A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society ex. Islam in Iran
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
A form of memory loss due to thiamine deficiency in the brain. Symptoms include retrograde and anterograde amnesia and confabulation.
Monarchy
A government ruled by a king or queen
box and whisker plot
A graph that displays the highest and lowest quarters of data as whiskers, the middle two quarters of the data as a box, and the median
Parasomnias
A group of sleep disorders that include abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep. Examples include night terrors, and sleepwalking.
Dyssomnias
A group of sleep disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep or avoid sleep. Examples include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea.
Ecstasy (MDMA)
A hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine. A designer amphetamine. Causes feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness. - increases HR, BP, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, hyperthermia - feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness
Oxytocin
A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that is important for peer bonding
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.
Attitude
A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way
rhodopsin
A light-sensitive pigment found in the rod cells that is formed by retinal and opsin.
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Long-Term Memory
A limitless amount of knowledge that we can call on almost instantly. - mainly controlled by hippocampus but will eventually go back to cerebral cortex - self reference effect memories are more likely to reach long term memory
Cataplexy
A loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours. Usually caused by an emotional trigger.
Method of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
Reticular Formation
A neural structure located in the brainstem that communicates with the prefrontal cortex to keep the cortex awake.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
Sensitive Period
A period of time where the environmental input has a maximal effect on the development of an ability. - more relevant to language development - before onset of puberty
example of Source-Monitoring Error
A person hears of something that happens to someone else and mistakenly recalls it having happened to themselves.
class
A person's economic position in society, based on birth and individual achievement
biomedical model
A perspective that explains illness solely in terms of biological factors. - emphasis use of pharmacological therapy to correct chemical imbalances in brain
democracy
A political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them; law making, choosing officials; takes into account the will of the people
Conditioned Stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
Gentrification
A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area; occurs when higher-income residents move to lower-income urban areas resulting in renovation and increased property values that displace the original lower-income residents
Unconditioned Response
A reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus.
trait
A relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways. Combination of traits forms the personality.
Conditioned Response
A response to a normally neutral stimulus but is now a conditioned stimulus.
Priming
A retrieval cue by which recall is aided by a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory and uses the spreading activation of semantic network to get there.
Sleep Paralysis
A sensation of being unable to move despite being awake.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
Pluralism
A state in which people of all races and ethnicities are distinct but have equal social standing; encourages racial and ethnic variation
Drowsiness
A state of impaired awareness associated with a desire or inclination to sleep
Schachter-Singer Theory of emotion (two factor theory)
A stimulus leads to a physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted in the context of situational cues and labeled which results in an emotion - ex. palms sweating during exam could be interpreted as anxious emotion. palms sweating during date could be interpreted as arousal.
Episodic Memory
A subdivision of explicit memory that contains our experiences.
Semantic Memory
A subdivision of explicit memory that is characterized by the facts we know.
Socialism
A system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls the means of production. motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands.
Peg-Word
A system that associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers. - ex. one and sun, two and shoe, tree and three, etc.
ICD-10
A system to classify and code diagnoses, symptoms, and procedures International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision. System from the WHO (World Health Organization).. 11 top level categories
fMRI
A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
psychoanalytic theory
A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior − Psychoanalytic theory says personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and past memories (particularly in childhood).
Kelley's Covariation Model
A theory of attribution asserting that people rely on 3 cues when assigning causes for events: a) consistency (time) - ex. friend who always cancels last minute, they are just flaky in nature - high consistency = internal factors b) distinctiveness (out of character) - situational, external factors - ex. super nice friends gets mad when pizza order is late c) consensus (when a lot of people demonstrate same behaviour) - external factors - ex. 20 people show up late to a meeting
optimal arousal theory
A theory of motivation stating that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain what is, for them, an optimal level of arousal
Communism
A theory or system of social organization based on the holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community as a whole or to the state. classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community
Tetrahydrocannabinol Function
Acts at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors; the interactions between these to create "high" state is unknown. It also inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity, causing pleasure
cultural transmission
Addresses how culture is learned. Culture info is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices ex. a child learns how to cook from a parent
Biology of aggression
Affected by: genes brain structures i.e. Amygdala, frontal lobe, testosterone
Absolute poverty
An absolute level at which if you go below, survival is threatened. Minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive. This level no matter where you are
life course theory
Aging is a holistically social, psychological, and biological process that occurs throughout the entire lifespan; aging individuals influence and are influenced by broader contexts in which they live (society, history, economy)
Sound waves
Air molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure
famous observational learning experiment
Albert Bandura's bobo doll experiment - children watched adults beat up clown toy, mimicked their behaviour
Delirium Tremens
Alcohol withdrawal
Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory
All information -> Sensory Register -> Perceptual Processes -> Selective Filter -> cognitive processes
Broadbent's Early Selection Theory
All information -> Sensory Register -> Selective Filter -> Perceptual Processes -> cognitive processes
Example of Working Memory
Allows us to do mental math.
Secondary Reinforcer
Any reinforcer, like a dog's clicker, that becomes a reinforcer after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as a treat for the dolphin. It is seen when classical and operant conditioning are used hand-in-hand.
Unconditioned Stimulus
Any stimulus that promotes a reflexive response.
Stimulus
Anything to which an organism can respond.
Conduction Aphasia
Aphasia resulting from damage to the arcuate fasciculus. Speech production and comprehension are retained, but they are unable to repeat things that have been said because the connection between areas is lost.
Long-Term Potentiation
As a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, which increases receptor density. - neurological basis for long term memory (learning and memory) - NMDA receptor for glutamate is required for strengthening of synaptic connections - "potentiate" = increase strength of something = strengthening of "long-term" synaptic connection - can occur via 2 mechanisms: increase in NT release from presynaptic neuron OR increase in # of receptors on postsynaptic neuron
institutional discrimination
As opposed to discriminatory acts committed by individuals, there are institutional policies that disadvantage certain groups and favor others.
Synaptic Pruning
As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while new ones are bolstered (strengthened/supported), increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information.
Asch Line Study
Asch ran a study in which participants were shown 4 lines and asked which two were the same size. Actors (confederates) who were in on the study, would lie and give the incorrect answer. 75% of participants gave at least one wrong answer and in 37% of the trials, the subject chose the wrong line. This shows that people are very susceptible to conformity.
Hypnotic Induction
Beginning of hypnosis in which the hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject's level of concentration. - then hypnotist suggests perceptions/actions - used successfully for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement (like recovering repressed memories of trauma), weight loss, smoking cessation - brain scans show it is actually real but participant requires willing personality and lack of skepticism
Explosion of Language
Begins around 18 months when children begin to quickly learn dozens of words. - uses each word with varying inflection and gestures to convey a desired meaning - ex. points to apple in fruit bowl and says "apple?" in hopes to request apple; points to fruit tray at store saying "apple?" as an attempt to distinguish between an apple and some other fruit - gestures, inflection, context are essential for parent to identify meaning
Representational Thought
Begins upon the development of object permanence. Children begin to create mental representations of external objects and events.
Prototype willingness model
Behavior is a function of 6 things: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, and prototypes/models. Argues that a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping
Adaptation
Behavior is coordinated internal and external response of organisms to their environment
Learning (Behaviourist) Theory of language development
Behaviorist theory of language development proposed by B.F. Skinner. Skinner believed that language acquisition was done through operant conditioning, language imitation and practice - babies can distinguish between phonemes of all human languages but show preference for phonemes by language spoken by parents by 6 months
EEG patterns of sleep/types of brain waves
Beta, Alpha, Theta, and Delta. also a 5th wave that corresponds to REM sleep (when we have most of our dreams) - form a complete cycle lasting about 90 mins - BAT-D = bat sleeps during the day
Combine Words
Between 18 and 20 months of age, children learn to put words together.
Opiates and Opioids
Bind to opioid receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system, causing a decreased reaction to pain, and an increased sense of euphoria. - overdose = death by respiratory suppression
Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines
Both drugs increase GABA activity, causing a sense of relaxation. Both can also be highly addictive. - if taken with alcohol = coma or death
Inductive Reasoning
Bottom-up reasoning which seeks to create a theory via generalizations. Starts with specific instances and then draws conclusions from them.
Dementia
Brain atrophy component of Alzheimer's that is characterized by the loss of cognitive function and the loss of memory.
activation-synthesis hypothesis
Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. Our brain tries to find meaning from random brain activity--> explanation that dreams may not actually have meaning.
Extrinsic Motivation
Can include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved. - created by external forces (coming from outside oneself) - ex. studying for months to get a high MCAT score, working to avoid being fired
Marijuana
Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica
Myer-Briggs personality test
Carl Jung - 4 letters that characterize you in one of 16 personality types o ESTJ: extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T), judgment (J)- (Acronym: East ST. Johns High school) o INFP: introversion (I), intuition (N), feeling (F), perception (P) (Acronym: I Need the Feeling of Pain)
humanistic theory
Carl Rogers believed self-concept had 3 different components. − Self-image: what we believe we are − Self-esteem: how much value we place on ourselves − Ideal-self: what we aspire to be
Long Sentences
Children begin to put many words together around 2-3 years of age and speak in longer sentences and grammatical errors increase as child internalizes complex rules of grammar
Bobo doll experiment
Children model the behavior of adults, Albert bandura
Categorical Perception
Children must learn when subtle differences between speech sounds represent a change in meaning or not; the pronunciation of a word varies between people. - auditory example of constancy
language acquisition device
Chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally
Down's and Fragile X Syndrome
Chromosomal abnormalities linked with delayed cognitive development.
Amphetamines
Cause increased arousal by increasing the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake. - causes reduction of appetite, decrease need for sleep, and increased arousal - increases HR and BP - euphoria, hypervigilance (being on edge), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia - prolonged use = stroke, brain damage
Stimulants
Cause increased arousal in the nervous system. - each drug increases the frequency of action potentials, but by different mechanisms - ex. amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
Caused by a thiamine deficiency (vitamin B1) and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills.
Korskoff's Syndrome
Caused by chronic alcoholism also known as wet brain which severely impairs short-term memory
telencephalon
Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system
Discrimination magnet
Certain groups may face discrimination, based on their race/gender/sexual orientation/etc
The I and the Me
Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead both thought others could play a significant role in how we view ourselves, but differed in how they thought this would happen. − Cooley thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity − Mead thought this was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life.Mead developed the idea of social behaviourism, the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism). − Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others, and see themselves as being the focus of their own world and don't care what others think of them. Lack ability to take perspective of another person - related to Piaget's concept of egocentrism. - 3 stages - preparatory, play, game
Pheromones
Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.
cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia
Cognitive symptoms- abnormalities of attention, organization, planning abilities
Collective behaviour vs group behaviour
Collective behavior is not the same as group behavior, because of a few reasons. o First, collective behavior is time-limited, and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time. o Collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive. o Collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms.
Linguistic isolation
Communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in same city
factitious disorder
Condition in which a person acts as if he or she has a physical or mental illness when he or she is not really sick. - patients want to be sick, will falsify signs and symptoms to get diagnosis
Compliance
Conforming to a request or demand to do a behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. Usually in response to a direct request. Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed.
Nucleus Accumbens and Ventral Tegmental Area
Connected by the medial forebrain bundle, these are included in the mesolimbic reward pathway.
suppression
Consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness ex. A terminally ill cancer patient puts aside his anxiety to enjoy a family gathering
William James
Considered the father of modern psychology, and he was the first one to write about instincts in 1890. - said that humans were driven by instincts - we have 20 physical instincts (i.e. locomotion) and 17 mental instincts (i.e. curiosity)
Broca's Area
Controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex. - located in inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe
Good boy and good girl stage
Conventional Stage of Kohlberg's Moral Theory Make decisions on the basis of what will please others. Concerned about maintaining interpersonal relations Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity.
Law and Order stage
Conventional Stage of Kohlberg's Moral Theory person acts to do duty/ respect others maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws.
Biological basis of Alzheimer's disease
Cortical disease (affects outermost tissue of brain) due to formation of neuritic plaques (hard formations of beta-amyloid protein) and neurofibrillary tangles (clumps of tau protein). Some evidence of acetylcholine activity abnormality in the hippocampus
Circadian Rhythm Hormones
Cortisol and melatonin. - melatonin mellows you out, cortisol helps you get up with the sun (sol = latin for sun)
Howard Gardner
Created the theory of multiple intelligences.
Associative Learning
Creation of an association between two stimuli, or between a behavior and a response.
Skeptical perspective
Critical of globalization & considers today's international processes as becoming regionalized rather than globalized. Transnational corporations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important
Central Dogma
DNA -> RNA -> Protein -> Trait
disassortative mating
Dissimilar phenotypes mate preferentially Favors heterozygosity
Kubler-Ross stages of dying
Death Always Brings Definite Acceptance = denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
Information Processing Model Part 3
Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems. (aka situational modification)
Cocaine
Decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin by a different mechanism than amphetamines. - anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties therefore sometimes used in surgery for highly vascular areas (nose, throat)... can also lead to heart attacks and strokes when used recreationally
positive punishment
Decreasing behavior by presenting a negative stimuli. (Adding something bad)
negative punishment
Decreasing behavior by stopping or reducing positive stimuli. (Subtracting something good)
Drives
Defined as internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals. It is theorized that they originate within an individual without requiring external factors to motivate behavior.
Alzheimer's Disease
Degenerative brain disorder that is believed to be caused by the loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus. - memory loss occurs in retrograde fashion (loss of recent memories first before distant memories start to go)
Harlow Monkey Studies
Demonstrated the importance of a child feeling affection and building an attachment bond with the mother during infancy; also demonstrated that even after monkeys were paired with cloth mother after wire mother they stilled demonstrated abnormal behaviour
Opium
Derived from the poppy plant.
Symbolic Thinking
Developed during the preoperational stage and refers to the ability to pretend and have an imagination.
Cognitive Development
Development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan. - ex. early childhood cognitive development is limited by pace of brain maturation and mastering physical environment - later on the focus becomes abstract thinking
Insomnia
Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep - most common - related to anxiety, depression, meds, disruptions of sleep cycles or cicadian rhythms
Sleep Disorders
Disorders that disrupt the sleep cycle of a person. Frequently they occur during NREM sleep. - categorized into dyssomnias and parasomnias
substance induced disorders
Disorders, such as intoxication, that can be induced by using psychoactive substances.
conversion disorder
Distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to neurological illness (like seizures, problems with speech) unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin - Neurological symptoms that we see are incompatible with any known neurological or mental condition. We cannot explain these symptoms based on test or clinical exam. - Sometimes have a level of psychological stress or traumatic event resulting in manifestation of neurological symptoms
Somatic Symptom Disorder
Distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to physical illness unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin - ex. complaining of abdominal pain without any physical signs - must cause functional impairments - leaves person feeling worried, anxious, etc.
NonREM 1
Dominated by theta waves. Strange sensations - hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren't there.
Problem-Solving Dream Theory
Dreams are a way to solve problems while you sleep... Untethered by rules of real world, allowing for interpretation of obstacles differently than during waking hours
Activation-Synthesis Theory
Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry. This activation can mimic incoming sensory information, and may also contain pieces of stored memory, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, etc. - cortex then tries to stitch unrelated info together, producing a bizarre but familiar dream
Mesolimbic Reward Pathway
Drug addiction is linked to this, one of the four dopaminergic pathways in the brain. It is normally involved in motivation and emotional response, and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance abuse. - activated by all substances that produce psychological dependence - contains the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area (produces dopamine), medial forebrain bundle (which is the connection between them)
Hallucinogens
Drugs with an unknown mechanism that cause hallucinations. - ex. lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, psilocybin-containing mushrooms - exact mechanism unknown, but is a complex interaction between various NTs, especially serotonin - typically cause distortions of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, introspection - increased HR and BP, dilation of pupils, sweating, increased body temp
Labelled lines model
Every taste cell has their own line towards a specialized part of the cortex
Causes of Delirium
Electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reactions, withdrawal, and pain.
Self-Determination Theory
Emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy (the need to be in control of ones actions and ideas), competence (the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks), and relatedness (the need to feel accepted or wanted in relationships)
Working Memory
Enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and allows us to manipulate that information; involves the manipulation and processing of info (unlike short term memory) - ex. study where you are asked to repeat words that are presented to you
Psychosocial Development Theory
Erikson personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan. Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory - 8 stages
Proactive Interference
Error in forming new memories due to the presence of old memories. - ex. hard time learning your new home address because you are so used to the old one
False Memories
Error in memory construction due to our thoughts and feelings influencing later recall.
Cultural-Historical Psychology
Establishment of a "new psychology" that would account for the inseparable unity of mind, brain and culture. Associated with Lev Vygotsky, but not mentioned in his writings.
Past-in-present discrimination
Even if discrimination done in the past is no longer allowed, can still have consequences for people in the present - ex. black girl wanting to attend mixed school but feels uncomfortable
Attitude to behavior process model
Event triggers one's attitude which affects event causes attitude, plus our outside knowledge will lead to our behaviour
Constancy (Linguistics)
Exemplified by categorical perception in language, it refers to the idea that we perceive certain characteristics to remain the same, despite differences in appearance due to the environment.
Piaget's Pendulum Experiment
Experiment to determine the differences between concrete and formal operational stage. Concrete kids manipulated multiple variables at random to figure out what affects the frequency. Formal kids knew to hold all variables constant and change one at a time to examine the effects.
Incentive Theory
Explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue external rewards or avoid punishment; revolves more around motivation towards factors outside of individuals - ex. smoking even in the face of dire health consequences; the pleasure of smoking is strong and immediate and serves as a stronger incentive than the prospect of good health in the future because it is less immediate and less certain to occur
Drive Reduction Theory
Explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states; drives organism to reduce arousal - motivation is the result of a disruption of homeostasis which generates a biological need (hunger) - the biological need generates a drive (desire to eat) to fulfil that need which prompts action (eating) - when the drive is reduced homeostasis is reestablished
Opponent-Process Theory
Explains that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology. - ex. to counteract alcohol (depressant) the body will increase arousal; but it will last longer than the drug so withdrawal symptoms include irritability, jitteriness, anxiety, etc.
Stigma
Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society normally those who have broken important norms ex. those who commit incest when someone views you in a negative way because you have a distinguishing characteristic or personal trait that's thought to be, or actually is, a disadvantage (a negative stereotype). ex. mental health disorders
Automatic Processing
Familiar or routine tasks can be done without full focus on the task. - permits the brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention - ex. being experienced at driving a car and able to change the radio at the same time - does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change
A-beta fibers
Fast ones are thick and covered in myelin
message characteristics of persuasion
Features of the message itself, like logic and number of key points -Length of speech and complexity included
Gender difference Theory
First feminist theory. Differences in the roles and behaviors that are prescribed by a culture for males and females.
Psychosexual Theory of Development
Freud - Proposed the psychosexual theory of development. − Believed early childhood was the most important age/period it developed. Plays large role in personality development. − 5 stages - if completed successfully, result is a healthy issue. If issues aren't resolved at a certain stage, then fixation occurs - oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (Old Aged People Love Grandchildren)
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
Frustration Aggression Hypothesis
Frustration can lead to aggression towards minorities via scapegoating
Gender script
Gender-specific organized information regarding order of actions appropriate to familiar situations
Spearman's G Factor
General intelligence factor; underlying factor of general intelligence exists that forms the foundation out of which all intellectual abilities rise. - measured with standardized tests that generate intelligence quotient (IQ)
Biological Basis of depression
Genetic Basis (increased risk) - feelings of hopelessness, loss of interest in activities - increased activity in in limbic structures, decreased activity in frontal lobe - abnormal hormones in body due to impacted communication of frontal lobe, limbic system, hypothalamus - abnormalities in neural pathways (mainly that have cell bodies in brain stem and axons in frontal/limbic system) using certain NTs... a) raphe nuclei (responsible for serotonin release) b) locus coeruleus (sends axons to cerebrum, releases norepinepherine) c) VTA (sends long axons to cerebrum, supplies dopamine)
biological basis of schizophrenia
Genetic Predisposition + Environmental Trigger - larger fluid filled regions in brain due to less overall tissue of the brain - decreased size of cerebral cortex specifically frontal and temporal lobes - abnormal increases in dopamine affecting cognitive, emotional, perceptual functions in frontal and temporal lobes - affected mesocorticolimbic pathway - dysfunction in parts of frontal cortex that cause cognitive symptoms, and limbic structure causes negative symptoms, and abnormal activity in temporal cortex causes positive symptoms.
symbolic interactionism
George Herbert Mead: Approach that focuses on the interpersonal interactions among people through which the subjective meanings that shape social reality are developed - when people give meaning to symbols and events and interact with others based on their interpretations - can differ by context and culture (i.e. avoiding eye contact in Japan is respectful and rude in Canada) and can change over time
Population Pyramid + Types
Graphs the age and sex distribution of a population. Males/Females on x-axis and increasing age on y-axis. 1. Expansive/Expanding Pyramid: broad bases (lots of younger people) and narrow tops (less old people); characteristic of developing countries in early stages of demographic transition with high birth/death rates and increasing population size; short life expectancy 2. Stationary Pyramid: broad bases and tops, characteristic of developed countries in later stages of demographic transition with low birth and death rates and stable population size; long life expectancy 3. Contractive/Contracting Pyramid: narrower bases than middles, characteristic of developed countries in final stage of demographic transition with very low birth rates and gradually declining population size because number of individuals born will not replace number of older individuals who die; long life expectancy
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Greatly influenced by Freud, but his theory was based on culture and society − Another key difference between his and Freud's theory was he suggested there was plenty of room for growth throughout one's life (not just childhood). − Assumed a crisis can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Successful of 8 stages results in acquisition of basic virtues and healthy personality. Failure in certain stage results in reduced ability to move on to further stages.
Cohorts
Groups
Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Hallucinations
Hallucinations when falling asleep or awakening, respectively.
Beta Waves
Have a high frequency and occur when a person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration. They occur when neurons are randomly firing.
otolithic organs (utricle and saccule)
Help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning
social influences
How imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence.
Signs of UMN damage
Hyperreflexia - increase in the muscle stretch reflexes. Clonus - rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Hypertonia - increased tone of skeletal muscles. Extensor Plantar Response
Stanford-Binet IQ Test
IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100
positive self concept
Ideal-self + Real-self = same
Disconfirmation Principle
If a solution to a problem fails during testing, it should be discarded; evidence shows that it does not work. However, the presence of a confirmation bias may prevent someone from doing so.
Spontaneous Recovery
If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited.
Social exchange theory
In social structure, an extension of rational choice theory that focuses on interactions in groups; individual interactions (social exchanges) are based on decisions regarding costs and benefits of each person in relationship; determined by rewards or punishments ex. costs = time, effort, money of relationship... benefits = acceptance, friendship, intimacy
Rational Choice Theory
In social structure, the theory that an individual considers benefits and harms to themselves in any given social interaction and chooses the best possible action based on what maximizes gain and minimizes loss
Sleep Apnea
Inability to breathe while sleeping. - obstructive = physical blockage in pharynx or trachea, preventing airflow - central = brain fails to send signals to diaphragm to breath
dissociative amnesia
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting
Positive Reinforcement
Increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or an incentive. - ex. money ; workers will keep working if they are paid
Negative Reinforcement
Increase a behavior by removing something unpleasant. - ex. aspirin ; taking med will reduce headache and you will likely rake it again for your next headache
Alcohol Dopamine Effect
Increases dopamine levels, causing a sense of mild euphoria.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.
Negtive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by removing a stimuli
insecure attachment
Infants are wary of exploring the environment and resist or avoid the mother when she attempts to offer comfort or consolation
Automatic Processing
Information gained without effort. ex. walking outside and realizing the temp, keeping track of route taken, etc.
Kinesis
Innate behavior, an organism changes its movement in a non-directional way
Taxis
Innate behavior, movement toward or away from a stimulus.
Rapid Eye Movement
Interspersed between cycles of the NREM sleep stages. In this stage, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed.
Method of Loci
Involves associating each item in a list with a location along a route of a known path. - ex. for a grocery list, you imagine eggs on your front door, spilt milk on front hallway
Source-Monitoring Error
Involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory. The person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context under which it occurred.
Meditation
Involves the quieting of the mind and relaxing. - results in decrease HR and BP - on EEG, resembles stage 1 sleep with theta and slow alpha waves
dual coding hypothesis
It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.
Moral Development theory
Kohlberg's theory focused on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong. − Moral reasoning develops through cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) - 6 levels total
Learning theory of language development
Language is a form of behavior and is learned through operant conditioning--> continuing interaction with environmental reinforcement
Structural oppression theory
Last feminist theory. women's oppression and inequality are a result of capitalism, patriarchy, and racism
learning/performance distinction
Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things, and not performing it doesn't mean you didn't learn it
Relearning
Learning something for the second time after it has been forgotten is far quicker the second time through.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced.
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis/Whorfian Hypothesis
Linguist Benjamin Whorf proposed his Whorfian hypothesis, which suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of our language. - language affects the way we think
8 intelligences
Linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
Inferior Frontal Gyrus
Location of Broca's area in the frontal lobe.
Superior Temporal Gyrus
Location of Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe.
First impressions are:
Long, strong, built upon
neurocognitive disorders
Loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after nervous system has developed. Big categories within this, one is delirium (reversible episode of cognitive/higher brain problems, many causes - drugs/blood/infections). Dementia and its milder versions are usually irreversible and progressive (caused by Alzheimer's) - ex. a disorder that has evolved after the brain has developed
Wernicke's Area
Neural structure responsible for language comprehension. - located in superior temporal gyrus
experimental study
Manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. - independent and dependent variables
Conflict theory (in terms of social change)
Marx; observes how the unrest in a society will cause it to change and evolve to relieve (form synthesis) the tension between thesis (existing generally accepted state) and the antithesis (desire to change the thesis)
Self-Actualization
Maslow's fifth need: Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, lack of prejudice, and acceptance of facts.... realizing ones fullest potential
Physiological Needs
Maslow's first need: Breathing, food, water, sleep, sex, homeostasis, and excretion.
Esteem
Maslow's fourth need: Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, and respect for others.
Safety
Maslow's second need: Security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health, and property.
Love and Belonging
Maslow's third need: Friendship, family, sexual intimacy.
Play stage
Mead's second stage in the development of role taking; children act in ways they imagine other people would more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend role play as others like firefighters, doctors, etc.− Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view.
Signaling Stimuli
Neutral stimuli that have the potential to be turned into conditioned stimuli.
allostatic load
effects of chronic stress if allostatic changes are not adequate in maintaining homeostasis
Game stage
Mead's third stage in the development of role taking; Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" (society as a whole). With this comes whole new understanding of society. Also realize people can take on multiple roles. Also realize others perceive them, and are influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (important relationships, ex. parents/teachers/close peers). Believe this last stage led to development of the "I" and "me". Me = how the individual believes the generalized other perceives it, the social self, and the "I" is our response to the "me". I = the response of the individual to the "me" aka attitudes of others. Me = society's view (that's me!), the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment, and I = individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks. ♦ The "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.
Semantic Network
Memories are not random facts, but rather a network of interconnected ideas put together by the brain ex. colour red can be associated with things like fire engines and roses, which can then be related to other flowers like sunflowers, which can then be associated with yellow colour
implicit memory
Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously
Short-Term Memory
Memory that lasts for about thirty seconds without rehearsal and is usually limited to seven items, as defined by the 7 plus or minus 2 rule.
Chunking/Clustering
Memory trick that involves taking the elements of a large list and grouping them with other elements of similar meaning. - ex. memorizing random group of letters like USBRAC is hard but if you clump it into chunks like BUS, CAR...
Neurofibrillary Tangles and Beta-Amyloid Plaques
Microscopic findings in Alzheimer's. - beta-amyloid are incorrectly folded copies of amyloid precurser protein; insoluble beta-sheets form and deposit in brain
Magic number 7
Miller, short-term memory has the capacity of about 7 things (+ or - 2)
Very Free Vi-Fi (wifi)
Mnemonic for remembering the order of effectiveness of the different operant conditioning schedules.
Financial capital
Money
Nativist (Biological) Theory of language development
Noam Chomsky advocated for the existence of some innate capacity for language, in a biological sense. - language is innate and biologically predetermined - occurs during a critical (time-sensitive) period early in life
Transformational Grammar
Noam Chomsky focused on syntactic transformations, which are changes in word order that retain the same meaning. - ex. i took the mcat vs the mcat was taken by me
Kohlberg Moral Development (details)
Moral theory of development, different from previous 3, but based on cognitive development similar to Vygotsy. − Looked at how people developed their morals, and the way moral reasoning changes as people grow. − Also looked at children. He told stories to children and gauged their response. • Most famous story was the Heinz Dilemma, his wife was dying from cancer and drug was discovered made my local chemist that could save her. Chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drug, and more than Heinz could afford. Only had half the family, so explained to chemist his wife was dying, but chemist refused. He broke into chemist's office at night and stole the drug. ♦ Asked children questions like what if Heinz didn't love his wife, if person dying was a stranger, should he have stolen it, and should police arrest chemist for murder if woman died. ♦ After analyzing these, he came up with 3 moral stages, each split into 2.
Controlled Processing
Most new or complex tasks require one's undivided attention. - ex. learning to drive a car for the first time
REM
Most of your other muscles are paralyzed. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralysation inhibits actions. Most important for memory consolidation. Combination of alpha, beta, and desynchronous waves, similar to beta waves seen when awake.
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation that comes from within oneself; driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment - ex. studying for a class bc you like the content = intrinsic, studying to get high grades = extrinsic
Needs
Motivators that influence human behavior.
Wernicke's (receptive) Aphasia
Motor function and fluency of speech is retained, but comprehension of speech is lost. - patients speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combos devoid of meaning; often feel like they are speaking perfectly well but they really are making no sense
Urbanization
Movement of people from rural areas to cities
Sleep stage order
N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM
4 sleep stages
NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3, REM
Transformationalist perspective
National governments are changing, with world order (new world order) forming Many factors that influence change of world patterns but outcome unknown
Critical Period
Nativists believe in an amount of time in which language exposure is necessary for proper development. Approximately 2 to 12 years of age, or to puberty.
Conservation example
One slice of pizza looks like less to a child than an identical amount when cut in two pieces.
Consciousness
One's level of awareness of both the world and one's existence within the world.
Sensorium
One's sensory environment.
Heredity
Passing of traits from parents to offspring
Sociocultural influences on aggression
People act more aggressive in groups, social scripts
Rural rebound
People getting sick of cities and moving back to rural areas
strong self efficacy
People with strong self-efficacy recover quickly from setbacks, have strong interest, strong sense of commitment, and enjoy challenging tasks (RISE)
Weak Self Efficacy
People with weak self-efficacy focus on personal failures, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities, and believe they lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations (FALL)
coping with stress
Perceived control (look for areas in life to take control), optimism, social support (marriage, animals, close friends)
lower motor neurons
efferent neurons of the PNS, control skeletal muscle
Night Terrors
Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep. - most common in children - show signs of sympathetic overdrive - rapid HR and breathing - because happens during SWS, child is difficult to wake and does not remember the next day
Stanford Prison Experiment
Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty.
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget's first stage. Ages 0-2. The child learns to manipulate the environment to meet their needs. - circular reactions begin - development of object permanence = objects continue to exist even we are not looking at them
Formal Operational Stage
Piaget's fourth stage. 12+ years of age. Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas.
schemata
Piaget's reference to organized patterns of behaviour - ex. concept, behaviour, sequence of events = diff schema - as child progresses through these stages, new info is placed into different schemata
Preoperational Stage
Piaget's second stage. Lasts from about 2-7 years of age, and is characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration; inability to understand conservation (quantity remains the same despite change in shape)
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget's third stage. Lasts from about 7-11 years of age and is marked by understanding conservation and the ability to imagine things from others' point of view. Additionally, they can practice logical thought when working with concrete objects and information that is directly available. - have not yet developed abstract thinking
Alfred Binet
Pioneered IQ tests.
2 ways that a person can conform?
Privately: change behaviours and opinions to align with group. Ex: If you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color. publicly: you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group. Ex: you agree to the shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you train the dog with a treat.
Information Processing Model Part 4
Problem solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level but also on the context and complexity of the problem.
Means-end analysis
Problem solving method where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between the problem and goal
Trial-and-Error
Problem-solving method of trying things until something work. - usually only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions - time consuming, unsystematic
Fluid Intelligence
Problem-solving skills.
Retrieval
Process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has also been retained.
Recognition
Process of identifying a piece of information that was previously learned. - easier than recall
Controlled (Effortful) Processing
Processing that requires a conscious effort to gain information. - can become automatic processing with time (ex. getting better at a language)
immature defence mechanisms
Projection - throw your attributes to someone else - like accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous. (acronym: saying PP is immature (Projection and Passive Aggression) - Can cause projective identification - that person targeted with projection can starting believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them Ex. The person now actually feels jealous and the person can believe "I am a jealous person" o Passive Aggression - aggressively doing something for someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly. Passive way to express your anger.
Freud's psychosexual development (details)
Proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and concept of tension and pleasure - the build-up of tension could cause a lot of conflicts. − Fixation was due to concept of libido - a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind. And when fixated, can have lifelong effect well into adulthood. Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development. − First 5 years are crucial (Mnemonic - OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES) • Old = oral, age = anal, parrots = phallic, love = latent, grapes = genitalDepending on what stage we're at, going to be different fixation of energy at certain body part.− For oral stage - focus is mouth. For anal stage, anus, phallic is genitals, latent is none, and genital stage is the genitals.
William McDougall
Proposed that humans were driven to all thoughts and behaviors by 18 distinctive instincts (i.e. flight, acquisition)
Johnson and Heinz
Proposed that location of the information attenuator was able to be varied by the listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular attention task.
Raymond Cattell
Proposed we all had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality. Turned this into the 16 personality factor questionnaire, or 16 PF.
Racial Formation Theory
Race is a social construct, with no basis in actual genetic differences
Sleep Spindle
Rapid bursts of high-frequency brain waves during stage 2 (N2) sleep that may help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. Sleep spindles in some parts of the brain are associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises
Delirium
Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes.
Morphemes Example
Re-design-ed- Re-: means to do again. -design-: the verb root. -ed: indicating the past tense.
Declarative and Explicit
The types of memories that are stored in long-term memory during sleep.
Champagne glass
The unequal distribution of world income concentrates wealth in the top 20% of the world's population, forming the shape of a champagne glass.
Sleep-Based Memory Consolidation
Some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep, particularly declarative/explicit memories.
Cochlear Implants
Sound -> microphone -> transmitter (outside the skull) sends info to the receiver (inside). Then it sends info to the stimulator, into the cochlea, and cochlea converts electrical impulse into neural impulse that goes to brain.
Phonemes
Sound of speech.
Non-Rapid Eye Movement
Stages 1 through 4.
Vygotsky Sociocultural Development (details)
Studied the role social interaction plays in development of cognition. − Focussed on social interactions between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of higher order learning. Said babies have 4 elementary mental functions: − Attention, sensation, perception, and memory. − These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes - higher mental functions. Most develop from skillful "tutor" - a model, ex. parent/teacher. − Independent learning and thinking 1. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other). 2. Zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. 3. Language - the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development.
Cognition
Studies how the brain processes and reacts to the information overload around us.
Misleading information
Supplying information that may lead a witness' memory for a crime to be altered
Self serving bias
Tendency to attribute successes to personal characteristics and failures to environmental factors
Traditionalism
Tendency to follow authority. Shown to be common in twins
Interpret a Cliche
Test for Schizophrenia. Such as "Don't count your chickens before they hatch", and the patient would give an answer focused on chickens, not the underlying meaning of the phrase because they dont have ability to think abstractly
validity
The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
Divided Attention
The ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time. - most new or complex tasks require undivided attention and use controlled (effortful) processing
Proprioception
The ability to tell where one's body is in space.
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
The active chemical compound in marijuana known as THC.
Phonology
The actual sound of language. - 40 phonemes in english - children must learn to produce and recognize sounds of language, separating them from environmental noises and other human-created sounds like coughing - must also learn when subtle differences between speech sounds represent a change in meaning or not (categorical perception)
Selective Attention
The concept of focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli and our processing systems; acts as filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems; If a stimulus is attended to, it is passed through a filter to be further analyzed. If it is not attended to, it is lost.
Alertness
The default state of consciousness--> most people are generally alert when awake
Social potency trait
The degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations - common in twins reared separately
Crack
The form of cocaine that can be smoked. - quick and potent, therefore highly addictive
Spacing Effect
The greater the amount of time between relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on.
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
The hallucinogen known as LSD.
Ego depletion
The idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up and you'll have less to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control.
depth of processing
The idea that the processing that occurs as an item is being encoded into memory can be deep or shallow. Deep processing involves attention to meaning and is associated with elaborative rehearsal. Shallow processing involves repetition with little attention to meaning and is associated with maintenance rehearsal.
teacher expectancy effect
The impact that a teacher's expectations about a student's performance may have on the student's actual achievements; if the teacher thinks a student is lazy, it can result in the student ultimately meeting teacher's expectations - can result in over-performance when teacher has high expectations and vice versa
tyranny of choice
The impairment of effective decision making when confronted with an overwhelming number of options
Agnosia
The inability to recognize objects, people, or sounds; but it is usually only one of the three. - usually caused by physical damage to brain (stroke, MS, etc.)
Alcohol Myopia
The inability to recognize the consequences of one's actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world.
Belief Perseverance
The inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary. - rejection of info that disproves a preconceived belief
Functional Fixedness
The inability to see a use for an object beyond its intended purpose
Errors of Growth
The increase in grammatical errors that children make when beginning to form longer sentences. They usually apply grammatical rules to situations where they don't apply.
External/Situational Attribution
The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation
Instincts
The innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli.
Object Permanence
The key milestone that marks the end of the sensorimotor stage. Items continue to exist even when not in view. - marks the beginning of representational thought
State-Dependent Memory/Effect
The mental state of a person can affect how well they are able to recall something. - ex. memory will be better for info learned when in similar mood, and the recall of negative or positive memories will lead to persistence of the mood
biopsychosocial model
The model that includes biological, psychological and cultural/social factors that might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorder.
Benzodiazepines
The most common group of antianxiety drugs, which includes Valium and Xanax.
Glutamate
The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory.
Mirror Neurons
The most significant neurological factor that influences observational learning. - neurons located in frontal and parietal lobes of cerebral cortex that fire both when watching someone perform an action and when performing action yourself - involved in motor processes but also for empathy
Decay
The natural loss of memories due to time. - neurochemical trace of short-term memory fades
Primary Drives
The need for food, water, and warmth motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis.
crude birth rate
The number of live births per year per 1,000 people in a population
Dependency ratio
The number of people under age 15 and over age 64 divided by the number of people active in the labor force x100 (per 100 ppl of working age); aka proportion of unproductive to productive members in society Higher the ratio, more dependent people there are.
prevalence
The number or proportion of cases of a particular disease or condition (new and current cases) present in a population at a given time.
incidence
The number or rate of new cases of a particular condition during a specific time.
Morphology (Linguistics)
The structure of words.
Microsociology
The study of human behavior in contexts of face-to-face interactions, families, schools, etc.
Macrosociology
The study of large-scale groups, organizations, or social systems.
Emotion
The subjective experience of a person in a certain situation. - how a person feels often influences how they think and make decisions - decisions also related to how a person expects to feel
Sundowning
The symptom of middle to late-stage Alzheimer's characterized by an increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs and rejecting info that goes against them, or just favouring info that confirms existing beliefs in general - seek out and recall info that supports preconceived beliefs - stronger for emotional topics
Lazarus theory (or cognitive appraisal theory) of emotion
The theory that a cognitive appraisal (interpretation) is the first step in an emotional response and all other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on it; different people can appraisal situations differently thus experience different emotions - ex. seeing a bear you first think that you are in great danger. because of this thought, you start to experience fear and physiological changes like heart racing
Inclusive fitness
The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring; can include providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring.
Sensory Narrow Hearing Loss
They have a problem with conduction of sound waves from cochlea to brain
Exogenous cues
Things in our environment that we don't have to tell ourselves to try to find, things like bright colors, loud noises
Information Processing Model Part 1
Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli.
Deductive Reasoning
Top-down reasoning which starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given. An example includes a logic puzzle. - solution must be true based on info given (there is always a right answer, not something that is kind of right)
Shadowing Task
Two different sounds projected into different ears- asked to repeat one thing in one ear (shadow the ear that you are asked to pay attention to)
Sensory Memory
Type of memory that fades rapidly (< 1s) but our eyes and ears take in incredibly detailed representation of surroundings that can be recalled with amazing precision - maintained by major projection areas of each sensory system (occipital lobe, temporal lobe) - iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory
repression
Unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness ex. A man who survived six months in a concentration camp cannot recall anything about his life during that time period
Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation
Upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to; individuals who perceive themselves as having less resources relative to others will often act in ways to obtain these resources - can lead to deviant behaviour
Crystallized Intelligence
Use of learned skills and knowledge.
Methadone
Used in the treatment of opioid addiction. It is a long-acting opioid with a low risk of overdose.
social capital
Using one's social network assets (friends, family, coworkers) for economic gain (i.e. job openings, promotion possibilities)
Base Rate Fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring the numerical information; focusing on generic/specific info while ignoring relevant base rate info ex. your friend tells you not to get the new iphone because hers bent so you dont, but the % of reported cases of them actually bending is 1% - we ignore that numerical info and follow what our friend says because its specific and individuating
Phototransduction cascade
What occurs when light hits the retina. Steps: light turns a rod off (rod is normally on), causing bipolar cell to turn on, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which is connected to the optic nerve.
Hypnosis
When a person appears to be conscious and in control, but they are in a highly suggestible state.
role exit
When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity. - ex. college student (old role) graduates and starts working (new role)
Sociocultural Development Theory
Vygotsky focus on social interactions between growing children and those around; children learn actively through hands-on processes Parents/cultural belifes/language/attitudes are all responsible for higher function of learning Children internalizes interaction with others
Heroin (diacetylmorphine)
Was originally made as a replacement for morphine. When injected, the body rapidly metabolized it to morphine. It is the most widely abused opioid.
Theory of Planned Behavior
We consider the implications of our actions before we decide how to behave, and best predictor of behaviour is strength of these intentions in particular situation - intentions are based on attitudes (towards a certain behaviour to determine whether we behave or not), subjective norms (what we think others think of our behaviour), perceived behaviour control (how easy or hard we think it is to control our behaviour)
Hans Eysenck
We have 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all traits we all possess, but the degrees to which we individually express them are different: extroversion, neuroticism (emotional stability), and psychoticism (degree to which reality is distorted) - extroversion and neuroticism varies in people, but not necessarily psychoticism biological theory of personality - proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation - introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require less.
Resource Model of Attention
We have a limited pool of resources from which to draw when performing tasks. Practicing a task diminishes task resource demand.
Wernicke's encephalopathy
What encephalopathy causes ocular palsies, confusion, and gait abnormalities related to a lesion in the mammillary bodies and/or the dorsomedial nuclei of the thalamus?
Labeling Theory
When individuals are labelled as deviant, they will confirm the label by acting deviant. - starts with initial, mild acts of social norm violation (primary deviance) which leads to deviant label and social stigma; internalization of label leads to secondary deviance Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant. Not labeled as right or wrong, it is possible that in some situations steroids are necessary. In professional sports - steroid use can be labeled as wrong or unfair and can be considered deviant and subject to critic by others. Deviance is determined by the team members, sporting league, or greater society label.
Retroactive Interference
When new information causes one to forget old information.
Spreading Activation
When one piece of the semantic network is activated, several connected ideas around it are activated unconsciously.
REM Rebound
When people are recovering from sleep deprivation, they show an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep than normal.
Incongruity
When the ideal self does not match the real self
Projection bias
When we assume others share the same beliefs we do
Cocktail Party Phenomenon
When you are engaged in conversation and paying attention, but you hear your name spoken across the room. It is evidence of a different interpretation of selective attention. - demonstrates how selective attention is prolly a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in background - we will shift our attention only if the other stimuli are particularly important (like name being mentioned)
External validity
Whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people. To protect external validity, sample must be completely random, and all situational variables must be tightly controlled
White matter
Whitish nervous tissue of the CNS consisting of neurons and their myelin sheaths.
linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Recency bias
Your most recent actions are important--> people place emphasis on your more recent actions/performances
Relative poverty
a % level below the median income of the country based on comparison to economic conditions of others; doesn't have to do with survival but with people whose incomes are so low in their own society they're being excluded from society or have quality-of-life issues
Learned behavior
a behavior that has been learned from experience
xenocentrism
a belief that another culture is superior to one's own
motivational interviewing
a collaborative, person-centered form of guiding to elicit and strengthen motivation for change
self report study
a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews
Schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
obstructive sleep apnea
a disorder in which a person, while asleep, stops breathing because his or her throat closes; the condition results in frequent awakenings during the night
Munchausen by proxy
a disorder in which the patient creates illness in another person, usually a child
sleep apnea
a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep
Cheyne-Stokes breathing
a distinct pattern of breathing characterized by quickening and deepening respirations followed by a period of apnea
general intelligence
a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
Microculture
a group of people who share similar values and tastes that are subsumed within a larger culture (ex. fraternities)
Stimulus Discrimination
a learned ability to differentiate among similar products
Conditioned Response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
Downward mobility
a lowering of one's social class
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Sub culture
a meso-level cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture; characteristically distinct from dominant culture but whose values and norms still generally align with dominant culture i.e. conservative churches/sects
elaboration likelihood model
explains how attitudes are formed and how likely they are to be changed
Dependency theory
a model of economic and social development that explains global inequality in terms of the historical exploitation of poor nations by rich ones have been integrated into the world economy as an undeveloped countries. They don't have means to become a developed nation. They will remain poor and dependent on wealthier nations.
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
ABC model of attitudes
a multidimensional perspective stating that attitudes are jointly defined by affect, behavior, and cognition (affective, behavioral, cognitive)
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
Histamine
a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in stimulating wakefulness
Working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Culture Lag
a period of time delay in societies that creates social problems due to the rapid changes in material culture (physical and technological aspects like houses and phones) and slower changes in nonmaterial culture (ideas, beliefs, values) - ex. the Internet has evolved faster than the laws needed to protect safety of minors while online
Temperment
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
looking-glass self
a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us; idea that a person's sense of self concept develops from interpersonal interactions with others. Critical aspect of this theory is Cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we imagine the opinions of other people to be. − Ex. Say we have teacher grading paper harshly, and doing it because they think that student has a lot of potential. But student gets paper back, think the teacher did so because student is not very intelligent, and came to conclusion they're not very good at literary analysis. Might result in student putting less effort into the class. − But can also be influenced by future interactions - student might talk to teacher, and student was able to revise their incorrect perceptions and develop a different perspective.
Mass Society Theory
a theory of social movements that believes groups only form for people seeking refuge from main society (ex. Nazism)
Relative Deprivation Theory (social movements)
a theory of social movements that focuses on the actions of oppressed groups who seek rights or opportunities already enjoyed by others in the society
Age stratification theory
a theory which states that members of society are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by race, class, and gender, and suggests that age is a way of regulating behaviour of a generation
Beck's Cognitive Therapy
a type of cognitive therapy, developed by Aaron Beck, in which the therapist works to develop a warm relationship with the person and has the person carefully consider the evidence for his or her beliefs in order to see the errors in his or her thinking; by identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional responses
procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits
immitation
a type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior. Begins with understanding there's difference between others and self. − Andrew Meltzoff questioned theory that understanding between self and others happens soon after birth. Picture baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Imitating experimenter. − Was it true imitation or something else? Picture you opening mouth, baby should also open mouth. Had to ensure it wasn't a reflex or conditioning either. − Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. − Evidence suggests we have mirror neurons, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person.
Classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Freudian slip
a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief, thought, or emotion example of mental conflict. Ex. financially stressed patient, please don't give me any bills - meant any pills.Especially problematic when there's a problem with development at a particular psychosocial stage.
dramaturgical approach
a view of social interaction in which people either act front stage or backstage, which depends on audience
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
flashbulb memory
a vivid, detailed type of autobiographical explicit memory for an event that was extremely emotional, distinct, or significant to the individual - people tend to be inaccurate but very confident
DSM-5
a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, from the American Psychiatric Association (APA).20 top level categories.
Oral Stage
age 0-1 yrs., libido is centered around baby's mouth, vital for sucking/eating. Because completely dependent on caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort.− If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting fingers.
Anal Stage
age 1-2, centered around anus, ex. toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging positive outcomes. Serve as basis for competent adults.− If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness.
Phallic Stage
age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex (desire for sexual involvement with other parent) also develops. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent.− If fixation occurs, cause sexual dysfunction. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage.
by what age is language mastered?
age 5
fetal alcohol syndrome
alcohol use during pregnancy - slowed cognitive development and distinct craniofacial features
Accepted states of consciousness
alertness, sleep, dreaming, altered states of consciousness
Modernization theory
all countries follow similar path of development to modern society
Primary Reinforcers
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need and are naturally rewarding (i.e. food, intimacy, praise) - NOT money because that is not an innate need
Gordon Allport
all of us have different traits. Came up with list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits. From those he was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits: acronym: a cardinal named allport can (central) sing (secondary) − Cardinal traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities/traits that we organize our entire lives around - the dominant traits. Influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits. − Central trait is ex. honesty, sociability, shyness. Less dominant than cardinal. − Secondary trait is love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat - more preferences/attitudes, can occur only sometimes i.e. in social settings
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
Self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" - self awareness - development = existential and categorical (1 must be established to get 2)
Regression
all variables examined are continuous - Linear regression - degree of dependence between one variable and another. Data is on scatter plot, one-way influence of one variable on another
TrypV1 receptor
allow us to sense temperature (thermoception) also sensitive to pain (nociception)
Class System
allows for degree of social mobility, combination of background and movement, often by education - less social stability
hindsight bias
also known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping determinism, is the inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective bias for predicting it
Ethnicity
also socially defined, but these groups are defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor
authoritative parenting style
also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. - best parenting style
ingratiation
an attempt to get someone to like you in order to get them to comply with your requests
Stressor
an event or situation that causes stress
Mary Ainsworth's strange situation
an experimental method designed to measure the nature of attachment between mothers and babies - differences caused by parenting style
Munchausen's syndrome
an extreme form of factitious disorder in which the individual goes to great lengths to maintain a sick role
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Sensitization
an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus
Upward mobility
an increase—or upward shift—in social class
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Escape learning
an organism acquires a response that DECREASES or ends some aversive stimulation
Avoidance learning
an organism acquires a response that PREVENTS some aversive stimulation from occurring
Habituation
an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
3 intelligences
analytical (Academic), creative (generate novel ideas and adapt), practical (solve ill-defined problems).
Context Effects
another retrieval cue in which memory is aided by being in the physical location where the memory was encoded ; describes influence of environmental factors on one's perception of a stimulus (top-down processing)
Cluster C
anxiety and fearful - Avoidant: inhibited, feel inadequate and try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized. - Dependent: submissive and clingy. Ex. Those who stay in physically abusive relationships, [imagine: Dependent Debby clings and is submissive to her husband Dan) - Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders (OCPD). (do not mix with OCD). Very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect and for them being in control to an extent where it annoys other people. It is a personality! On the other hand, in OCD the focus is on order, things in control, having to wash hands.
Other Disorders
any person that appears to have a mental disorder causing distress/disability but doesn't fit into other categories. Rare.
Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy - caused by a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors
sleep deprivation
any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability
stereotype threat
apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's own group - when exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can cause a decrease in performance of individual performing the task
sensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations; This creates topological map of body in the cortex
Back Stage
area of social interaction away from the view of an audience, where people can stop the act and be themselves, do what makes them comfortable without fear of criticism
Front stage
area of social interaction where people perform and work to maintain appropriate impressions in social settings - impression management (behaviours to shape how others see us) and presenting most favourable image of oneself in front of others
urban decline
as people move out of city centers they can fall into disrepair
Stages 3 and 4
as you fall even more deeply asleep, enter slow-wave sleep (SWS). EEG grows progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second. - very difficult to wake someone at this point - associated with cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, increase growth hormone release
surface traits
aspects of personality that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person; evident from a person's behaviour
adoption studies
assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents
criterion validity
assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. "IS the test valid" Criterion validity refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome
Secondary Appraisal
assessing capability to cope with the threat or to deal with stressor
trans-gender
biological sex and gender identity don't match
C. Robert Cloninger
biological theory of personality - linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity.
Jeffrey Alan Gray
biological theory of personality - proposed personality is governed by 3 brain systems, such as the fight-or-flight system.
difference between repression and supression
both defence mechanisms push thoughts down to the unconscious, but repression does it unconsciously while suppression does it consciously (more healthy, deciding to deal with it later so you can focus on the now) ƒ
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
Social Anomie
breakdown of connection between an individual and community - society does not provided or have shared social values or norms to guide behaviour - can lead to uncertainty in social situations or unhelpful behaviour to the society i.e. crime - can result in social groups disbanding, alienation from social groups, lack of purpose/guidance - usually results from shift or transition in society that causes instability, undermining current norms before new normlessness norms replace them - ex. a society impelled its members to acquire wealth yet offered inadequate means for them to do so, the strain would cause many people to violate norms. The only regulating agencies would be the desire for personal advantage and the fear of punishment. Social behaviour would thus become unpredictable
inhilation
breathing or smoking, because once you inhale goes straight to brain - 10 seconds
brain areas of language
broca's area and wernicke's area - both located in dominant hemisphere (usually left)
Ill health magnet
can also drag people away, can't participate in society
Poverty magnet
can drag people away from the core part of society, and experience a greater degree of social exclusion.
Reinforcement modeling
can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement; when aggression pays off we tend to be aggressive again. ex. Parents who give into demands of temper tantrum leads to more tantrums
Evolution
can shape culture, but can also think of how culture can shape human evolution
Adaptable behavioral traits
capable of being modified in response to changing conditions
physical effects of stress
cardiovascular disease, weight gain, alcohol dependence, hair loss, diabetes, digestive problems, impaired immunity, impotence
Gender Dysphoria
caused by person identifying as a different gender
muscle stretch reflex
causes a muscle to contact after it's stretched, as a protective response
"Cant Happen to me" Bias aka Normalcy Bias
causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects
intergenerational mobility
change in social class between generations, ex. Parent is working class and son is upper class
intragenerational mobility
change in social class happening in a person's own lifetime
Sensory Adaptation
change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus - downregulation
Permutable behavioral traits
changeable
synaptic plasticity
changes in firing rate of presynaptic neuron - alters the amount of NTs released - associated with immediate and delayed potentiation or depression
Epigenetics
changes to gene expression other than to gene
Obedience
changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure; no cognitive component - ex. im just following orders
displacement
changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same - ex. a child put on time out by his mother will beat up his pillow
Riots
characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes results from feelings of injustice or feeling that needs have been ignored. Riots typically result in property damage and other significant crimes.
concentration segregation
clustering of different groups
Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
cognitive approach to the why and how of persuasion routes for which info is processed: 1. Central route - degree of attitude change depends on quality of arguments by persuader 2. Peripheral route - looks at more superficial and nonverbal persuasion cues i.e. attractiveness, expertise, status of persuader giving us info
stereotypes are based on __________, prejudice is based on ___________, and discrimination is based on ______________
cognitive component, affective component (how we feel - like or dislike), behavioural component ex. city people are rude (cognition - stereotype) ; i dont like them (affective - prejudice) ; i will avoid them (behavioural - discrimination)
aggregates
collection of individuals who share a common location but do not identify as a group i.e. all the people at a given store at 11 am
Long tracts
collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem
functionalism
comes from macrosociology - looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society change to keep society stable and functioning; society is an organism, and each part of it works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis) - suggests that social institutions have manifest (expected) and latent (unintended) functions - related to convergence theory = states that as nations transition from the beginning stages of industrialization to highly industrialized nations, the same societal patterns will emerge, eventually creating a global culture.
Categorical self
comes once baby realizes they're separate - becoming aware that even though we're separate, we also exist in the world with others. And each of those entities have properties. ♦ Ex. age and gender are first babies learn, then skills and size. Then compare ourselves with others - traits, comparisons, careers. Develops between 18 and 30 months.
Interference [effect]
common cause of memory loss; retrieval error caused by the presence of other, similar information. - irrelevant info interfering with recall
between-group study design
compare two or more groups to determine whether there is a difference between group outcome means
T-test
compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value. Can also compare means of 2 groups. - Two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, one-tailed = one direction - can be either paired samples (comparing results from same participants) or independent samples (comparing means from two different groups)
within-group study design
compares the outcomes for the same group at different times to determine whether there is a change in outcome
Reference groups
comparison group; individuals compare their beliefs and behaviours to those of reference group members and often model the beliefs and behaviours of the reference group
Role conflict
competing expectations for 2+ roles create tension - ex. student struggles to work part time at a retail store and complete homework
Role strain
competing expectations within a SINGLE role create tension - ex. student struggles to do homework and attend student council meetings
Stereotyping
creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike - attributing a certain cognition to a group of individuals, overgeneralizing
third gender
cultures that recognize non-binary gender
bipolar and related disorders (bipolar 1 and 2)
cycle through periods of depression and mania bipolar 1: - hypomania becomes manic with or without major depressive disorder bipolar 2: - only hypomania + one major depressive episode (aka never experiences full on mania)
Broca's (expressive) Aphasia
damage to Broca's area, resulting in reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language BUT speech comprehension is intact A patient becomes frustrated because they know what they want to say, but they are unable to produce the proper words to do so.
Longitudinal study
data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time
NonREM 2
deeper stage of sleep. People in N2 are harder to awaken. We see more theta waves, as well as sleep spindles and K-complexes`
rationalization
defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions - ex. murderer claims that killing is wrong but his victim deserved it
Regression (defence mechanism)
defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations - ex. husband talks to wife in baby talk when giving bad news
reaction formation
defense mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel - ex. two people fight all the time because they actually really like each other
Sublimation
defense mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful/socially acceptable - ex. someone prone to violence resorts to boxing or personal training
Roles
define what we do and who we are. Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior of a social group, use it to guide our behaviours. We respond to their approval when we play our roles well, and disapproval when we play roles badly. Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them even more when roles are stereotyped. − Ex. Prison experiment
Id
demands immediate gratification, basic human instinctual drives; completely unconscious
optimum population
demographic theory regarding ideal population size - # of people yielding highest per capita income given country's level of wealth, knowledge, technical resources
groups of consciousness-altering drugs
depressants (sedative hypnotics), stimulants, opiates (narcotics), hallucinogens
Behavioral Effects of stress
depression, anger, anxiety, addiction, learned helplessness
Visual Cues
depth, form, motion, constancy
economic capital
describes individual's tangible financial assets (money/income); money = power and status in society therefore economic capital grants advantage to those who possess it
Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
distress/disability form use of substances that affect mental function, causing degree of impairment and affects the way they function in life. Include alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, opioids, etc
Anxiety disorders
distress/disability from abnormal worry/fear. Some are specific to certain stimuli like phobias, while others are not specific to certain stimuli, including generalized anxiety disorder. Panic disorder involves panic attacks (intense anxiety)
Depressive Disorders
distress/disability from abnormally negative mood; prolonged feeling of helplessness and discouragement about the future. Mood refers to long-term emotional state. (Mood is not emotion, mood is more long term and not necessarily related to events). Mood is also subjective experience person has of their experience. - Mood (how someone feels such as sad) becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others - person crying). Hopelessness, loss of enjoyment in activities. High risk of suicide.
Divided attention
doing two things at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously
gender queer
dont identify as either male or female
Cluster B
dramatic, emotional, erratic traits - Antisocial: little or no regard for others. Commit crimes and show no remorse. Inconsiderate of others. - Borderline: Unstable relationships, emotions are unstable, variable self-image, fear of abandonment, suicidal or self-harming behaviour, and compulsive/reckless (which can put them in danger), brink of an emotional/relationship issue. Ex. Displays characteristics of a stereotypical teenager. [acronym: 13 year old Borderline Brenda] - Histrionic: Are very attention seeking. Display emotions outwardly, wear bright clothes. Ex. [H for Hollywood Actresses] - Narcissistic: huge egos, need for admiration and praise, grandiose.
Cognitive Process Dream Theory
dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness - ex. like when you are thinking about vacation but then your consciousness shifts to upcoming MCAT day
Sigmund Freud on dreams
dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted (little scientific support)
death instinct
drives aggressive behaviours fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others
Transdermal
drug is absorbed through skin, ex. Nicotine patch. Drug in patch has to be pretty potent, released into bloodstream over several hours
Barbiturates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
Stimulants
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
Depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Social psychology
emphasizes influence of changing environmental circumstances over stable personality traits. Situational approach of behavior is under this branch of psychology
Interactionist and language
emphasizes interplay between environmental cues and innate biology
Behaviorist theory of personality
emphasizes that personality is derived from the interaction between a person and his/her environment personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - it's deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities.− Focuses on observable and measurable behaviour, rather than mental/emotional behaviours. • The psychoanalytic theory would be the most opposite of this theory (focuses on mental behaviour). • People have consistent behaviour patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan.
formation of memory can be divided into three major processes...
encoding, storage, retrieval
institutions
essential parts of a society, ex. police stations, hospitals, businesses, Walmart, trader joes. Impose structure on how individuals behave. Guide what we do
Primary Appraisal
evaluating for presence of a potential threat. Either irrelevant, benign (positive), stressful (negative)
normative influence
even if you know what's right, do what group does to avoid social rejection, fulfill others' expectations, or to gain acceptance Ex: you are an expert dog trainer and you know it's easier to train the dog with treats than treat it with a shock color. Even though you know training the dog with a shock color is incorrect you may still decide to go along with the group to avoid being a social outcast, even if it is for a wrongful act
iron rule of oligarchy
even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few that are either hesitant to give up power position or actually have skills that make them valuable oligarchy = a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution.
peter principle
every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further)
Neurochemical lesions
excitotoxic lesions, cause influx of calcium that it kills the neuron and excites it to death.
stress management
exercise, meditation, religious belief/faith, cognitive flexibility (knowing when to change something that is not working)
Sick role theory
expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities - when someone is ill they have certain rights (exempt from work) and obligations (getting medical help)
Humanistic theory (details)
focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good The most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self-actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself. Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles. − Primary difference between Freud's psychoanalytical theory is Freud's theory was deterministic - behaviour is determined by unconscious desires. − Humanistic Theory focuses on the conscious, and says people are inherently good, and we are self-motivated to improve (so we can reach self-actualization). First theorist of this theory was Maslow, who formed hierarchy of needs. − Must first fulfill physiological needs of pyramid and work our way up, then safety, then love, self-esteem, and finally self-actualization. − Self-actualization is rarely achieved, only 1% of people ever reach it.Carl Rogers says qualities Maslow described are nurtured early in life, self-actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting process.
Conflict perspective on mass media
focuses on how the media portrays and reflects and exacerbate divisions that exist in society; uses gatekeeping
situational approach
focuses on interactions between individual and their environment − People behave differently depending on their situation - external instead of internal. − Hard to predict behavior based off 1 situation. Have to acknowledge we sometimes behave differently.
social epidemiology
focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease), Emphasized how social factors, such as class or race/ethnicity, affect the distribution of disease and health
Attention
focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events; limited resource
classification groups of norms
folkways, mores, laws, taboos - folkways and mores = informal norms
longitudinal cohort study
following a subset of population over a lifetime - A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic (ex. people born and exposed to same pollutant/drug/etc.) in period of time.
prospective cohort design
follows a group of individuals over a period of time
secondary group
formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal - ex. coworkers
Sects
formed after believers split from established church to often pursue a more pure or traditional form of faith Ex. Mormon/Amish
first step in problem solving
framing the problem
integration (culture)
identifying with both the native and new culture
Regression to the mean
if first measurement is extreme, second measurement will be closer to the mean
stable cognitive abilities with age
implicit memory (ex. riding a bike), and recognition.
hidden curriculum
implicit, informal and unofficial aspects of info taught through educational system ex. how to wait in line, treat out peers, "boys are better at math than girls"
Fixation (freud)
implies that the person is unable to move to the next stage
Similarity bias
implies we will not befriend people different from us
World systems theory
importance of world as a unit rather than as individual countries, divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery
culture and socialization
important contributions of society to our personal development, the people and culture in which we live.
social facilitation
improved performance of tasks in the presence of a group; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered (Yerkes-Dodson Law) - caused by increased autonomic arousal due to presence of others
Progressive behavioral traits
improvement or refined practice over time
reality principle
in Freud's theory, used by ego: need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long term gratification. Not always going to get what you want and the outside world might tolerate your behavior. You have to play by the roles of the real world and might have to compromise. - ex. i want the candy, but i might get in trouble if i take it
Actualizing tendency
in Roger's theory, the innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself; self actualization
reinforcement schedules
in operant conditioning, rules that determine how and when certain responses will be reinforced - fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval - ratio = number; interval = time
Diffusion of responsibility theory
in the presence of others, individuals feel less personal responsibility and are less likely to take action in a situation where help is required
semi-peripheral nations
in-between nations, not dominant in international trade but diversified/developed economy
Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders
inability to control inappropriate behaviours, behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive for someone's culture
antrograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
Anomia
inability to name objects
Agraphia
inability to write
False information
inaccurate recollections of an event
Strain Theory
individuals experience tension (strain) when there is a disconnect between goals and the available means of achieving those goals if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may turn to deviance Ex: athlete attends a school and wants to excel (goal) but doesn't have proper baseball training equipment or no coach, or funding (lack of means). Athlete becomes frustrated and turns to deviant behavior. School lacks the resources, so athlete tries steroids to level the playing field.
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
individuals more likely to agree to a bigger request after agreeing to a smaller request
door-in-the-face phenomenon
individuals more likely to agree to a smaller request after rejecting a larger request
Scapegoats
individuals or groups blamed for wrongs that were not of their doing group of people towards whom the aggression is directed, ex. Jews during World War II
general strain theory
individuals who have experienced negative events feel negative emotions, which lead to negative behaviors
Midbrain Principle Structures
inferior and superior colliculi
social network
informal and nonhiercharchial web of interactions between nodes (individuals, organizations) linked together by ties (connections, either strong [family, friends] or weak [acquaintances])
Oral
ingesting something, one of slowest routes because goes through GI tract - half hour
Inherited behavioral traits
innate behaviours are encoded by DNA
temperament
innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout our life. - result of biological theory of personality
primary factors that influence motivation
instincts, arousal, drives, and needs
organizations
institutions designed for a specific purpose, collective goal, and try to achieve maximum efficiency - ex. postal service (to deliver mail), McDonalds (to eat food)
hereditary genius
intelligence is a biological capacity and is inherited
drives (freud)
intrinsic, universal feelings we all have towards varying things
neurodevelopmental disorders
involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. Includes intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD. - ex. a disorder that occurs before the brain can fully evolve
Cortical cooling
involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing
Schizophrenia Spectrum and other Psychotic Disorders
involves distress/disability from psychosis. Psychosis involves delusions (not explainable by experiences/culture), hallucinations.
Mass Hysteria
large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time. Reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumours and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat. - ex. extreme weather reports
collective behaviour
large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not inline with societal norms
K complexes
large single spikes in the EEG, supress cortical arousal and keep you asleep
neural plasticity
lasting changes in brain that occur when interactions with environment alter neurons and/or pathways - refers to both potentiation (increases in neuronal connections) and depression (decreases in neuronal connections) - highest in early development - can occur in synaptic or structural level
oberservational learning
learning by observing others
Periphery Nations
less economically developed with weak governments and institutions, high % of poor/uneducated people, inequalities - rely on export of their resources to core nations (oil, coffee, etc.) making them dependent on them
instinctual drives that motivate human behaviour (according to psychoanalytic theory)
libido, death instinct
Associative learning
linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together
Algorithm
logical procedure of trying solutions till you hit the right one
cross-sectional study
look at a group of different people at one moment in time
Materialist and language
look at what happens in brain when people think/speak/write
informative influence
look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct or they know more than you and simply accept their info as reality; we don't examine the evidence for ourselves either Ex: You have never interacted with a dog before and you are uncertain about how to train a dog and you are uncertain if it's an appropriate method to use a shock color. You look for the group for guidance and you assume they are correct.
interactionist perspective on mass media
looks at mass media on micro-level to see how it shapes day to day behavior - ex. text instead of phone call now
environmental justice
looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups
retrospective cohort design
looks back at events that have already taken place
Decay
loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used
Retrograde Amnesia
loss of previously formed memories
Deindividualization
loss of self awareness when in one is a member of a large group; factors contributing are emotionally arousing activities, large group size, diffusion of responsibility, anonymity - can result in negative crowd behaviour (looting) that is usually uncharacteristic ex. Zimbardo's prison experiment
Semantic Networks
mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
main characteristics that impact how we are persuaded for/against a message
message, source, and target characteristics
Persuasion
method for attitude/behavior change
persuasion
method for attitude/behaviour change
overall peg list
method of loci + peg word - can be helpful in memorizing long lists in order - ex. eggs fried by sun (1), pair of shoes (2) filled with milk
counterbalance
method to control for any effect that the order of presenting stimuli might have on the dependent variable. - ex. if presenting A and B interventions, one group should get A first, the other get B first
hypomania
mild forms of mania, is sometimes not that bad. Lots of energy and don't need to sleep a lot so you get lots of work done. You also feel good. Creativity. Results in mania at times, but sometimes does not develop into a mania.
Marijuana
mild hallucinogen. Main active chemical is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells
Folkways
mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you, how to use silverware. Not engaging results in a consequences that is not severe/consistent. No actual punishment.
Absolute threshold of sensation
minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
information processing model
model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages
Elaboration likelihood model
model of persuasion stating that people will either elaborate on the persuasive message or fail to elaborate on it and that the future actions of those who do elaborate are more predictable than those who do not
Resource Mobilization Theory
model of social movements that emphasizes political context and goals but also states that social movements are unlikely to emerge without the necessary resources; focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources.
Superego
moral conscience that is mostly unconsciously but partly conscious
Mature Defence Mechanisms
o Acronym: Mature HASS o Humor - expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable. o Sublimation - channeling negative to positive energy. Ex. Violent energy, instead of expressing violence you become a boxer. Transform into socially acceptable behaviors. o Suppression - conscious thought get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time. o Altruism - in service of others - we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction.
factors that influence obedience
o Depends on type of authority giving orders. o Our closeness to authority giving orders- more likely to accept orders from someone we respect o Physical proximity - more likely to comply with someone we are physically close to. o Legitimacy of authority - if wearing lab coat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey. o Institutional authority - well-respected places. o Victim distance - in original Milgram study, teacher couldn't see learner (victim). If could see participant, reduced likelihood participant (teacher) would obey experimenter. But still didn't stop everyone (30% of participants gave all shocks) o Depersonalization - when learner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them o Role models for defiance - more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same.
examples of drives (Freud)
o Eros Drives: Life Drive. Like health, safety, sex. Comes with love, cooperation, collaboration. Working with others to promote your and others wellbeing o Thantos: Death Drive. Self-Destructive/Harmful to Others. Comes with Fear, anger (inward or outward), hate.
Hair Cell
one of the receptor cells for hearing in the cochlea
Factors that influence conformity
o Group size - more likely to conform in groups of 3-5. o Unanimity - when opinions of group are unanimous (everyone agrees). Even when there is just one person who supports your beliefs, you are less likely to conform with the whole group o Group status - why children more likely to go along with popular group. Why we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health. o Group cohesion - if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group. o Observed behaviour - whether we believe our behaviour is observed. o Public response - if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. (happy to conform if we will be met with shunning, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance) o Internal factors - prior commitments (if we say something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. If we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity because we will say the same thing now. We are not likely to change what we say); feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow judgements of others
Self esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth - respect and regard one has for oneself
flynn effect
observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the next
Case control study
observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor Ex. comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar
observational study
observes individuals and measures variables of interest but does not attempt to influence the responses or control assignment of groups
Trauma/Stressor-Related Disorders
occurs after stressful/traumatic events. Post-traumatic stress disorder, common after wars. - leads to mood, emotional, behavioural abnormalities
Source monitoring error
occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
Groupthink
occurs when maintaining harmony and unity among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand causing people to suppress/sensor their own opinions, resulting in an incorrect, ineffective or poor decision - more likely to occur when individuals of the group like each other/get along
attrition bias
occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study, which can skew results
test retest bias
occurs when participants take the same test over and over again and it affects their responses
negativity bias
occurs when the negative aspects are focused upon
Cluster A
odd/eccentric paranoid - profound distrust + suspicion of other people. [paranoid of others] schizoid - emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion. (what people sometimes incorrectly consider as antisocial) [DISTANT, can spell as DiZtant. D and Z in schizoid and D and Z in distant] schizotypal - odd beliefs/ magical thinking (t in typical = think of magical hat)
formal sanction
officially recognized and enforced; written down
characteristics of creativity
openness to experience, new ideas, an internal locus of evaluation, an ability to toy with elements and concepts (flexibility), perceiving freshly, concern with outside and inside worlds, ability to defer closure and judgment, and skilled performance of the traditional arts, among others.
Opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
Spatial Mismatch
opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away, and harder to access
phi phenomenon / motion picture effect
optical illusion in which series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving
Utilitarian organizations
organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time)
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
what can memories be influenced by?
our thoughts and feelings while event is occurring and later during recall, which can result in false memories
perceived similarity
overtime, interests and beliefs become aligned
Reinforcement
parents and caregivers repeats repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like language spoken by parents; over time, infant perceives that certain sounds have little value and are not reinforced, while other sounds have value and are reliably reinforced by parents
Permissive/Indulgent Parenting style
parents make few demands and rarely use punishment; non-directive and lenient; few behavioural expectations for child
prefrontal cortex
part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language
agents of socialization
parts of society that are important for socialization - process of learning norms and values of society; help to shape individuals' basic political beliefs and values - family - school/workplace - peers/friends - popular culture/mass media - family and friends are the strongest agents of socialization because these relationships tend to be formed early on in life and are long-lasting
Social Reproduction
passing on/continuation of social inequality between generations i.e. people with rich parents end up rich themselves and people with poor parents end up poor themselves
high culture
patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society. This tends to be associated with wealth and formality
Social constructionism
people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it's something constructed, not inherent. Things are social products made of the values of the society that created it knowledge is not real, and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement
rational choice theory
people compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and choose the one they think is best for themselves. These choices shape pattern of behavior in society.
self serving bias
people's tendency to attribute success to internal factors but failure to external factors ex. when failing an exam, the "professor made it too hard" but when acing an exam, its due to my own intelligence
Nociception
perception of pain
Stereotypic behavioral traits
performed the same way each time
hypomanic episode
period of abnormally elevated mood and abnormally increased energy lasting at least 4 consecutive days; however, the episode is not severe enough to cause impairment in functioning or to require hospitalization
manic episode
period of abnormally elevated mood and abnormally increased energy lasting at least 7 consecutive days; however, the episode is severe enough to cause impairment in functioning or to require hospitalization
Sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
insomnia
persistent trouble falling asleep or staying asleep
Ideal self
person we would like to be
perceived behaviour control
person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behaviour
power
person's ability to get their way despite resistance of others, particularly in their ability to engage social change ex. individuals in government jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States Congress, may hold little property or status but still wield considerable social power
status
person's social position in society
Freud and Erikson were interested in _______, while Vygotsky and Kohlberg were interested in ________
personality development, cognition development
zone of proximal development
phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do.
Stroop effect
phenomenon in which it is harder for an individual to reconcile different pieces of information relating to colors than to reconcile similar pieces of information i.e. looking at the word red which is painted in blue ink and trying to say the colour of the ink rather than the word red
group polarization
phenomenon where group decision-making/interaction amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted. Ex: group of women who hold moderately feminist views tend to demonstrate heightened pro-feminist beliefs following group discussion.
social priming
phenomenon whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention. ex. the word NURSE is recognized more quickly following the word DOCTOR than following the word BREAD
basic components of language
phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, semantics, and pragmatics
Stress Reaction
physical and emotional response
Residential segregation
physical separation of groups into different neighbourhoods by social characteristics like race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status - experience different degrees of environment benefits (safer parks, good schools) and burdens (more crime, pollution) = environmental injustice
Three components of emotion
physiological, behavioral, cognitive
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization (Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit)
role play
playing a particular role (behaviour) can start to influence our attitude towards that role - ex. a new parent doesn't really know how to be a good parent but with time and practice of actually being a parent their attitude shifts to think they are a good parent now xc v\][
neuromuscular junction
point of contact between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell
Metencephalon
pons and cerebellum
socioeconomic gradient in health
positive correlation between SES and health outcomes; individuals with lower SES tend to have worse health outcomes - contributions to gradient = lower income, poorer education, unsafe living environments, increased drug use, unemployment, lack of exercise, limited access to nutritious food
eustress
positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating. Eustress is usually enjoyable!
vicarious learning
powerful method of learning by watching other people behave a certain way and then getting rewarded or punished for it; depending on the outcome, the observer may learn to replicate or avoid that behaviour - part of social cognitive theory
Algorithms
precise logical or mathematical rule yielding exact results - accurate, systematic, time consuming
difference between prejudice and discrimination
prejudice refers to THOUGHTS/FEELINGS towards an ethnic or racial group whereas discrimination refers to ACTS against an ethnic or racial group
social impairment
presence of an audience hinders performance on difficult and unfamiliar tasks due to enhanced level of autonomic arousal by others
Intrinsic behavioral traits
present even if you're raised in isolation
subjective bias
present in studies where subjects self report or fill out surveys; based on personal things rather than objective data
Nativists and language
rationalist, language must be innate
Declining Cognitive abilities
recall, episodic memories (forming new memories is difficult, old memories stable), processing speed, and divided attention. Also prospective memory (remembering to do things in future) is decreased
Cued Recall
receive significant hints about the material
bureaucratization
process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you
resocialization
process of getting rid of old behaviours or order to learn new ones i.e. soldiers learning how to strictly follow orders
Attribution
process of inferring causes of events/behaviours. − Inference a person is behaving a certain way based on situation they're in. − 3 parts: consistency (does person usually behave this way), distinctiveness (does person behave differently in different situations), and consensus (do others behave similarly in situation?). − If yes to last 2, then we know situation is influencing their behaviour. − If person is consistent in all situations, then maybe not environment, and more internal.
aversive control
process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli
anticipatory socialization
process of learning in which we prepare for future changes that we anticipate i.e. nurse taking the night shift in a couple weeks starts to change her current sleep cycle to get used to it
serial processing
processing one piece of information at a time i.e. memorizing a list item by item
Projection
projecting own wishes, desires, thoughts, emotions on another - ex. a man who has cheating is convinced his wife is cheating
weak social constructionism
proposes that social constructs are dependent on brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts (something that cannot further be defined by something else), and by institutional facts, which are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts (ex. money depends on paper we have given value)
continuous reinforcement
providing a reward after every single desired behaviour - best way to train animals to perform a new behaviour
Hallucinogens
psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
deindividuation
psychological state in which person loses their sense of identity
negative sanction
punishment for violating norms
ethnography
qualitative method for scientific study of human social phenomena; use observations and interviews to study people in their natural environments (own communities) to learn about culture, norms, and values within a given geographic area
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
record of the electrical activity of the brain
selection bias
refers to a type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate in a study i.e. people who have witnessed unethical behaviour in med school may be more likely to respond to a survey about it
social status
refers to honor or prestige but without an assumption of how that status was attained
ecological validity
refers to how findings from an experimental setting can be generalized to environmental considerations in the real world ex. Zimbardo's prison experiment would have ecological validity if the conditions were similar to how actual prisons are
construct validity
refers to how well a given assessment actually measures what it claims to measure - whether it has been properly constructed to measure the relevant thing
primary socialization
refers to learning of acceptable actions and attitudes during childhood, typically from parents, siblings, friends, authority figures
secondary socialization
refers to learning of what is acceptable and appropriate in smaller, more focused section of society i.e. behaving at school or work
popular culture
refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist within mainstream normative society - like attending a game or watching a parade
memory construction
refers to process of recreating a memory each time it is recalled; memories appear to be reconstructed upon recall which can result in alterations to the memory - can cause source monitoring error - memory attributed to wrong source
implicit bias
refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. These biases, which encompass both favorable and unfavorable assessments, are activated involuntarily and without an individual's awareness
normative culture
refers to values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms (like avoidance of crime)
authority + 3 types
refers to whether others believe that a person's power is legitimate 1. charismatic authority - power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities; stems from personal appeal of an individual i.e. Ghandi had legit power due to his ability to inspire people 2. traditional authority - comes from longstanding patterns in society i.e. a queen has legit power in monarchy 3. rational-legal authority - arises from professional position a person holds i.e. a doctor has legit power because of extensive training
sanctions
reinforcement of norms by using rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms
partial reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
marginalization (culture)
rejecting both native culture and new culture
agender
rejecting gender categories
separation (culture)
rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture
belief bias
related on how we judge or evaluate the correctness of an argument or a conclusion (i.e., we have the tendency to evaluate arguments/conclusions based on our prior-knowledge rather on the logic/premises behind those arguments/conclusions).
Personality Disorders
related to personality. marked deviation from how we expect the people to behave or how the person is experiencing the world. This difference leads to distress/functioning. - includes ones outside those accepted of societal norms - 10 types divided into 3 clusters - A, B, C, and there is overlap between the cluster
5 main tastes
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
Monocular cues
relative size, interposition (when two objects are overlapping and you know one must be in front of the other), relative clarity, texture gradient, relative height, relative motion/motion parallax (objects in foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in background), linear perspective, light and shadow
religious affiliation vs religiosity
religious affiliation = how individual identifies with a specific religious group i.e. if they believe in God, their type of religion religiosity = degree to which an individual actually practices that religion and incorporates it into their lives as demonstrated by their beliefs and behaviours i.e. a guy who says he's Christian but doesn't attend church... religious affiliation = Christianity, but does not possess religiosity because he doesn't follow the religion
Churches
religious bodies that coexist/are well integrated into society; formal organizations
types of defense mechanisms (8)
repression, suppression, regression, rxn formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation
Endogenous cues
require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it. E.g. cocktail party effect
ethical research
requires that all participants any point, participants should be able to freely data can then no longer be used
Comparative Studies
research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures. A major problem in comparative research is that the data sets in different countries may not use the same categories, or define categories differently (for example by using different definitions of poverty)
nonassociative learning
responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus, or event
Stimulus Generalization
responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli - ex. getting stuck in an elevator, and you are now scared of all types of confined spaces
Sleep-wake disorders
result in distress/disability from sleep-related issues. Include insomnia and breathing-related sleep disorders, abnormal behaviours during sleep
question-order bias
results from placement of survey or questionnaire questions, the order of which can potentially impact results (aka order effects)
Binocular Cues
retinal disparity (distance between two eyes - results in slightly different images projected onto respective retinas) and convergence (extent to which eye turns inward when focusing on object) - used for depth/distance - depth perception = stereopsis
Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
Serial Position Effect
retrieval cue where we are better at recalling the first and last few items on a list.
positive sanctions
reward for conforming to norms
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
rivals the null by claiming that a difference does exist between 2 groups
Photoreceptors
rods and cones
Norms
rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members - reinforced by sanctions = rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms - can be informal (understood but not official) or formal (written, explicit, encoded by the law)
cis-gender
same biological sex and gender identity
centralization segregation
segregation + clustering in a central area
Improving cognitive abilities with age
semantic memories improve around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills. Also crystallized IQ (ability to use knowledge and experience). Also emotional reasoning
Kinaesthesia
sense of limb movement
Olfaction
sense of smell
Piaget's stages
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
overall flow of memory
sensory memory in projection area of given sensory modality -> brief unless maintained in consciousness -> moved into hippocampus in temporal lobe as short term memory -> manipulated through working memory while in hippocampus and working with frontal and parietal lobes -> stored later for recall -> gradually moved back to cerebral cortex over very long periods of time
types of memory storage
sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, long-term memory
afferent neurons
sensory neurons
Freud's theory of dreams
separates dreams into manifest content ( what one actually sees and hears) and latent content (underlying significance of these dream elements)
Demographic transition
shift in populations from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a country becomes industrialized
Sleep Spindles
short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep, thought to inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state
ANOVA
similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups
gene-environment interaction
situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed
central sleep apnea
sleep disorder with periods of interrupted breathing due to a disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing
gender
social construction based on identity and expression - many combinations
modernization
social progress and transition of a society brought about by industrialization; results in society becoming less traditional and more bureaucratized, reduces importance of religion
Tangible support
social support focused on practical or material needs; taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems includes financial assistance (banks), material goods, services (restaurants)
social stratification
society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their social class (economic resources), social status (one's prestige/reputation i.e. good career, attractiveness, achievements, etc.), and power (ability to control others i.e. through certain careers like cop and accomplishments like large social media following) ex. upper, middle, lower class
executive control
solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations.
Parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex, spatial manipulation
Fad
something that is very popular for a short time, then forgotten - ex. cinnamon challenge
Unconditioned stimulus
something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
Temporal lobe
sound, Wernicke's area
taste aversion
specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs after just one instance of becoming ill following food/drink consumption; can be long term even past illness
Broca's area
speech production
cultural diffusion
spreading of culture from one group to another ex. people in Canada celebrate Cinco de Mayo
stages of info processing according to elaboration likelihood model
stage 1: Pre-Processing stage due to target characteristics: before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, importance, etc. of us (the listener). - Central Processing: If listener interest, motivation, importance are high. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic. - Peripheral processing: If listener interest, motivation, importance are low we process via the peripheral route. Chosen when listener doesn't care about topic stage 2: Processing Stage by message/source: - Central Processing: Focus on a deep processing of the information. - Peripheral processing: Focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) i.e. attractiveness of speaker, their PowerPoint attractiveness, etc. stage 3: Change in attitude - Central Processing: creates a lasting attitude change - Peripheral processing: creates a temporarily attitude change
Theory of Differential Association
states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others. Rejects previous norms/values and believes new behavior as norm Ex: elite athlete who grows up believing that cheating is wrong and to be a successful athlete one must train hard, avoid drugs and alcohol, and be respectful to opponents. Elite athlete now switches teams and now new team member believe that using steroids, partying, and heckling is the best way to be successful at a sport. Perhaps even show athlete how to be deviant by demonstrating how to take a particular drug, introducing athlete to steroid, etc. Overtime the athlete will learn from the new team members that these behaviors (partying, heckling, and drug use) are acceptable even though they were not before. Accepts these new deviant behaviors overtime
Null Hypothesis (H0)
states that there is no difference between 2 groups
Strong social constructionism
states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts; no facts that just exist.
Achieved status
status you earn yourself after working for it ex. Olympic athlete
Ascribed status
statuses you can't change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family
knee-jerk response
stimulus of striking knee tendon, making muscle longer, stimulating stretch receptor of thigh muscle; muscle contracts, knee kicks out
secondary reinforcer
stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through learning - conditioned to be desirable (a sticker for when you answer a question right)
Storage
storing information after it is encoded so that it can be remembered
Heuristics
strategy or mental shortcut that allow for more rapid problem solving and faster decision making than algorithms - fast, potentially error-prone
Assimilation (culture)
strategy that a person seeks to interact with a new culture and possibly start to reject their native culture
intramuscular
stuck into muscle. Can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly. Quick for example is epipen. Or vaccines, slowly.
Ethology
study of animal behavior
social learning theory
suggests that behaviour is shaped through social interaction, imitation, modelling - can occur in the absence of direct reinforcement or punishment (unlike behaviourism)
source characteristics
the environment around the message and the speaker's background. ex. level of expertise of speaker - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. Where does the information come from (scientific journal or street poll), physical environment of event
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
Olfactory bulb
the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose
preparatory stage
the first stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children mimic or imitate others imitation, ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words).
Selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
In group
the group with which an individual identifies as a member
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events - associated with external locus of control (feeling like the outcome is due to luck or fate and cannot be personally influenced) and low self-efficacy (low belief in own competence and ability)
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
principle of aggregation
the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act
growth mindset
the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
fixed mindset
the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
empathy-altruism hypothesis
the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain
Fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective
Internal/Dispositional attribution
the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Ego
the largely conscious but also partially unconscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality.
Social facts
the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead. Unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist. Ex. the law
Source traits
the more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality; fewer, more abstract
egoism
the motivations and instincts for an individual's behavior are based on their own self- interest and welfare. It is the belief that all of our behaviors and actions are based on the benefit that we will receive from it
Bystander Effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present - increases with increasing size of group
Fundemental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just/fair and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get - good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
Group favoritism
the tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the in-group more than members of the out-group
spontaneous recovery
the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period
Availability Heuristic
the tendency to make decisions or base judgments on how easily something is recalled from memory / readily available in memory ex. assuming shark attacks are common after seeing on reported in the news recently
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors; we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not
Gender schema theory
the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly
linguistic relativity hypothesis
the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person themself
general fertility rate
the total number of live births per year for every 1000 women of child-bearing age within the population
assortative mating
the type of mating that occurs when an organism selects a mating partner that resembles itself
spatial inequality
the unequal distribution of wealth or resources in a geographic area, so that some places are richer than others
top-down processing
the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole
interactionist approach to language
the view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language
society
the way people organize themselves - includes institutions, provides structure for organization for people
Social identity theory
theory in which the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity, and social comparison - personal and social - categorize --> identification (behave+act) --> comparison
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time, and one does not cause the other; arise from different parts of the brain and are thus separate and independent of each other - ex. seeing a bear prompts both the feelings of fear and a racing heart
James-Lange theory of emotion
theory proposing that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli - NS arousal followed by emotion based on NS arousal interpretation - ex. seeing a bear in the woods causes you to tremble. i am trembling therefore i am scared; you feel scared because you are scared - ex. i am crying therefore i am sad
Universalism
theory that thought determines language completely
Gender Oppression Theory
third Feminist theory. argues that not only are women different from or unequal to men, but they are actively oppressed, subordinated and even abused by men
Confounding variables
third variable in an experiment that could provide an alternative explanation to the relationship between the variables of interest; affects both the independent and dependent variables; not typically of interest to the researcher
Cognitive view of motivation
thought processes drive behavior
obsession
thoughts that occur involuntarily, occur repeatedly - ex. obsession with hands being dirty
Evolutionary Biology on dreams
threat simulation to prepare for real world, problem solving, no purpose
semicircular canals
three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance
Temporal confounds
time related confounding variables
Positive control
treatment with known response
types of problem solving
trial and error algorithms deductive reasoning inductive reasoning
Amphetamines and Methamphetamines
trigger release of dopamine, euphoria for up to 8 hours; • Long-term addicts may lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine
Token Economy
type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens - certain behaviours (finishing homework) are positively reinforced with tokens that are secondary reinforcers (gold star) which can be exchanged for a desirable reward (5 gold stars can be exchanged for candy)
reconstructive bias
type of bias related to memory. Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress.
population validity
type of external validity which describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole; generalizability
explicit (declarative) memory
type of long-term memory that consists of our memories that require conscious recall.
Implicit (nondeclarative/procedural) Memory
type of long-term memory that consists of our skills and conditioned responses.
Discriminative Stimulus
type of stimulus that is used consistently to gain a specific response and that increases the possibility that the desired response will occur. ex. training a dolphin using operant conditioning, the dolphin may associate the *trainer* with the possibility of a reward, even though the actual reward (primary reinforcer) is the fish. It is seen when classical and operant conditioning are used hand-in-hand.
tend-and-befriend response
under stress, people often provide support to others and bond with and seek support from others
informal sanction
understood but unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment
False consciousness
unlike class consciousness, unable to see their oppression; adopt to misleading views of the upper class and accept the status quo (injustice, exploitation) - owners can promote this false consciousness by controlling classes (ex. make it seem like one day they will be promoted), making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression8
cognitive dissonance
unpleasant mental discomfort (cognitive dissonance) resulting from two conflicting thoughts/beliefs/beliefs/attitudes; motivation to reduce conflict by aligning thoughts and/or behaviours - ex. woman wants to have baby but does not want medical help. doctor says the only way to have a baby is with medical help. the doctor's advice directly contradicts with her belief, so she will either change her view on it and get the medical help (aligning with doctor) or not have a baby at all (aligning with her) - either would reduce her mental discomfort/conflict
Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Elimination Disorders
urination/defecation at inappropriate times
Radiofrequency lesions
used to destroy tissue on surface of brain and deep inside brain
Availability method
using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but our memories don't match real state of the world.
types of organizations
utilitarian, normative, coercive organizations
Caste system
very little social mobility, because your role is determined entirely by background you're born to and who you're married to - lots of social stability
Game theory
views social interaction as a game in which there will be winners, losers, and proper ways to "play" in order to achieve "victory."
Occipital lobe
vision, "striate cortex"
culture
way of life shared by group of individuals - the knowledge, beliefs and values that bind a society together and are passed down. Very diverse, can include artwork, language, and literature - rules of life that guide the way people live
means of production
way we produce goods ex. factories and farms
defence mechanisms
ways to protect ourselves - a psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychological processes. A way to protect ourselves when we have to deal with unconscious wants, feelings, desires, and impulses. - all mechanisms first deny, falsify, distort reality... then operate unconsciously - 4 main categories - pathological, immature, neurotic, mature
resource model of attention
we have limited resources in attention
3x2 factorial design
we have three levels of the first variable crossed with two levels of the second variable. Such a design gives us 3x2=6 treatment conditions in the experiment. Two independent variables, 3 of first, 2 of second
Theory by Karl Marx
workers in working class don't realize they're being exploited and oppressed by this capitalistic model of working - workers can develop class consciousness or experience false consciousness
Weber's Law
ΔI=I/k ; the change in a stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus
Subcortical Cerebrum
•Subcortical cerebral nuclei that are located deep part of the cerebrum
