MCAT behavioral sciences
VMH (in brain)
- ventromedial hypothalamus - satiety center - signal to stop eating - brain lesions here lead to obesity - VMH: very much hungry
functionalism basic definition
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish in our environments
peptide neurotransmitters
- neuromodulators - more complicated chain of events in postsyn cell than that of regular neurotransmitters - relatively slow and have longer effects than neurotransmitters - Endorphines
endorphines
- neuromodulators or peptide neurotransmitters - natural painkillers produced by the brain - act like morphine or opioids in the body
Max Weber
- one of the first to study social processes - Social action: actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing bc others are around - who is around affects if/how people act
vision
- only sense w an entire lobe (occipital lobe) - deters light in the form of photons - sclera, cornea - choroidal and retinal blood vessels --> nutrients to eye
opiates or opioids
- opiates = naturally occurring forms = morphine and codeine - opium = semisynthetic derivatives = oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin - from the poppy plant, medical and recreational uses - bind to opioid receptors in PNS and CNS and caused decreased pain and sense of euphoria - overdose --> brain stop sending signals to breathe --> death
heroin
- opium - diacetylmorphine - originally created as a morphine substitute - once injected rapidly metabolized to morphine - used to be most used but now prescription opioids are instead
encoding
- the processing of putting new information into the memory - passively absorb much of our information from environment --> gain of information without effort --> automatic processing - controlled or effortful processing: active memorization of facts
cognitive dissonance
- the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions - internal discomfort --> anxiety, fear, anger, confusion - try to assuage by changing, adding to or minimizing one of the dissonant things
morphology
- the structure of words - morphemes: building blocks of words; connote a particular meaning - ex: redesigned: re = to do again, design = verb root, -ed = past action
psychophysics
- the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them - relationship btwn physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke
locus of control
- the way we characterize the influences in our lives - ppl w internal locus: control their own fate - ppl w external locus: events in their lives are cause by luck or outside influence ex: when you lose a race is it bc you didn't train enough or bc of the wind/equipment - integral to attribution theory, along w cognitive dissonance: success=result of our efforts and failures=result of external factors (ex: win a race its bc u pulled hard, lose=bc cox steered wrong)
functional attitudes theory
- theory of attitudes - attitudes serve 4 functions: 1. knowledge - provides consistency and stability: attitudes organize thoughts and experiences; can predict behavior others based on their attitudes ex if someone cares ab environment they will recycle 2. ego expression - communicate and solidify self-identity; ex: if u identify w a team wear their gear 3. adaptation - idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed 4. ego defense - if an attitude projects self-esteem or justifies actions that we know are wrong; ex: if you hate writing you will have a negative attitude towards it
webers law
- there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd and the magnitude of the original stimulus - ex: can't differentiate btwn 440 hz but can btwn 441 hz (dif sensation same perception) but can when you get to 443 hz --> calculate with ratios: here = 0.68% --> 3/440 (weber's law) - therefore with higher magnitude need larger change to notice dif (ex 1000 and 1006.8) - webers is accurate except at extreme highs and lows
stage 2 sleep eeg
- theta waves as well as sleep spindle and k complex
how would a cognitive behavioral therapist treat a fear
- they believe disorder = thought and behaviors interacting - they would challenge the thoughts by taking them somewhere/showing them something that makes them face their fear and then challenging the fears they have to correct conscious thoughts
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
- thiamine deficiency (B1) - severe memory impairment with changes in metal status and motor skills - from alcoholism
adaptive role of emotion
- thought to be an evolutionary adaptation due to experiences that have guided sensory processing, response, behavior - thought to develop at different point (ex: fear first and guilt or pride more recently)
cultural relativism
- to avoid ethnocentrism - is the perception of another cultural as different than one's own but with the recognition that the cultural values mores and rules fit into that culture - neither superior - just different
classical conditioning
- type of associative learning - use instinctual responses to create associations btwn two unrelated stimuli - Pavlov's Dogs: bell and salivation - some stimuli --> innate response: salivation at smell of food or jumping at sound noise --> unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response - neutral stimuli have no innate response; can be used as signaling stimuli if used as a conditioning stimulus
Fetus attached to uterine wall and placenta by
- umbilical cord - placenta transmits food, oxygen, water while returning water and waste to mother - maternal blood supplies many proteins and amino acids needed; embryo begins to produce as well
object permanence
- understanding that things exist even out of view (peekaboo = before this stage - seems as though the person has just appeared) - end of sensorimotor stage in Piaget's stages - marks the beginning of representational thought: child creates mental representations of external objects and events
conversion disorder
- unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions - usually after high levels of stress or trauma - sometimes symptoms resemble the trauma (ex: going blind after watching your child died violently) - ex: paralysis or blindness without neurological disorder - la belle indifférence: not car ring as much
decay forgetting
- unimportant memories are lost overtime as neurochemical trace of short-term fades - ebbinghaus's curve of forgetting
two-point threshold
-minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli - depends on density of nerves in the area
ethnography
study of cultures and customs - ethnographic methods - experimental methods to study ethnicity and culture
SNS
sympathetic nervous system (not somatic)
beneficence
the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest
absolute poverty
the point at which a household's income falls below the necessary level to purchase food to physically sustain its members
prestige
amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea - job, awards, affiliations
two types of object recognition
- bottom-up processing - top-down processing - need both - relevant for all senses but most applicable to vision
neurotic needs
- Horney's Psychoanalytic theory - affection and approval, exploitation, self-sufficiency - Problematic if they are 1. disproportionate in intensity 2. indiscriminate in application 3. partially disregard reality 4. have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety
Seasonal affective disorder
(SAD) - not freestanding in DSM-5 - best categorized as major depressive disorder with seasonal onset - depressive symptoms only in the winter months - may be related to abnormal dietary melatonin - Treated with bright light therapy: exposure to bright light for specific time everyday
dissociative identity disorder
(formerly multiple personality disorder) - 2 or more personalities recurrently take control of a person's behavior - when components of identity fail to integrate - usually in people who have suffered severe physical or sexual abuse as children - after much therapy can sometimes integrate into one
Maslow's personality theory
- Humanistic personality development - Studied people like Beethoven, Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt - found they were non hostile, creative, spontaneous, had personal boundaries - Peak experiences: self actualized people have more profound and deeply moving experiences that have lasting effects on the individual
synaptic pruning
- as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information
hypophyseal portal system
- directly connects hypothalamus and pituitary gland - hypothalamus links endocrine and nervous system ; regulates hormonal function of pituitary gland
drive reduction theory
- Drives: motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfy states; internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors with a focus on a goal; originate within, increase survival while creating an uncomfy state humans want to stop - primary drives = food, water, warmth = drive to maintain homeostasis - secondary drives = additional drives unrelated to biological processes; emotional (nurturing, love, achievement, aggression) or learned desires like to win or go to med school or get good grades - used a lot with behavioral conditioning
Personal Construct Psychology
- George Kelly - Humanistic personality development - thought of individual as a scientist with tests and predictions about behavior of significant people in their life - construct predictions about what people will do - anxious people are the ones having trouble making sense of the variables - psychotherapy is to help people predict troublesome events and integrate these concepts
Pituitary gland
- "master" gland - located at base of brain - anterior and posterior - anterior is the "master" - releases the hormones that regulate endocrine activity but is actually controlled by the hypothalamus - pituitary secretes hormones that travel to other endocrine glands to activate them
James-Lange theory of emotion
- 1. physical 2. label - stimulus first leads to physiological arousal - physiological leads to secondary response of labeling the emotion (peripheral organs receive information and respond THEN brain tables the emotion) - ex: when you get angry your brain is like my skin is hot and my BP is high I must be angry - BUT that means that patients with inability to create an automatic sympathetic response (ie spinal cord injury) should have decreased emotions and this is not true
brain areas and language
- 2 dif parts for lang production and comprehension; both located in dominant hemisphere (usually left) 1. Borca's area 2. Wenicke's area 1/2. arcuate fasciculus: connects borcas and winicke's
middle ear
- 3 smallest bones in the body: the ossicles (stapes, malleus, incus)
retina structure
- 6 mil cones and 120 mil rods - Cones: color vision and fine details - Rods: sensation of light and dark - cones and rods don't directly interact w optic nerve - many neurons between (bipolar, ganglion, horizontal and amacrine cells)
dreaming
- 75% occurs in REM (longer/more vivid than NREM dreaming) - mental experience starts to shift to dreamlike state after stage 2 entered though - action-synthesis, problem solving, cognitive process models, and neurocognitive models for why we dream
brain disorders --> forgetting
- Alzheimer's = most common - Korsakoffs's syndrom - Agnosia
dementia
- Alzheimers is 60-80% of all dementia - vascular (multi-infarct) - caused by high bp and microscopic clots in brain - starts with memory but spreads to impairment in judgement and confusion
behaviorist personality theory
- BF Skinner - based on operant conditioning - personality as a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced or punished - therapy then should focus on teaching/changing behavior with conditioning - Often use token economics inpatient: tokens for good behavior that can be exchanged
nativist (biological) theory of language
- Chomsky - innate language learning capacity - transformational grammar: syntax changes that retain meaning (ex: change from active to passive) are easily learned at an early age; must be innate - language acquisition device (LAD): is a brain pathway that allows infants to learn language easily - nativists believe critical period for language learning = 2 yr - puberty; if try to learn after reach puberty there is lifelong issues with syntax, etc. (if no language exposure at all); still, some learning is able to happen --> more like a sensitive period
form of an object
- Determined through parallel processing and feature detection - motion through magnocellular cells
overcoming basic hostility or anxiety
- Horney - people fight basic hostility and anxiety by moving toward people to gain their goodwill/security, moving away from people/withdrawing, or moving against people by fighting to obtain upper hand - healthy people use all three ^^ strategies but a highly affected child will use one rigidly and carry that into adulthood
super ego
- In freudian psychoanalytic personality theory - desires are refined, focused on ideal self - personality's perfectionist: judges and responds with pride or guilt - 2 sub systems which reflect taught morals 1. conscious: collection of improper actions that lead to punishment 2. ego-ideal: proper actions that lead to reward - eventually ideas of right and wrong replace parental rewards and punishments
Id
- In freudian psychoanalytic personality theory - primal/inborn urges to survive and reproduce - pleasure principle: aim to achieve immediate gratification to relieve tension - Primary process: relieve frustration now not later - wish fulfillment: day dreaming or fantasy that relieves frustration but not permanent --> ego
ego
- In freudian psychoanalytic personality theory - reality principle drives ego: takes into account objective reality as it guides/inhibits the Id's pleasure principles - secondary process = the guidance - aim = postpone pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained - ** only suspends primary process to meet demands of an objective reality (ex: if stuck in traffic you might want to speed on should = id; ego tells you to calm down) - ego promotes: problem solving, perception, memory, reality testing - organizer of the mind - receives power from the id; moderator of superego --> clashing between the two: defensive mechanisms to relieve that anxiety
cultural attribution
- Individualist cultures put more emphasis on individual, personal goals, independence - collectivist put more on the group and conformity and interdependence - individualists tend to make more fundamental attribution errors than those in collectivist cultures aka individualists are more likely to attribute behavior to dispositional factors -collectivists are more likely to attribute behavior to situationl factors
Difference threshold
- Just Noticeable Difference (JND) - minimum dif in magnitude before one can perceive the difference - ex: can't btwn 440 hz but can btwn 441 hz (dif sensation same perception) but can when you get to 443 hz - calculate with ratios: here = 0.68% --> 3/440 (weber's law)
who Piaget influenced which two psychologists
- Kohlberg - Vygotsky
Force Field Theory
- Kurt Lewin - Humanistic personality development - not focused on id/eg/constraints/habit/past/present - Focus: what are the forces acting on a person in the current situation - influences = 1. Help in attainment of goals 2. block our path to our goals
Piaget's learning schemata
- New info processed into schemata through adaptations by assimilation and accommodation - assimilation: classify new info into existing schemata - accommodation: if new info doesn't fit into existing schemata they are modified to encompass the new info Infants: start w instinctual interactions - reflexive grasping --> learn to grab things
Gate theory of pain
- Nociceptors sense pain - there is a special gating mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting perception of pain - in this theory spinal cord can preferentially forward other signals of pressure or temp to brain to reduce pain sensation - not as relevant now but not wrong
obsessive compulsive and related disorders
- OCD - body dysmorphia disorder - trauma and stressor related disorders
obsessive compulsive personality disorder
- OCPD - perfectionist, inflexible, obsessed with rules - inability to discard worn objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, lack of sense of humor, careful routines - different than OCD where obsessions and compulsions are focal, OCPD is lifelong and more general OCD = ego-dystonic (wants to keep washing bc of germs) OCPD = ego-syntonic (must follow rules and order)
ethnic group health disparities sin the US
- Pacific Islander and Asian Americans = best - white Americans = higher cancer and CHD and infant mortality rates that ^^ - blacks = worse overall health than both ^^^ and black males = lowest life expectance - some diseases are better than whites and some worse for hispanics and native Americans - females generally longer life than males - through all of this tho low SES is the factor that leads to the worst health outcomes
dual-coding theory
- Paivio - information processing theory - verbal association and visual images used to process and store information (ex: word dad and image of dad both incite the same information) --> redundancy --> increase chance that info will be retrieved and used when cued
sensory specific receptors
- Photoreceptors: respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible light spectrum - hair cells - respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures (hearing, rational and linear acceleration) - nociceptors - respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation/touch) - thermoreceptors: respond to temp change - osmoreceptors: maintain h2o homeostasis in response to blood osmolarity changes - olfactory receptors: respond to volatile compounds (smell) - taste receptors: respond to dissolved compounds
preoperational stage
- Piaget's 2nd stage - 2yrs - 7 yrs 1. symbolic thinking: ability to pretend, play make-believe, imagine 2. egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel 3. centration: tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon or inability to understand conservation (ex: can't tell that two small slices = one big one)
concrete operational stage
- Piaget's 3rd stage - 7 yrs - 11 yrs - understand conservation and consider outside/others' perspectives - engage in logical though (only w concrete objects or direct information) - no abstract thinking
Parkinson's disease
- associated w loss of dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia - disrupted dopamine transmission leads to resting tremors, jerky movements, postural instability - teated w L-DOPA to increase brain dopamine but also can --> psychotic symptoms
sensorimotor stage
- Piaget's theory, first stage - birth - 2yrs - learn to manipulate environment to meet physical needs - Primary circular reactions: repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance (them sucking) usually bc soothing - secondary circular reactions: repetition of manipulation focused outside the body (throwing from a high chair) bc they get a response - End: conception of object permanence: things exist even out of view (peekaboo = before this stage - seems as though the person has just appeared)
formal operational stage
- Piagets 4th and final stage - 11 yrs and up - use logic with abstract ideas --> use methodic problem solving skills
constancy
- Refers to the idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment - ex: white paper = white no matter what kind of (noncolored) lighing you use = color constancy - also brightness, size and shape consistency
family studies
- Rely on the assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals - bad bc share both genetics and environment - ex: hereditary if sufficiently higher rates among kids/siblings of a disease of parent/sib but what if that's just environment - flaw of study
maintenance rehearsal
- Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory so as not to forget it or store it in short and then eventually long term mem
stage 3 and 4 erg sleep
- SWS (slow wave sleep) - Delta waves - slows until only a few sleep waves per second (~3 per 1.0) - cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, increased growth hormone release
Learning (behaviorist) theory of language
- Skinner - language acquisition by operant learning - use reinforcement by parent using their language --> baby takes those phonemes on preferentially - this explains words and speech but cannot explain the vocab explosion at 18-20 mo that all healthy children experience
I and me impression management
- The "I": the creative expression of the individual - the "me": part of the self that is a response to the environment - school and studying hard = me (social expectation) - alternative path to what you want to do in life = I
preparedness
- The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others aka animals are better at learning behaviors that coincide with their own natural abilities and instincts - ex: birds peck for food so they will respond well if food = reward for a pecking behavior
sleep stage 1 erg waves
- Theta waves - change from alpha to theta as soon as you fall asleep - irregular waveforms of slower frequencies and higher voltage
David McClelland
- Trait Theorist - Need for achievement personality trait (N-Ach) - high pride in accomplishments - avoids high risk (don't like failing) and low risk (no satisfaction) - realistic goals and stop if they might fail
Gordon Allport
- Trait theorist - 3 basic traits or dispositions: 1. Cardinal Traits: the personal traits around which one orders their life; not everyone has one/+ ex: mother Theresa = self-sacrifice; Kevin = grit 2. Central Traits: major characteristics - easy to infer; honestly and charisma 3. Secondary Traits: other personality characteristics that are limited in occurrence; only in close groups ex: me with the whole team vs at home w Jan - functional autonomy: a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that created it; ex: hunter Strats hunting for food but eventually just for sport
Hans and Sybil Eysenck
- Trait theorists - PEN model: Psychoticism (nonconformity); Extroversion (tolerate for social interaction); neuroticism (emotional arousal in stressful situation) - distinguish based on the PEN theory and where they fall between these three - PEN expanded to OCEAN: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
language influence on cognition
- Whorfian hypothesis or linguistic relativity hypothesis: our perception of reality is determined by the content of language - basically language affects the way we think and not vice versa - word choice, inflection, speaker, etc. all play a role and these different between languages - some languages have more words for a think allowing more discussion of it (ex: inuits have more words for snow and can therefore distinguish more subtleties about it)
dyssomnias
- disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep - insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea
trauma and stressor-related disorders
- a OC related disorder PTSD: - intrusion symptoms: recurrent living, flashbacks, nightmares, prolonged distress - avoidance symptoms: deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, etc. associated - negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distant - arousal symptoms: increased startle, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive, reckless, sleep disturbance - must have multiple symptoms for one month - if 3 days but less than a month = acute stress disorder
generalization
- a broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response - little Albert - conditioned to fear a white rat w loud noise but he also began to fear other white animals and white hair
sleep cycles
- a complete progression through the sleep stages - 50' in children 90' in adults per cycle - SWS predominates early in the night and then later REM takes over - children have shorter cycles w more time in SWS
elaborative rehearsal
- a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way - associate with already stored knowledge (maintenance rehearsal just for keeping at forefront)
peg-word system
- a mnemonic device in which you associate numbers with items that rhyme or resemble the numbers - you make a peg-list that you know: ex: 1, sun; 2, pair of shoes; 3, tree - to remember another list match it with your peg-words: ex: eggs fried by the sun, shoes filled with milk, tree w leaves of bread slices
method of loci
- a mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a location on a route (usually inside) that is already memorized - ex: if you need eggs, milk, bread, think ab eggs on your doorstep, milk spilled in the hallway, read on the floor of kitchen, etc
discriminative stimulus
- a reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm - ex: dolphin trainer is a discriminative stimulus bc offers potential of reward
social structure
- a system of people win a society organized by characteristic patterns of relationships - no single unified social reality exists - Functionalism - conflict theory - symbolic interactionism - social constructionism - rational choice and exchange theory - feminist theory
mental set
- a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past - problem solving technique; may draw possible soln in this way
temporal lobe and emotion
- ability to distinguish others' facial expressions - some imputes from occipital - right hemisphere more active than left in this - women's brains more active in this - develops with age
divided attention
- ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time - new or complex required undivided attention and required controlled (effortful) processing - familiar or routine can use automatic processing : brain can focus on other tasks with divided attention ex: learning to drive lol at first ur like white knuckling but eventually jan is like on facebook while going 75 BUT automatic processing cannot respond to change quickly --> accidents
parallel processing
- ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion - at that point you can compare to memories to figure out what is being viewed
parasomnias
- abnormal behaviors or movements during sleep - night-terrors, sleepwalking
positive and negative effects of stress
- acute (short term) --> increased alertness and less pain perception, immune system readied, higher HR, more o2 to muscle, secrete adrenaline to increase energy supply, suppress digestion and reproduction temporarily - chronic (long term) --> impaired memory and increased depression, deteriorated immune, elevated BP and CVD risk, high hormone levels, infertility and miscarriage risk
adrenal cortex
- adrenal glands - produces corticosteroids, inc cortisol (stress hormone) and cortisone and aldosterone - produces sex hormones
adrenal medula
- adrenal glands, on top of kidneys - releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of sympathetic NS
Storage
- after encoding you have to store it to remember it - types 1. sensory
pinna
- aka auricle - cartilage part of outer ear - first part sound wave reaches - main function is to channel sound into the external auditory canal - canal directs to the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
explicit memory
- aka declarative - require conscious recall 1. Semantic: facts that we know 2. Episodic: our experiences -flashbulb memory: memory that has episodic and semantic components - this is how you can answer questions like "do you remember where you were when...?
functionalism
- aka functional analysis - study of the structure and function of each part of society; parts/systems must function in harmony; if they fulfill --> society in normal state, if not --> abnormal/pathological state - function: beneficial consequences of actions - functions keep society in balance - dysfunctions: harmful consequences of actions - undermine social equilibrium - functions can be manifest intended to help part of the system and can have other unintended positive latent functions or effects - latent flow from manifest but are unstated/ unrecognized (ex: conference might be to teach but have the latent function of strengthening relationships) - illness as deviance: in that goes against norm bc cannot add as normal to society; they are in a different societal role once sick
semantics
- association of meaning w a word - have to learn that some words refer to groups like food while others are specific like apple or women vs mommy - why kids sometimes call all women mama at first
symbolic culture
- aka nonmaterial culture - mottos, songs, catchphrases, ideas - life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness - slower to change than material - cultural lag - current cultural lag as we develop tech but still value individuality and privacy while smartphones and social media push toward community based and less private BUT this is leading so symbolic change too and younger gen value privacy less/share more personal info
humanistic perspective of personality
- aka phenomenological - contrasts psychoanalysts - focus on value of all individuals and take a more person-centered approach - focus on how healthy people strive towards self-realization - associate with Gestalt therapy: holistic view of the self; each individual is complete - personality is a result of our conscious feelings for ourselves as we attempt to attain needs and goals - force field theory - Maslow's personality theory - Personal Construct theory - Client-centered therapy
impression management
- aka self-presentation - attempts to influence how others see us buy regulation/control of information given 1. authentic self: positive and negative of who the person actually is 2. ideal self: who they want to be in ideal situation 3. tactical self: who we market ourselves as when we adhere to others' expectations (see ought self) - dramaturgical approach - I and me approach
cognition
- all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating - not uniquely human but what makes us human i enhanced frontal lobe cognition - our skull has expanded in front/on top to accommodate such a large frontal lobe
expectancy-value theory of motivation
- amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both individual's expectation of success and degree to which they value succeeding
implicit memory and emotions
- amygdala - unconscious memory or emotional memory - storage of the actual feelings of am emotion associated with an event; may retrieve when experiencing the same event - expression of past emotions - w PTSD = the anxiety and unease when in a similar environment to the event
The limbic system and emotion
- amygdala (fear/aggression, flashbulb) - thalamus -hypothalamus hippocampus (learning/memory, stm to ltm) cingulate cortex (pain) - prefrontal cortex
violent behavior
- amygdala associates stimuli with their corresponding rewards and punishments - basically tells if something is a threat - amygdala activated --> aggression - higher order brain function like the prefrontal cortex can put the brakes on if needed to reduce reactiveness and impulsivity - higher testosterone = more aggressive - cognitive neoassociation model - exposure to violent behavior increases
long-term potentiation
- an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. - stimuli activate neurons, release NT into synaptic cleft and while these NT stimulate activity until degradation, reuptake, diffusion out they form a memory trace that is through to e the cause of short term memory - so if you don't repeat or reverse it the memory will ben lost one the trace is gone - BUT repeat --> neurons become more efficient at releasing their Its and simultaneously the receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase - strengthening --> LTM potentiate = increase potency or strength = increase synaptic connection
(psychophysical) discrimination testing
- analyze threshold of conscious perception (I feel like this is more difference threshold??) - present two stimuli, one varied slightly, ask them to identify the variation (or if there is one) - increase change until the person realizes the change - ex: change a sound pitch or color
animal signs and communication
- animal communication is from any animal to another - rely on more nonverbal senses like scent, smell, etc and body language - animals need to show e/o intent or share information ab resources, etc. - positions that show fear (dog tucking its tail) or mating or aggression - barbering teach and lunging preserved among all species as aggression (body language less preserved) - color, bioluminescence, movement important in display of who/what animal is to other animals - ex: bees through dancing indicate location of food relative to hive - scent: intraspective and interspective communication (within and between species); pheromones can e mating tool or defense (skunk) - vocalization: prairie dogs have "words" for predators and birds have calls for mating vs threat
specific phobias
- anxiety disorder - most common anxiety disorder - irrational fear that results in a compelling desire to avoid it - anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation - acrophobia = irrational fear of heights
cluster c
- anxious or fearful behavior - avoidant personality disorder - dependent personality disorder - obsessive compulsive personality disorder
verbal communication
- any communication using words - be they spoken, written or signs - uses nonverbal esp in face to face but also in phone conversation w pauses and tone
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
- argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain - important but not all findings correlate - treat with dopamine blockers --> extrapyramidal symptoms
material culture
- artifacts: materials made, possessed, valies - exploration of the meaning of objects of a society - artwork, clothing, jewels, buildings, tools, food, flags, ceremonial objects -America: rock and roll, red white and blue, bbq, baseball
game theory
- attempts to explain decision making behavior - based on players, information they have, payoffs - game payoff refer to fitness --> evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) --> that strategy will stay active - will be passed down with the object of the game being to become more fit than competitors - Hawk-Dove games = pure competition - with social influences can result in 4 competition alternatives 1. altruism - donor provides benefit at cost to themself 2. cooperation - both benefit 3. spite: negative impact for donor and acceptor 4. selfishness: donor benefits, recipient not
learning theory
- attitudes are developed through different forms of learning - direct contact can influence attitudes, ex: positive towards sweet things immediately - direct instruction can influence attitude: we weren't allowed to eat Ben and Jerry's --> negative attitude ab it (and can cause neg. attitude towards people who do that thing) - can gain a positive or negative attitude based on others - if everyone is drinking and having fun your attitude will become positive ab it; working out, too - can form w operant or classical conditioning or operant learning
correspondent inference theory
- attribution theory - focuses on intentionality of behaviors - if there is an unexpected behavior that helps or hurts us we use dispositional attribution to judge and correlate w person's personality
dissociative disorders
- avoid stress by escaping from identity; otherwise still intact sense of reality - dissociative amnesia - dissociative identity disorder - depersonalization/derealization disorder
beta and alpha EEG waves
- awake beta: - high frequency (~5-6 crests per .2) - during times of high concentration - neurons randomly firing alpha: - lower frequency, ~2 per 0.2 - when you are relaxing with eyes closed but awake - more synchronous - as soon as you actually fall asleep these turn to theta
alertness
- awake, able to think, perceive, process, access and express information verbally - certain level of physiological arousal (cortisol higher, EEG waves indicate) - maintained by neurological circuits in the prefrontal cortex which communication with the reticular formation (absence of connection from injury --> coma)
Language development
- babbling is a the first step even for deaf children - for deaf children is ceases quickly, for hearing it continues and peace 9-12 mo - 12-18 months add ~ 1 word per month; gesture and inflection very important bc only using one word - 18-20 mo = explosion of language, combining words; gesture less important bc can combine words - 2-3 yrs = 3 word sentences; increase grammatical errors; errors of growth with morphemes (runned) - 5 largely mastered
infections from mother to baby
- bacterias and viruses can cross from mother through placenta inc. rubella (German measles) --> cataracts, deafness, heart defects, intellectual disabilities in baby; - other infections dangerous: measles, mumps, hepatitis, influenza, varicella, Zika, herpes - many of the drugs that help the mother hurt the baby: - ex: thalidomide: late 50s and 60s to reduce morning sickness --> births with babies missing eyes or limbs, heart, eye, ear, digestive problems - ex: antiepileptic --> neural tube defects --> fails to close --> spina bifida or anencephaly
Standford-Binet IQ test
- based on g-factor = (mental age/chronological age)*100
Social cognitive perspective personality theory
- behaviorism - how environment AND interaction with it affect behavior (one step further than Skinner) - Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism: thoughts, feelings, behaviors and the environment all interact --> actions; people choose environment to suit personality - personality dictates reaction to events within environment -Locus of control important - best predictor of future behavior is past behavior
actor-observer asymmetry
- bias results from the actor performing self-serving bias and the observer performing fundamental theory attribution error - more likely to make situational attributions for the self than others most commonly w negative behaviors mostly bc you are so in tune w what situational factors were present
Hawk-dove game
- biological game theory, evolutionary stable strategy - focus: access to shared food resources - choose to be hawk or dove - Hawk fights until he wins or dies and dove will retreat if fight escalates - 2 hawks = one wins one dies, hawk/dove = hawk wins; 2 doves = share resources; hawk wins if resource is larger than disadvantage of fighting and doves win is payoff is less - equilibrium begins based on magnitude of reward and cost - representation of pure competition 0 fails to account for if 2 hawks meet and one wins but is injured
ganglion cells
- bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells which group together to form the optic nerve - many many more receptors than ganglion cells --> each ganglion represents combined activity of many rods and cones --> loss of detail as info combined - as number of receptors converging thru bipolar neurons onto one ganglion increases, resolution decreases
nuerons btwn cones/rods and optic nerve
- bipolar, ganglion, horizontal and amacrine cells - fall in between the rods and cones and the optic nerve - are in front of the rods and cones, closer to the front eye aka info transmitted back forwards after received until reaching the ganglion cells
Parkinson's disease biological basis
- bradykinesia (slow movement), resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, mask-like facies (static and expressionless, partially open mouth) cogwheel rigidity (rigidity to the point that examiner can't force movement), sniffling gait and stooped posture - depression and dementia are common but not characteristic - decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra: =layer of cells in the brain that functions to produce dopamine so other parts of the basal ganglia can function - basal ganglia needed to initiate, terminate, smooth movement, esp repetitive ones (walking) medicine: - L-DOPA: precursor converted to dopamine once in the brain - attempts to regenerate dopaminergic neurons in the substantial migration using stem cells placed into CNS but limited result
chunking or clustering
- break what you need to know into groups ex: ENALPKCURTRACSUB backwards is BUSCARTRUCKPLANE --> bus car truck plane
controlled processing
- can become automatic (think ab understanding spanish automatically now whereas used to have to translate word for word) - Types of encoding for controlled processing: 1. visual encoding: weakest, visualize it 2. acoustic encoding: store the way it sounds 3. semantic encoding: strongest; put into meaningful context - the more vivid the better - best if in context of our own lives = self reference effect other devices: maintenance rehearsal, mnemonics (loci and peg-word), and chunking
self-serving (attributional) bias
- can skew self-identity and perception - individuals view their own success based on internal factors while viewing failures as others' fault - what you see as your locus of control can influence - self-enhancement (need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal success/external failure processes) can also influence - high self esteem = more likely to perform self-serving biases in order to maintain that - people with depression often have a reversed attributional bias and few all failures as internal and successes as external - individuals with a close relationships will do this less and make more joint attributions while strangers will self-serve more
sleep state
- can study w EEG to record brainwaves -
ambivalent attachment
- caregiver has inconsistent response to child's distress - child is unable to form secure base - very distressed when they leave and mixed response when they return - aka anxious ambivalent attachment
avoidant attachment
- caregiving has little or no response to distress in the child - children would show no preference between caregiver and stranger for comfort - no distress when caregiver leaves or releif when they return
macula
- centra section of retina - high cone concentration - center = fovea = only cones - as you move out from the fovea rods increase and cones decrease (most detailed activity at the fovea)
compliance
- change in behavior based on a direct request - typically the person asking has no authority to make them - seen a lot in marketing foot in the door: ask a small favor and then after gaining compliance ask a larger one (like asking someone to grab ur mail and then being like hey can u also water my lawn) door in the face: make a large request first and if refused make a smaller one where the smaller is the actual goal lowball technique: get initial commitment and then raise the cost ($, effort, time) - same request but you are made to give more for the same thing that's not all technique: ur made an offer but before you can even accept you're made a better one - infomercials "if you call in the next 30' you get another!"
olfactory brain pathway
- chemicals contact olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium --> receptor cells activated --> signals to olfactory bulb --> relayed via olfactory tract to brain (limbic system) - smell = only sense that doesn't pass through thalamus - travels unfiltered to higher orders
test
- chemoreceptors - ex: salty = rxn to alkali metals; sour = rxn to acid - basically all triggered y specific molecules binding receptors - receptors = taste buds - taste buds in bumps on tongue: papillae - taste bud --> brainstem --> ascend to taste center in thalamus and then higher order regions
secure attachment
- child has consistent caregiver - child is able to go out and explore knowing they have a secure base - child will be upset by their leaving and calmed by their return; can be comforted by others but prefers the caregiver - any other attachment leads to some form of social skill not developing
primary socialization
- childhood - initially learn acceptable action/attitudes - primarily learn through observation esp of parents and siblings
antisocial personality disorder
- class B - 3x more common in males - essential: pattern of disregard for and violations of the rights of others - repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, lack of remorse - no guilt for horrible actions - 20-40% of prison population
dependent personality disorder
- class C - continuous need for reassurance - remain dependent on one specific person like a parent or significant other to take action or make decisions
borderline personality disorder
- class b - 2x more common in females - instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, self-image - intense and unstable relationships - profound identity disturbance, self-image issues, - use splitting as a defense mechanism: see people as all good or all bad - suicide attempts, cutting and burning themselves
avoidant personality disorder
- class c - extreme shyness and fear of rejection - see themself as socially inept, often socially isolated, BUT have intense desire for social affection and acceptance - want to change but stay in the same jobs, life situations, relationships
social class
- class of people with similar socioeconomic status, or SES - economic opportunities + job positions + lifestyle + attitude - determined by achieved and ascribed status
generalized anxiety disorder
- disproportionate and persistent worrying about many different things (payments, Jos, emails, politics,) for at least 6 mo - often have physical fatigue, muscle tension, sleep problems
Patterns of social mobility
- class systems (unlike caste) allow movements between groups, altho since inequalities and class gaps are increasing America sees more downward mobility than ever before - strong correlation w education level but also can move up based on athletic, musical, etc skill - social mobility most often bc economic or occupational structures allow movement - intragenerational mobility = in one's lifetime; intergenerational = from parent to child - meritocracy - horizontal mobility: change in occupation or lifestyle within social class - poverty: low SES and lack of $ or possessions
class status and power
- classes: upper middle lower - upper class = money + power and prestige; influential - middle class = upper middle and lower; upper middle = successful business and professionals; middle-middle = educational or economic shortcomings that don't reach upper-middle; lower-middle = working class, skilled or semi-skilled workers, fewer luxuries - lower class = low economic success and sociopolitical power
stereotype content model
- classify stereotypes with respect to hypothetical in-group using two dimensions 1. warmth: not in direct competition with the in group for resources 2. competence: have high status in society - paternalistic: high warmth low competence: looked at as inferior, dismissed, ignored - contemptuous : low warmth, low competence: ppl look at w annoyance, anger, resentment - envious: low warmth, high competence: ppl view w bitterness, jealousy, distrust - admiration: high warmth high competence: ppl view w pride and positive feelings
Cornea
- clear domelike window in front - gathers and focuses light
halo effect
- cognitive bias in which judgements ab specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one's overall impression of the individual - if you like someone might think that that means they are a good friend to everyone or a good mother when that isn't necessarily true and vice versa if you don't like someone - individuals attractiveness can also lead to this - hot = trustworthy and friendly
ganglia
- collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system - sensory ganglia: receive signals from nerve endings or sensory cells and transmit the data the the CNS - send electrochemical energy along neural pathways to projection areas in the brain
iris
- colored part of the eye - 2 muscles to change the size of the pupil 1. dilator pupillae (open pupil under sympathetic stimulation) 2. constrictor pupillae (constricts pupil under parasympathetic stimuli) - iris and ciliary body are continuous with the choroid
twin studies
- compare concordance rates between monozygotic (MZ; identical) and dizygotic (DZ; fraternal) twins- tell what is environmental and genetic - concordance rate: likelihood that both twins exhibit same trait (MZ = 100% same genes) - assumption is that they share the same environment - MZ and DZ twins raised apart from e/o still more similar
adoption studies
- compare similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents - ex: IQ and teenage boy criminal activity more similar to biological parents
obedience
- compliance = requests from people without authority, obedience = following orders of those w authority - far more likely to obey than comply - in experiment (teacher student shock) 65% would go on if authoritative language was used to tell them to "you MUST continue, you have no choice" even tho they didn't want to
attention
- concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment (sensorium) - selective attention - divided attention
top-down processing
- conceptually driven - driven by memories and expectations --> brain recognizes whole object and then components based on those expectations - quick recognition without needing to analyze parts
Source monitoring error
- confusion between semantic and episodic memory - remember details but confuse context - often manifests as hearing a story and remembering it as happening to you instead of someone else
histrionic personality disorder
- constant attention-seeking behavior - wear bright clothes or act seductively - are very dramatic
illness anxiety disorder
- consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition - used to be hypochondriasis but now split into somatic symptom disorder if have physical symptoms or illness anxiety if not - either obsessively check for illness or avoid medical appointments altogether
retina
- contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce photons into electrical signals the brain can process - the innermost layer of the eye - like a screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels - part of the CNS; develops as an outgrowth of brain tissue - Duplicity theory of vision: eye has 2 sets of receptors, light and dark detection ones and color detection
associative learning
- creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and response - classical and operant
Vygotsky: development
- cultural and biosocial development - understanding cognitive development - driver: internalization of aspects of culture like: rules, symbols, language -developed zone of proximal development
perilymph
- cushioning fluid found between the bony and membranous labyrinth of the inner ear - transmits vibrations from the outside world
bottom-up processing
- data driven - recognition by parallel processing and feature detection - basically brain takes all the individual stimuli and combines them to create a whole image before determining what object is - allows perception of details and slight differences - expect to feel this when we see something for the first time - dejavu happens when you instead use top-down bc mind is able to perceive more quickly (the feeling is when ur mind tries to figure out why it did that)
cognitive changes in late adulthood
- decrease: reaction time, time-based memory - Fluid intelligence: problem solving skills; peaks early adulthood - Crystallized intelligence: use of learned skills and knowledge; peaks mid-adulthood
aphasia
- deficit of language production or comprehension - damage to Borca's: comprehension intact but production reduced or gone = Borca's or expressive aphasia (like every word on the tip of their tongue) - damage to Wernicke's: comprehension lost: Wernick's or receptive aphasia (their speech has no meaning bc of loss of comprehension; think they are speaking and understanding but nonsensical to those around them) - conduction aphasia: damage to arcuate fisciculus can speak and understand but can't repeat something that was said; very rare
urbanization
- dense areas of population creating a pull for migration - basically ppl are moving in and making cities - 1/2 world pop live in "urban" areas; links to health challenges like water sanitation, air quality, env hazards, violence, infections, unhealthy diets, inactivity - ghettoes: areas where certain racial, ethnic, religious minorities are concentrated usually bc of social/economic inequalities - slums: extremely dense, low-quality usually informal housing, low sanitation
pragmatics
- dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge - manner of speak will differ w who we are seeking to - Prosody: the rhythm, cadence and inflection differs depending on who we are speaking with
depersonalization/derealization disorder
- depersonalization: feel detached from own mind and body - derealization: feel detached from surroundings - can fail to recognize reflection or feel like you are in a dreamlike state - no psychotic symptoms like delusions or hallucinations
alcohol
- depressant - increases GABA (chloride channel that causes hyper polarization of membrane --> generalized brain inhibition and you don't feel inhibited bc the centers of the brain the detect inappropriate behavior are also depressed - decreased dopamine levels --> mild euphoria - higher doses --> logical reasoning and motor skills disrupted, fatigue - alcohol myopia: inability to recognize consequences for actions - abuse higher in low-SES but they also get help faster and more often - alcoholism runs in families, children of alcoholics subjects to major depressive disorder - cirrhosis, liver failure, pancreatic damage, ulcers, GI cancer, brain disorders (Wenicke-Korsakoff)
marijuana
- depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogen - own category
Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines
- depressants - Barbiturates: anti-anxiety (anxiolytic) and sleep - mostly replaces with benzodiazepines bc less subject to overdose - barbiturates: amobarbital, phenobarbital -benzodiazepines: alprazolan, laroazepam, diazepam, clorazepam - increase GABA --> relaxation - highly addictive, coma or death which combined w alcohol
adaptation
- detection of stimulus can change over time - can have both psychological (perceptual) and physiological (sensory components - ex: physiological = pupil dilation or constriction, tightening of middle ear muscles to reduce sound vibrations, getting "used" to cold water, stop feeling your clothes
infant social skill development
- develop stranger anxiety ~7 mo and separation anxiety ~1 yr - solitary play under 1 yr, onlooker play until ~2 yr, parallel play w other children at 2 yrs - 3 yrs: knows full name, gender identity, gender play - 5 yrs: conformity to peers, romantic feelings - 6-12: friend circles (same gender or unromantic) - 13+ cross gender friendships, romances, rebelling - move from being parent oriented to self oriented to other oriented
zone of proximal development
- developed by Vykotsky - skills that are in the process of development but not yet developed - development requires help of a more knowledgeable other
strain theory
- deviance = natural reaction to disconnect between social goals and social structure - American dream = wealth, stability through achievement and hard work for all BUT structure of society does not grant the same opportunities to all who work the same amount --> deviant behavior for those who can't achieve like theft to try to achieve the social goal outside of whatever social structure limits
differential association theory
- deviance learned through interactions with others - is the degree to which you are exposed to norm abiding vs. rejecting - if deviant behavior individuals is more intense or numerous a person will gravitate that way
Agents of socialization
- differ based on age, stage in life, etc. -personal relationships, environment, ethnic background etc. - where you live also (think Manhattan vs Henrico behavior) - media plays large role in pop culture and establishing trends
social action
- different than social interaction: only considers the individual that is surrounded by others (interaction = 2+ individuals taking one another into account) - social facilitation - deindividuation - bystander effect - social loafing - peer pressure
Family as a social institution
- differs depending on culture, value system, beliefs, gender, age, race, ethnicity, etc - no fixed definition across cultures - patterns of kinship reflected by the different terms a culture has for family members; ex: Hawaiians use cousin for literally everyone (uncles, aunts, etc) - change child raising, loyalty, incest boundaries - coupling (courtship, cohabitation, engagement marriage), parenting, spousal relationships - divorce rates rose end of 20th cent. & dropping now violence in the family: - domestic abuse: spousal; physical, sexual, emotional, financial; #1 cause of injury to American women; may find it hard to leave bc of psychological disorders including learned helplessness, finances, lack of haven - elder abuse: neglect of older relative most often, sometimes physical, psych, financial; caretaker mostly - child abuse: most commonly neglect but physical, sexual, psych are also common - mandated reports: physicians are: domestic is not mandated but child and elder are
elaboration likelihood model
- distinctions based on continuum of processing persuasive information - central route processing: ppl who think intently about information and scrutinize meaning and purpose - peripheral route processing: ppl who do not elaborate and focus on superficial details when hearing an argument: appearance of the person delivering the argument, catchphrases, slogans, credibility rather than content - ex: think ab people watching a political argument: the central route person will vote for whoever made the better, deeper argument while the peripheral will vote for the more personable one
stressors
- distress: when experiencing unpleasant stressors - eustress: include life events like graduating from college, getting married, doing well on the MCAT; positive but cause change and adaptation, forms of stress - social readjustment rating scale: stress can be measure in life change units
Problem-solving dream theory
- dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping - not tethered to rules of the world --> can interpret obstacles differently
activation-synthesis dream theory
- dreams caused by widespread random activation of neural circuits - activation mimics incoming sensory information and consists of stored memories, current and previous desires, stored memories, experiences - tries to stitch all these unrelated things together --> story with real and unreal aspects
Sleep apnea
- dyssomnia - inability to breathe during sleep - awake often during the night to breathe - 2 types: 1. obstructive: physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow 2. central: brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe
narcolepsy
- dyssomnia - lack of control over onset of sleep - cataplexy: loss of muscle control and sudden entrance into REM sleep during waking hours (usually from an emotional trigger - sleep paralysis: being unable to move when you wake -hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations: hallucinations when going to sleep or awaking (hypnagogic = Going to bed, other = PoPPing out of bed)
insomnia
- dyssomnia - trouble falling asleep or staying asleep - most common sleep-wake disorder - linked to anxiety and depression, medications, disruption of circadian/sleep cycles
persistent depressive disorder
- dysthymia: depressed mood that is less severe than major depressive for at least 2 years - if major depressive for 2+ years can also have this or can have this and occasional major depressive episodes
roles
- each status has a role - set of beliefs, values, attitudes and norm that define expectations for that role - role performance: carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role; some are better at their roles than others - roles can change depending on situation esp depending on role partner (think ab how a doctor addresses another doctor as opposed to a patient) - role set = various roles associated w a status - role conflict= difficulty achieving expectation in multiple roles - role strain = difficulty achieving in all of one role - role exit = dropping a role
tympanic membrane
- eardrum - separates outer and middle ear - sound directed to it from the pinna through the external auditory canal - vibrates in phase with the incoming sound waves - frequency of sound waves determines rate of vibration - back and forth at high rates for high frequency and slow rates for low frequency - louder = greater intensity = higher amplitude of vibration
information processing model
- early theories suggest it is much lie computers and AI - Brain isn't a computer though bc storage and retrieval of memories is greatly affected by emotions, sells, taste, sounds, setting, etc. - 4 key components or pillars of Information processing model
attachment theories
- emotional bond between caregiver and child - infants need a secure base during first 6mo to 2 yrs to develop properly - types 1. secure 2. avoidant 3. ambivalent 4. disorganized
formation pathway of emotional memories
- emotional event --> sensory system activated --> explicit memory system creates memory about the emotion in medial temporal lobe while implicit memory system creates emotional memory in the amygdala
basic model of emotional expression
- emotions involve a ton of components: facial expressions, behaviors, potters, vocal changes, physiological changes - consistent with all humans - can be used w the universal emotions theory like in Lie to Me - some animals have rudimentary - universally recognized and expressed
gonads
- endocrine - sex glands (ovaries and testes) - produce more sex hormones than adrenal cortex - more produced = increased libido - high testosterone also increases aggression
organizations
- entities with a goal characterized by structure and culture formal organizations - differ form groups in that they continue even up a person leaving, and have expressed goals, suavely recorded; have enforcement procedures; have hierarchical roles - defined by characteristic institution
cochlea
- entrance to the inner ear - stapes rests against it - spiral shaped organ divided into three parts or scalae which all run the length of the cochlea - middle scalae = organ of Corti = actual hearing apparatus - other two scalae = oval and round windows filled w perilymph and surround the hearing apparatus - since liquids are incompressible round window allows perilymph to move within the cochlea
age as a demographic
- greying of America as boomers get old; 85 and up is the fastest growing age cohort in America --> changes in health care - ageism: discrimination based on age - can be at all ages - young professionals, old ppl, etc.
types of stress
- environmental (temperature, sounds) - daily events (running late, losing things) workplace or academic settings (assignments, hierarchies, time) - social expectations (demands placed on oneself by family, friends, society) - chemical and biological stressors (diet, drugs, viruses, allergies, medical conditions)
ethnic and national identity
- ethnic identity: ancestry, cultural heritage, language - national identity: where you are born; shared history, media, cuisine, symbols symbols very impactful in both
relearning
- even though information isn't available for recall, rememorizing something is much easier than the first time therefore it must be stored in some way - spacing effect: longer time between study sessions = longer retention (why cramming doesn't work as well)
evolution and human culture
- evolution influences and is influenced by culture - evolutionary benefits from evolution: pass down info, language, beneficial skills; also allegiance and loyalty; creates us vs them mentality --> dispersion of environmental niches - culture effects on evolution: lactose digestion bc of cultural cattle farming
attitude
- expression of positive or negative feelings towards a person, place, thing, scenario - develop from experiences w/ others who affect our opinions and behavior - ex: you're told bad things ab someone before you meet them --> bad attitude to them when u meet - primary components 1. affective 2. behavioral 3. cognitive
behavioral response to emotion
- facial expressions and body language
short term memory
- fades quickly around 30 seconds without rehearsal and limited to 7 +/- 2 item rule - can increase w clustering and maintenance rehearsal - primarily housed in the hippocampus (there short term memories are consolidated to long term)
Universal emotions
- far, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, sadness - we all evolved facial muscles to show these and these 7 have consistent behavioral response across cultures - not totally true because of cultural variations in responses and thoughts on emotional displays
amygdala and emotion
- fear - signals cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotion - processes environment and cues to produce emotion - interpretation of facial expressions
agoraphobia
- fear of being in places or situations where ti might be hard to escape - uncomfy leaving homes, fear of a panic attack or exacerbations
optic chiasma
- first significant event from optic nerve to brain - fibers from nasal (inner) path cross - these fires carry the temporal field (bc the temporal side of the eye projects to the nasal side of the retina) - **temporal side does not cross so all fibers corresponding to right visual field project to let of brain and viceversa - *point of cross = optic chiasma*
instinct theory
- first though all motivation was instinctual; innate, fixed responses to stimuli - our behaviors are driven by our reflexes or instinct we are born with (ie baby sucking thumb for soothing or wolves being territorial); some instinct are consistent throughout life (wolves) while some go away (thumb sucking) - proposed that a few instincts (putting things in ones mouth, fear, acquisition) lead to all the behaviors and thoughts that we have
intellectual decline
- fluid first and then crystallized intelligence peak -leads to loss of ability to perform activities of daily living - dementia: starts with memory but spreads to impairment in judgement and confusion
macrosociology
- focus on large groups and social structures
selective attention
- focus on one part of the sensorium and ignore others - filter between sensory stimuli - if stimulus attended to it is passed though a filter and analyzed, if not it is lost - not all or nothing tho (as originally thought) - cocktail party phenomenon - you can hear your name called even if you are focused on a convo - more like a filter where you focus on one thing and others are processes in the background - only shift attention if other stimuli are important (sudden light or sound, your name, a pain)
microsociology
- focus on small groups and the individual
rational choice and exchange theory
- focuses on decision making in the individual - attempts to reduce decisions to a careful consideration of benefits and harsh to the individual - every outcome has specific rewards and punishments - person assesses and chooses the option with best benefit to harm ratio - like mental pro/con list - problematic bc of altruism - exchange theory: rational choice focused on group interactions: individual will carry out actions bc of anticipated rewards and will avoid certain bc punishments; approval --> continuation and vice versa
modeling
- form of observational learning - important in determining lifelong behavior - learn what is acceptable by watching others - Do as I say not as I do --> kids doing what they do not as they say
recognition
- form of retrieval - like recognizing pictures in your yearbook instead of listing off everyone in ur grade - much easier than recall
Bipolar and related disorders
- formerly manic depression - mood disorder - manic episodes: abnormal and persistently elevated mood for 1 week with at least 3 of the DIG FAST symptoms - more rapid onset and decreased duration that depressive - bipolar I = manic episodes with or without a major depressive episode - bipolar II = hypomania with at least 1 major depressive episode - hypomania: typically does not significantly impair functions or cause psychosis but may be more energetic or optimistic - cyclothymic disorder: hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that aren't severe enough to be major depressive
problem solving first "step"
- frame the problem - this is where most people get "stuck" on a problem bc the way you are thinking ab it is not useful even if you know the info
mirror neurons
- front and parietal lobes of cerebral cortex - fire when an individual does and action and when that individual watched someone else perform that action - mostly motor but can be involved in empathy and emotion - important in imitative learning
vestibular sense
- function of ear that detect spacial orientation and balance - responsible for rotational and linear acceleration
stereotypes
- fundamental to everyday life - helps make sense of complex world with categories and systematizing of info to better identity, predict and react - very useful in thinking about foods, how stores work, etc. but can be appropriated for negative uses (people) - stereotype content model - self-fulfilling prophecy - stereotype threat
intellectual variation
- g-factor test (general intelligence): founding theory behind intellect tests: performance on certain tasks correlated w intelligence --> must be some underlying variable - g-factor (underlying intelligence variable) tested with standardized tests to generate an IQ (intelligence quotient)
Asch conformity experiment
- goal: study if behavior was influenced by presence of others - if the confederates answered right, only 1% chance the subject would answer wrong, if they answered wrong, 1/3 chance subject would answer wrong --> urge to conformity could outweigh want to e correct
threshold
- good example of psychological element of perception - "limina" - minimum amount of a stimulus the renders a difference in perception - types: absolute, of conscious perception, difference
just-world hypothesis
- good things happen to good people and bad to bad - good things rewarded and bad punished - "karma" - leads to blaming the victim tho in saying "they got what they deserved"
alzheimers biological basis
- gradual memory loss, time and place disorientation, problems with abstract thought, eventually mood and behavior changes - women are at greater risk, usually over 65 - family history is a risk factor - lower risk if higher education - presenilin gene on chromosomes 1 and 14; & mutation on apolipoprotein E gene on chromosome 19; & ß-amyloid precursor protein gene on chromosome 21 - higher risk bc of mutation on 21 explains why down syndrome = high risk look for: - diffuse atrophy on CT or MRI, flat sulci in cerebral cortex, enlarged cerebral ventricles (pic), deficient parietal lobe blood flow, reduction in acetylcholine, reduction in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) (produces acetylcholine), reduced temporal and parietal metabolism, senile plaques of ß-amyloid (misfolded ß-sheet proteins), neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein
narcissistic personality disorder
- grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, fantasies of success, need for constant admiration, characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships (very entitled) - BUT have fragile self-esteem, constantly concerned with how others view them - rage inferiority, shame, humiliation, emptiness when not viewed favorably by others
Hypnosis
- greek god of sleep = Hypnos - a state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions but is in a highly suggestible state - hypnotic induction: relax a person and increase their concentration - hypnotists can then suggest perceptions or actions - not the bizarre media stuff but it is used for pain control, weight loss, smoking cessation, memory recovery/enhancement, psychological treatment - requires patient be willing tho
groupthink
- group process/social interaction - desire for harmony or conformity leads to group coming to incorrect or poor decision abc just want to choose something and not conflict - influenced y group cohesiveness, leadership, structure, situation, etc. - 8 factors that are indicative fo groupthink - seen in tons of propaganda and policy - riots, fads, mass hysteria
group polarization
- group process/social interaction - tendency for groups to make decisions that are more polarizing than ideals of the individuals in the group - can lead to riskier or more cautious actions that the individuals started with - idea is that initial ideas are not that extreme but become more extreme w discussion - at first thought was only riskier --> risk shift - choice shift - same idea but describes change in group behavior instead of the change in the individual - seen in politics, policy, terrorism, jurors (group decides on higher punishment than any/most went in with thoughts of), social media
somatic symptom disorder
- have at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition - is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of excessive amount or time and energy to it, and/or elevated anxiety
altruism
- helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at cost to him or herself - can be motivated by selflessness but could be - empathy is a strong determination - empathy-altruism hypothesis: if you are experiencing empathy for a person you will be more called to perform altruistic actions - highly debated
depressive biological basis
- high glucose metabolism in amygdala - hippocampal atrophy after long duration of illness - high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) - decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine (monamine theory of depression); these NTS and their metabolites are decreased --> actual production is decreased (rather than just degradation decrease)
abstract thinking
- higher level of cognition mastered after physical environment - many mental disorders characterized by inability to perform - if presented a cliche they will only see literal meaning, not abstract - developed throughout childhood and dependent on increases in working memory and mental capacities
explicit memory and emotions
- hippocampus and temporal lobe - conscious memory of how you felt in a situation/event - ex: graduation or losing a loved one - episodic memories: more memories about emotions than stored emotions - memory of experience of emotions - PTSD: the story of the event
malthusian theory
- how exponential growth of population can be faster than growth of food supply - casques social degradation and disorder - when 3rd world countries industrialize this will cause global starvation bc of the huge increase in population - like death phase of bacterial growth see demographic transition
social constructionism
- how individuals put together their social reality - arise from humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle - how we as a society construct concepts and principles - concepts like honor and justice - but subject to change with society - ex: paper money does not have value but bc we assign it value in our society it does - ex: dress, gender roles, work ethic
pheromones
- how smell carries interpersonal info - role in animal social, foraging, sexual behavior - secreted by one person or animal and once ended w receptors compel a certain behavior in another - controversy over how affect humans
need-based theory
- how we allocate energy and resources to satisfy needs - motivation = which behaviors are most important to satisfy needs - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Self-determination theory (SDT)
social perception
- how we form impressions about characteristics of others; observation, past experiences, personal beliefs and attitudes - aka social cognition - components: 1. the perceiver: influenced by experience, motives, emotional state - past experiences can affect expectations and emotional responses - motives influence what info we deem important or not 2. the target: person about which the perception is made; knowledge of target from past experiences and information affect perception; perceiver will interpret and observe more when less information is present 3. the situation: social context affects what information is available and its meaning
immigration status
- huge demographic bloc in the US - higher racial and ethnic display in first gen - subject to more discrimination - language and organization of healthcare = huge barrier - intersectionality: interplay btwn multiple demographic factors esp when leads to discrimination or oppression
what disease can present like anxiety
- hyperthyroidism - excessive levels of thyroid hormones T3 and T4 (triiodothyronine and thyroxine) can cause anxiety-like symptoms
fixed-ratio (FR) schedules
- in operant conditioning - reinforcement of a behavior after a specific number of performances of it - ex: give reward every 3rd time they do something - continuous reinforcement: fixed ratio in which behavior is rewarded every time
variably interval (VI) schedules
- in operant conditioning - reinforce the first time you do it in a variable amount of time ie: can press and get treat once in 60s then 90s then 30s then 3'
variable ratio (VR) schedules
- in operant conditioning - reinforcement given after varying number of performances but keep the avg number of rewards constant - ex: if button press is the behavior: reward after 2 then 8 then 4 then 6 - most gambling is based on fixed ratio schedules --> so hard to extinguish this habit - VR = variable ratio, very rapid, very resistant
fixed interval (FI) schedule
- in operant conditioning - rewards/reinforces once in a given time period (reinforced first instanced in specified period) - ex: rat pushes button to get treat but the treat only comes out every 60s so it can push as much as it wants in that time frame but only gets it the first time
rods
- in reduced illumination - sensation of light and dark bc of pigmentations rhodopsin - low detail sensitivity and not involved in color vision - more rods than cones
olfactory chemoreceptors or nerves
- in the olfactory epithelium in upper part of nasal cavity - chemical stimuli bind to their respective receptors and cause a signal (so many receptors)
functional fixedness
- inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
dissociative amnesia
- inability to recall past events - inability to recall past NOT due to neurological disorder - usually from trauma - dissociative fugue: sudden unexpected move or wandering away from home or location of daily activities; may think they are someone else/new identity which backstory
belief perseverance
- inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary - confirmation bias or overconfidence
stimulants
- increase arousal in nervous system - all increase action potentials but by different mechanisms - amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy,
reinforcement (operant conditioning)
- increase likelihood of repetition of a behavior - positive reinforcers increase behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following behavior (ex: paying employees) - negative reinforcers increase frequency of behavior by removing something unpleasant (ex: take an aspirin --> headache goes away, likely to repeat)
bipolar biological basis
- increased norepinephrine and serotonin (monamine) - higher risk if parent has bipolar - higher risk in people with MS
psychological stressors
- increases in pressure, lack of control, unpredictability frustrations, conflict conflicts arise from the need to make a choice: 1. approach-approach = need to choose between 2 desirable things 2. avoidance-avoidance = need to choose between 2 negative things 3. approach-avoidance = only one choice/goal/event but the outcome could be negative and/or positive (ex: job promotion is good but comes with increased stress and responsibility)
infant reflexes
- infants have primitive reflexes while we have motor and startle ones - rooting reflex: touch one cheek --> head turns that way - sucking and swallowing when something is put in the mouth - Moro reflex: abrupt head movements --> fling arms up, cry, arms back down - disappears around 4 mo - babinski reflex: toes spread when sole of foot stimulated - grasping reflex: when something placed in hand - use disappearance time to test development - adults w numerological disease may present these --> esp if disease involves demyelination
borca's area
- inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe of dominant hemisphere - controls the motor function of speech with connections to motor cortex - connected to Wernicke's area w the arcuate fasciculus
nurture
- influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior - nature vs. nature is somewhere in the middle (ex: can have addictive predisposition but have to be exposed to alcohol, drugs, etc)
nature
- influence of inherited characteristic on behavior
role of culture in cognitive development
- influence what you learn, how fast you learn it, etc. based on values of the culture - Vygotsky: internalization of one's culture drives development: societal rules, symbols, language; adults and peers then help develop further through instruction or child's observation
Infant motor skill development
- innate programmed abilities; earlier w educationally rich environment - Motor skills: fine and gross - Gross: large muscle groups and whole body motion: sitting, crawling, walking (progress in head to toe order: lift head then stabilize trunk then walk) - fine: smaller muscles (fingers, toes, eyes): tracking, motion, drawing, catching, waving - motor skills developed at core first and then outwards (eyes and then fingers)
vestibule
- inner ear - portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule which are sensitive to linear acceleration and are used as part of balancing and orientation - utricle and saccule contain modified hair cells covered with otoliths
semicricular canals
- inner ear - 3 of them - sensitize to rotational acceleration - arranged perpendicularly to each other and each ends in a swelling or ampulla w/ hair cells - when head rotates endolymph in semicircular canal resists motion, bending underlying hair cells on ampulla which send signal to brain
otoliths
- inner ear, vestibule on hair cells on utricle and saccule - as the bothy accelerates otoliths resist motion which bends and stimulates underlying cells which send signal to brain
2 basic types of motivation
- instincts that elicit natural behavior to maintain optimal levels of arousal or reduce uncomfy states or satisfy a need - intrinsic: motivation from yourself, can be driven by pure enjoyment, - extrinsic: rewards, punishments, either in the form of a physical thing, praise, or performance (like winning a sport bc you practiced), or avoid something like getting fired or bad grades
aggression
- intended for harm or dominance - can be physical, verbal, nonverbal - Ethology = study of animal aggression - All animals (humans too) puff chest, etc.
nonverbal communication
- intentional or unintentional communication without words - facial expression, tone, body language, movement, touch, eye contact - help strengthen verbal communication, convert emotion or attitude - differ by culture (rude in Am to not make eye contact while in some areas eye contact is disrespect)
- stanford prison experiment
- internalization - participants randomly assigned prisoner or guard - students immediately fell into roles and started acting submissive / violent - afterwards were surprised by what they had done
attraction (social behavior)
- interpersonal attractions: friends, boys, etc; similarity, reciprocity, self-disclosure, proximity all affect - golden ratio: someone who is perfectly proportioned - opposites attract only if complementary and other things are compatible - exposure or familiarity effect plays a part too
social interactionist theory of language
- interplay between biological and social process in language acquisition - language acquisition is Driven by the desire to communicate with caretakers and other children - includes brain development in this theory: as children are exposed to language the brain groups sounds and meaning and then when the child socializes those brain circuits are reinforced (others are atrophied and those ones disappear)
Michael Angelo Phenomenon
- intrapersonal self: ideas individualizing has a their own abilities, traits, beliefs, - interpersonal self: the way others influence creation of ideal self - ideal self "sculpted" with help of others
social capital
- investments people make in return for economic or collective rewards - greater investment = higher social integration (movement into mainstream society) and inclusion social networks: - mail form of social capital - can create situational (socioeconomic advantage) and positional (based on how connected on is within a network/centrality) inequality - inequality in networks reinforced privilege - inequality of opportunity - less social capital = more social inequality cultural capital: Benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills Strong ties: peer and kinship contacts; small and powerful group weak ties: social connections that are superficial but large in number - wide range of connections; social networking sites - ppl who lack weak ties - many with mental illnesses can't access social capital or contribute as much
prejudice
- irrational positive or negative attitude towards a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience with the entity - propaganda is a way that large organizations/gov't can create prejudices - power (ability to control resources and achieve what you want), prestige (level of respect shown to a person by others), class (socioeconomic status) are the biggest effectors of prejudice--> haves and have-nots
instinctive drift
- it is very difficult to teach animals a behavior that is against their natural instincts ex: raccoon food washing instinct: can't get them to put a coin on a piggy bank but can get them to put a ball in a basket c the ball is too big to trigger a food washing instinct
psychoanalytic perspective
- largely discredited - unconscious internal state motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality - Sigmund Freud - Carl Jung - Adler - Kate Horney - Object relations theory
LGN
- lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus - one of the places information goes from the optic chiasma
Alfred Adler
- learned from Freud but changed things - social instead of sexual - Inferiority complex: individual's sense of incompleteness and inferiority mentally and physically - drive for superiority is what creates personality; enhances when geared towards benefiting society but increases disorder when its selfish - creative self: force by which each person shapes themself and established uniqueness - style of self: manifestation of creative self and person's unique way of achieving superiority; family environment crucial - fictional finalism: more motivation by expectations of the future than past experience; base on sujective or fictional estimates of future rather than data from past
latent learning
- learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced i.e. no reward tased learning process but whenever they just do the thing its rewarded - ex: put treat at end of maze and those not trained to run it with operant learning (and just been carried through ti) run it just as well as those who have been
Marijuana
- leaves and flowers of cannabis sativa and cannabis indica - THC: tetrahydrocannibanoil = active chemical - THC acts at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, opioid receptor --> unknown how high is achieved from there - THC inhibits GABA and increases dopamine --> pleasure - red eyes, high HR, increased appetite, impaired short-term memory
trial-and-error problem solving
- less sophisticated; one of the first used by children (esp in properational stage) - only effective if few possibilities
cortisol release
- light --> CRF (corticotropin release factor) released from hypothalamus --> causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from pituitary --> cortisol release (made in adrenal cortex)
operant conditioning
- link voluntary behaviors with consequences to alter frequency of those behaviors - know differences of reinforcement and punishment - BF skinner - father of behaviorism - all behaviors are conditioned
activities of daily living
- linked to decline in intellectual abilities - how long an older adult is able to eat, bathe, toilet, dress, move around by themself - more frequent use of intellect, socialization, stimulation are protective against intellectual decline
labeling theory
- links deviance, stigmatization and reputation - a person's labels affect how ppl treat and self image - can lead to emphasis of these labels in some cases (call a boy a troublemaker and he makes more trouble) - most of the time we reject the labels tho - some subcultures embrace them (like gangs)
hair cells!!
- long tufts of stereocilia - as vibrations reach basilar membrane under organ of Corti stereocilia sway w endolymph - swaying -> opening of ion channels --> receptor potential - hair cells on immobile tectorial membrane amplify sound - basilar membrane dif thicknesses throughout cochlea --> place theory
agnosia
- loss of ability to recognize either objects, people, or sounds (usually just one) - usually from physical damage to the brain (from stroke or MS often)
Alzheimers
- loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link the hippocampus (and degradation of Tao proteins) - Progressive dementia (loss of cognition) and memory loss with atrophy of brain tissue - extreme shrinkage of hippocampus and cerebral cortex and severely enlarged ventricles - Proceeds more or less in retrograde fashion (recent lost before distant memories) - Sundowning common (increase of symptoms in evening) - neurofibrillary tangles and ß-amyloid plaques (misfolded --> insoluble)
Forgetting
- loss of long term memory - brain disorders, decay, interference, (not) aging
mother nutrition affects
- low protein --> baby has bad immune system - narcotics --> chemical dependent baby --> withdrawals - cigarettes (regularly) --> slowed growth, high fetal hr, premature - daily alcohol --> slowed physical and psychological maturation - x-rays --> skull and spinal cord defects, cleft palate, lim deformities, retardation
hallucinogens
- lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) - peyote, mescaline, ketamine, psilocybin-containing mushrooms - not sure how they work but thought to be interaction with NTs esp serotonin - distortions of reality, fantasy, enhanced sensory experiences - increase HR and BP, dilation of pupils, sweating, high temp
healthcare and medicine as a social institution
- maintain or improve health status of individual, family, society as a whole - Key goals: increase access, PCP role, education prevention; decreased costs, dr. paternalism; create life course approach to health (comprehensive view of history beyond immediate symptoms) - patients used to just be sick role and only job was to want to get better and seek help; now we focus more on preventative things like eating well, etc - some things like homosexuality that people thought were a disease are now known not to be while DMS-5 includes new diagnoses like binge-eating and hoarding disorders - bioethics principles of: beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient autonomy, justice
depressive disorders
- major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder, seasonal affective disorder - treated with SSRI: serotonin reuptake inhibitors: if can't reuptake have to make more to satisfy -->. higher serotonin levels
mating and mate choice
- mating system: organization of sexual behavior; monogamy, polygamy (polyandry = woman w multiple exclusive males), promiscuity (no exclusivity) - humans have more types than other species - human mating may or may not be the same as social relationships (dating/marriage) - mate choice/intersexual selection: choice based on attraction - mate bias: how choosy members of the species are; may carry direct benefits for the mate like protection or support or indirect benefits by promoting offspring survival
inclusive fitness
- measure of an organism's success in the population - based off how many offspring, success in supporting them, ability of offspring to support others - used to be jut how many offspring but now takes factors like altruism into account (sacrifice self to benefit ur fam)
Korsakoff's Syndrome
- memory loss caused y thiamine deficiency in brain - marked by both retrograde amnesia (loss of formed memories) and anterograde amnesia (loss of ability to form memories) - Confabulation: creation of vivid fabricated memories - perhaps brain trying to fill in gaps
male vs female mortality and morbidity rates
- men worse in cancer, CHD, respiratory disease, diabetes, accidents, suicide homicide - men less likely to seek help and when they do less likely to follow instruction - more dangerous jobs and activities on avg BUT also more likely to come down w life threatening diseases - BUT morbidity rates are much higher for women for somethings like parasites, infections, digestive issuers, respiratory conditions, high BP, arthritis, diabetes, IBD - more illnesses and disabilities but less life threatening
state-dependent memory/effect
- mental state can affect recall - if you learn something drunk you will remember it better when ur drunk - bad mood --> negative memories and good=pleasant
drug addictions
- mesolimbic reward pathway - one of 4 dopaminergic pathways in the brain - this pathway includes the 1. nucleus accumbens (NAc) 2. ventral tegmental area (VTA) 3. medial forebrain bundle (MFB) - normally this path is used for emotional response and motivation and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use - anything addictive inc. drugs, gambling, falling in love use this pathway
ossicles
- middle ear - contains the smallest three bones the body 1. Malleus (hammer) 2. Stepes (stirrup) 3. Incus (anvil) - malleus against the tympanic membrane - when the eardrum quivers it causes the hammer to act on the anvil which acts on the stirrup to hit each other in sequence, then carry the vibrations to the inner ear - baseplate of stapes rests on the oval window of the cochlea
organ of Corti
- middle scalae of inner in in cochlea - actual hearing aparatus rests on a think flexible membrane called the basilar membrane - *composed of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph - on top = immobile-ish tectorial membrane - hair cells convert the physical stimulus into an electrical signal carried to the CNS by the auditory or vestibulocochlear nerve
absolute threshold
- minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system - ** threshold in sensation not perception ex: very low intensity sounds might cause vibrations in sensory receptors but too weak to be converted to an action potential through transduction - how bright, loud, intense a stimulus must be before sensed
threshold of conscious perception
- minimum of stimulus energy that will create a signal large enough in size and long enough in duration to be brought into awareness (below = send to CNS but don't perceive) - subliminal perception = perception below a given threshold - basically the stimulus arrives at the CNS but never reaches high order brain regions that control attention and consciousness - so signal sent but not far enough to be perceived (vs. absolute in which signal not transducer and never reaches CNS)
daredevils differing chemical
- monoamine oxidase (MAO) - MAO breaks down to catecholamines --> low MAO --> high NT levels --> motivation to seek high arousal experiences
major depressive disorder
- mood disorder - At least one depressive episode: period of at least two weeks with at least 5 of the following symptoms: prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood, anhedonia (loss of interest in formerly enjoyable things), appetite disturbance, weight changes, sleep issues, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness, excessive (sometimes delusional) guilt, difficulty concentrating or thinking, psychomotor symptoms (feeling slowed), thoughts or death or suicide - one of the symptoms during episode must be depressed mood or anhedonia and symptoms must cause significant distress or disfunction - 15% die of suicide
Kohlberg's theory of development
- moral reasoning/thinking - understand the world in nuanced and complex ways --> starts to resolve moral dilemmas / right v. wrong - presented moral dilemmas and wanted to know reasoning behind choice - 3 phases: 1. pre-conventional morality 2. conventional morality 3. post-conventional morality
auditory pathways in brain
- more complex than visual - most sound passes through vestibulocochlear nerve to brainstem and ascends to medial geniculate nerve (MGN) - the projects to auditory cortex in temporal lobe for processing - some also goes to the superior olive which localizes sound - some goes to inferior colliculus for startle reflex and eye fixation on a point
cognitive neoassociation model
- more likely to respond aggressively when we are feeling negative emotions like pain, tired, hungry, frustration, sick - ex: riots more likely on hot days, drivers without air conditioning honk more, etc
Anxiety disorders
- more than 10 in DSM-5; most common psychiatric disorder in women of all ages (substance use disorder is most common in men) - Generalized anxiety disorder - specific phobias - social anxiety disorder - agoraphobia - panic disorder
language in culture
- most complex and developed symbolic culture system - spoken written and signed - transmits culture - essential to understanding culture
sensory memory
- most fleeting - iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) - fades very quickly unless the memory is attended to - visual --> occipital and echoic --> temporal - like if you have 3 rows of letters flashed for 1 sec u can't process them all and your visual memory only lasts for a second so when you're asked to give a whole report you can't but if they ask you to give a partial report of just one row you can do that
sexual motivation theory
- motivation based on secretion of estrogen, testosterone, progesterone, androgens and smell - smell: certain orders increase sexual desire/activity - cultural norms also influence age, type, etc. - women and men often experience same arousal with porn but women lie and say they thought it was disgusting or didn't enjoy
incentive theory of motivation
- motivation from desire for rewards and avoidance of punishment, not need or arousal
opponent-process theory
- motivations are destructive if they are harmful to the person - drug abusers: body tries to counteract drugs so if a depressant is being used the body creates an arousal response when its gone --> anxiety, jitters (that is withdrawn and creates dependence to always be on the drug to avoid this) - tolerance: decrease in perceived effect over time (typically w drugs) - peer pressure or community/societal pressure
long-term memory
- move STM to LTM with enough rehearsal - like a limitless warehouse - elaborative rehearsal -Implicit and explicit - can lose one and not the other (or both) - memories get moved to cerebral cortex over time so damage to the hippocampus does not effect super long term things like your name or parent's faces
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- need based motivational theory 1. physiological 2. safety 3. love/belonging 4. esteem 5. self-actualization (really potential) - if lowest needs (physiological) not met highest motivation goes to them and continues this way up the pyramid
parvocellular cells
- need to be able to detect geometry and distinguish from background w boundaries - have very high color spatial resolution aka help see fine detail - very LOW temporal resolution - so can only work w stationary or slow moving objects
negative reinforcers
- negative reinforcers increase frequency of behavior by removing something unpleasant (ex: take an aspirin --> headache goes away, likely to repeat) - ppl often confuse negative reinforcement and punishment but remember reinforcement aims to increase behavior no matter if +/- used - 2 types: differ in timing of unpleasant stimulus 1. Escape learning: role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasant thing (ie headache) 2. Avoidance learning: prevent the unpleasantness of something that is yet to happen (ex: studying)
neuroplasticity
- neuronal connections form rapidly in response to stimuli in young children who have many more neurons than needed - child brains therefore are better able to reorganize after injury or seizure surgeries --> other hemispheres take over - remain plasticity throughout life but adult brains much less than children
reticular formation
- neuronal structure located in the brainstem - kept awake by fibers from the prefrontal cortex - disrption of connection with prefrontal cortex results in coma
sensory receptors
- neurons that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals - distal stimuli: outside of the body/prior to reaching the body ex: campfire - proximal stimuli: directly interact w and affect sensory receptors (ex: the protons from the campfire that reach the cones and rods and the heat that you feel); inform you about the distal stimuli - once sensory receptor can encode multiple aspects of stimulus: photoreceptors can encode brightness, color, shape
GABA
- neurotransmitter - "brain stabilization" - gamma-aminobutyric acid - produces inhibitory post-synaptic signals through hyper polarization of the postsynaptic membrane - important stabilizing role - low activity has been linked to generalized anxiety disorder
Glutamine
- neurotransmitter - brain excitation in CNS
Glycine
- neurotransmitter and amino acid - "brain stabilization" - inhibitory neurotransmitter CNS - increases chlorine influx into neurons which hyper polarizes the postsynaptic membrane
Serotonin
- neurotransmitter, monoamine/biogenic amine neurotransmitter - mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming - low: depression; high: mania
retroactive interference
- new info causes forgetting of old info - ex: when you learn a new vocabulary list you might forget an old one or when a teacher learns a new year of student's name she might forget the previous years'
the social construction model of emotion
- no biological basis for emotion - emotions are based on experiences and the situation alone - certain emotions can only be in social encounters and some emotions are expressed differently (and therefore have different roles) between cultures - meaning that you must eb familiar with social norms to perform that culture's emotions
disorganized attachment
- no clear pattern of behavior in response to leaving/coming - can include avoidance or resistance, feeling dazed, confused, or repetative behaviors like rocking - usually from erratic caregiver bahavior and social withdrawl by caregiver - can be abuse red flag
networks
- observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups - network redundancy: overlapping connections with the same person - network analysis can reveal larger social structures - immediate networks: dense and strong (friends) - distant networks: looser with weaker ties (UVA alumni) - abomination of network with complementary ties is most beneficial; can be help to certain expectations from networks but also benefit them (being on the team)
obsessive compulsive disorder
- obsessions (consistent intrusive thoughts and impulse) - compulsions (repetitive tasks) that receive tension but cause significant impairment in a life - the obsession and compulsion relationship is key: obsession raises the person's stress level and the compulsions release the stress - ex: obsess ab germs, compulsively wash hands
bias and overconfidence
- often caused by confirmation bias - tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, beliefs as infallible - manifested in belief perseverance
proactive interference
- old information interferes with new learning - ex: harder to learn more and more lists of words
recall
- on form of retrieval in which you retrieve and state previously learned information
adrenal glands
- on top of the kidneys - divided into adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
sleep deprivation
- one night with no sleep or multiple nights with poor or little sleep - slowed reaction, irritability, poor performance - extreme --> psychosis - afterwards people exhibit high and quick entrance int REM
healthcare inequities
- one of the few developed counties without gov't healthcare - US trying to reduce costs and provide more insurance w ACA but gaps are still large - medicare and medicaid (significant financial need) - many docs won't accept ^ and don't wanna work in super low income areas - when people do come in, low SES and all minorities receive worse care than white Americans - discrimination against overweight and obese: often don't think obese have will to lose weight --> lack of trust --> no continuity of care - women more likely to access but also more likely to be delayed or unable to access (men just kinda don't try as much lol)
factors of cognitive development
- organic (structural) brain issue (from birth or in womb, illness, or injury) - genetic or chromosomal issues (down's syndrome or Fragile X) - metabolic issues - long-term drug use - parenting style (reward, punishment, indifference for new skill) - Alcohol use during pregnancy --> fetal alcohol syndrome: slowed cognitive development and craniofacial features
discrimination
- organism learns to distinguish btwn two similar stimuli - opposite of generalization - Pavlov could've done this with different toned bells and only giving meat w one tone
semantic networks
- organization in the brain so it can use environmental cues to figure out where a memory is/how to access it - Concepts are linked together based on similar meaning (like links in an internet encyclopedia) - Spreading activation: when one node of semantic network activated (like seeing the word red) the linked concepts around it unconsciously activated - Priming: recall is aided by first being presented with a work or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
hierarchy of salience
- organization of our identities - we let the situation dictate which identity holds most importance at a given moment - more salient = more factors (inc amount of work invested, reward/gratification associated, etc) - more salient = more we conform to that role and its expectations
reliance on central traits
- organize perceptions of the target's trait sand characteristics based n relevance to yourself - people sometimes project heir own beliefs, opinions, ideas onto others
social movements
- organized to promote or resist social change - relative deprivation: decrease in resources, representation, agency relative to the society - ^^ is what leads to most movements - proactive = promote change (gay, civil, women's rights movements) - reactive = resist change (white supremacy, anti immigration, counterculture movements) - may create organizations like NAACP, ACLU (civil liberties union), human rights campaign, political help and social help
self-efficacy
- our belief in out ability to succeed - varies by activity - overconfidence --> take on more than you are ready for --> embarrassment, injury, frustration
impression bias
- our selection of cues to form interpretations of others that are consistent over time - the first time perceiver contacts target they take in all cues unfiltered; once targets become familiar use social cues to categorize target as friend v. enemy, caring v. standoffish, open v. bigoted, etc - like first impression - over time with target confirms categorization; - once you have perceived this categorization your perception becomes selective in order to match already conceived picture of target - primacy effect: first impressions are often more important that subsequent ones - recency effect: we think ab our most recent interactions most
feature detection
- our visual pathways contain cells specialized in detection of color, shape, or motion - color: cones - shape: parvocellular cells - motion: magnocellular cells
3 ear parts
- outer - middle - inner
problem solving
- outside behavioralist learning approach - when ur little just try puzzle pieces until they work but eventually learn to only pic pieces that look like they'll work by looking at picture - many animals test behaviors until they receive a reward - humans and chimps avoid trial and error learning and opt for taking a step back and figuring out the picture
night terrors
- parasomnia - occur almost always in children - periods of intense anxiety during slow wave sleep - thrashing and screaming, high HR, rapid breathing - during SWS --> very difficult to wake child and doesn't remember in the morning
ciliary muscle
- part of ciliary body - parasympathetic control - as it contracts it pulls on suspensory ligaments to change the shoe of the lens = "accommodation"
freudian instincts
- part of his psychoanalytic personality theory - innate psych representation of a biological need - 2 types: life and death 1. Life instinct: Eros: promote survival through thirst, hunger, sexual needs 2. Death instincts: Thanatos: unconscious death dn destruction wishes - Freud thought this after victims of trauma reliving or enacting their experience
identity
- parts of self-concept that relate tot he groups to which we belong; enact dif ones in dif situations - have multiple identities (religious affiliation, sexual orientation, relationships) - gender identity - ethnic identity DSM-5: gender identity disorder; removed as a diagnosis for people whose gender and sex don't match now only for people who experience severe psychological stress from gender
personality disorders
- pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive --> impaired functioning in at least two of these: cognition, emotion, interpersonal functioning, impulse control - ego-syntonic: individual perceives his or her behavior as normal (ego-dystonic=know that illness is present and intrusive) - 10 personality disorders grouped into clusters 1. Cluster A: paranoid, schizotypal, shizoid 2. Cluster B: antisocial, boarderline, histrionic, narcissistic 3. Cluster C: avoidant, dependent, OC
thalamus and hypothalamus and emotion
- preliminary sensory processing - routes info to the cortex and other areas Hypothalamus - below thalamus - synthesize and release neurotransmitters --> dictate emotional state - homeostasis and emotion modulation
social cognitive theory
- people learn how to have and shape attitudes by observing - not trial and error but from observation and replication from personal factors (like thought ab behavior) and environment of observation behavior, personal factors and environment - these three influence each other - Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation - think ab school: you're influenced by how much work ur classmates are doing, if you like the teacher and the classroom, teaching style -- all these come together to form the persona' attitude towards school
Arousal theory
- people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal - goal = to increase arousal when below optimal levels or decrease if above - Yerkes-Dodson Law: performance lowest at extremely high and low arousal; optimal level varies between tasks tho (see graph) - simple tasks need higher arousal state than complex tasks
social support
- perception or reality that someone is cared for y thier social network - most pronounced in times of suffering - emotional support = listening, affirming, empathizing - esteem support = affirm qualities and skills (ex: ur smart and a good worker dont worry ab catching up) - material/tangible support: financial or material - informational support - network support: give someone a sense of belonging low social support = high mortality from CVD, obesity, diabetes, cancer and worse immune systems
social anxiety disorder
- persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situations that could result in embarrassment - speeches, parties, public restrooms
gender identity
- personal appraisal on scale of masculinity to femininity - 2 separate dimensions (not a continuum) bc one person can score high on both - Androgyny: being very masculine and very feminine - undifferentiated: very low on both scales - gender identity usually established ~3yrs; may change tho over time -gender schema: key components of gender identity are from societal/cultural means - some cultures identify a 3rd gender: male sex but androgynous (fa'afafine)
biological perspective of personality
- personality is genetic - many traits a result of rain anatomy
Type and Trait
- personality theory - born out of hating the psychoanalysts - Type theorists: create taxonomy of personality types - Trait theorists: describe personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors
justice
- physician must distribute resources fairly and treat similar patients with similar care
general adaptation syndrome
- physiological response to stress; three distinct stages 1. alarm: - initial reaction, activation of SNS - next hypothalamus stimulates pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which stimulates cortisol production from adrenal glands --> steady BG - Hypothalamus also activates the adrenal medulla --> secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine to activate SNS 2. resistance: - continuous hormone release allows SNS to remain engaged to fight the stressor 3. exhaustion: - when body can no long maintain an elevated response with SNS - become susceptible to ulcers and illness and high BP - organ systems can start to deteriorate (including CHD) - some can die from such extreme and prolonged stress
outer ear
- pinna or auricle - tympanic membrane (eardrum) (divides outer and middle)
environmental justice
- poor living and dangerous environment can result in increased disease - poor and minority closer to pollution, toxic waste, dump sites - less sanitation and safe housing - increased diseases including flu, pneumonia, substance use disorders, tb, whooping cough
statuses
- positions in society used to class individuals - being a student, premed, grad are all statuses but are meaningless unless compared to other statuses like medical student, graduate, alum - ascribed status: given involuntarily due to factors like race, ethnicity, gender, background - achieved status: status that is gained as a result of one's efforts or choices - master status: status by which a person is most identified and how ppl view themself; can lead to pigeonholing like seeing a prof or the president as only that and no personal characteristics
delusions of reference
- positive schizophrenia symptoms - belief that common element of env are directed toward individual - ex: may think TV is talking to them directly
delusions
- positive symptom - false beliefs discordant w reality shared by others in the culture (might be a delusion in one culture and not another based on practices) - thought broadcasting: belief that one's thoughts are being broadcast - thought intertion
conflict theory of social structure
- power = form of influence over ppl - based on Karl Marx - how power differentials are created and and contribute to the maintenance of social order - can lead to the dominance of a particular group if they outcompete others for resources or money - one controversy revolves around the questions who holds the power in American health care
stereotype threat
- ppl become concerned or anxious ab confirming a negative stereotype ab their group - reduced performance, self-handicapping, can lead to self-fulfilling prophecy bc you try so hard not to - ex: women driving or taking a test next to men do worse than if its just women with them
ethnocentrism
- practice of making judgments about others' cultures based on values and beliefs from your own culture - can range from innocent displays to supremacy - in-groups: groups with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member - out-groups: social groups with which a person does not identify, dislike for an outgroup is usually based on their lack of something rather than a characteristic ab them
neurulation
- prenatal - development of neural system at 3-4 weeks gestational - ectoderm overlaying notochord begins to furrow --> form the neural groove surrounded by two neural folds - cells at leading edge of neural folds = neural crest and will go on to migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues (differentiated) inc. dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes (pigment cells), and calcitonin cells in thyroid - remainder of furrow closes to form neural tube: ultimately forms CNS - neural tube has alar plate and basal plate -alar plate --> sensory neurons, basal --> motor - neural tube will invaginate (fold in on itself many times) and embryonic brain 3 swellings begin
anticipatory socialization
- prepare for future living, working, relationship socializations - ex: a couple living together before getting married
primary and secondary groups
- primary: interactions that are direct, close bonds, warm personal, intimate relationships; long lasting, ex: core friends or close family - secondary: superficial interactions; few emotional bonds, typically last a long time, from and dissolve without significance - ex: students working on a project
heuristics
- principles used to make decisions; "rules of thumb" - 1. Availability heuristic: decisions ab how likely something is (ex: K as first or 3rd); brain tries to imagine similar instances 2. representativeness heuristic: do they fit the stereotypical image of the category (ex: coin, we think it should even out but 50/50 chance each time) - obis can lead astray but essential in quick decisions (ex: in chess there might be 15 moves but can rule out many bc of protecting the king and center control but sometimes they choose something unexpected)
retrieval
- process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained -
globalization
- process of integrating the global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets - can be positive: access to products negative: pollution, unemployment, terrorism, civil unrest (esp in undemocratic or unindustrialized) - spurred recently by increased tech and communication and economic interdependence - moving towards global health regulation instead of just national, state, local (WHO, red cross, Dw/oB)
secondary socialization
- process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of larger society - based on learning rules of specific environments outside the home - ex: school vs home vs church vs friend's house, etc - adolescents and adults - smaller refinements to behaviors that were est. in primary socialization - can occur when moving homes/job/etc
observational learning
- process of learning or gaining information by watching others - Bandura bobo doll experiment - America Academy of Pediatric say that 13-22% of aggressive behavior from watching it on video games
perception
- processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance - external sensory and internal brain/sc activity - comprehension of information - concept of sensory processing is super important - linked to experience and internal/external bias --> perception of anything (even heat) is psychological
kinesthetic sense
- proprioception, ability to tell where one's body is in space -receptors mostly in muscles and joints and play a critical role in hand-eye, balance, mobility
education as a social institution
- provide population with information; - cognitive skills, facts, figures - also = hidden curriculum: the social norms, attitudes, beliefs that students learn - ethics, morals, practices, politics, finances all play a role; more than just a students abilities play into how they do - teacher expectancy: teachers ten to get what they expect from students - 2 teachers with same demands- one believes in her students and the other doesn't - the first's students do better (self-fulfilling prophecy) - inequalities across social classes - some institutions are connected to education like medicine or healthcare - low education = health disparities and access/trust issues
Carl Jung
- psychoanalytic theorist - more emphasis on sociological, interpersonal, and cultural influences than freud - still maintain link to unconscious internal motivated overt actions - thought of libido as psych energy in general, not just for sexuality - ego = conscious mind; unconscious mind = personal unconscious (like Freud's unconscious) and collective unconscious - archetypes (type/trait theorist) - self = mandala = balance - dichotomies
object relations theory
- psychodynamic theory of development - object = representation of parents/caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy - this impact adulthood social bonds we create
freud theory of development
- psychosexual development - psychology and sexuality linked inextricably - libido present at birth; goal to reduce libidinal tension drives psychological processes - 5 stages of psychosexual development: each is a conflict btwn libidianl tension and social demands - fixation: when a child overindulges or gets overly frustrated during a stage --> a personality pattern response; persists into adulthood as neurosis
Erik Erikson's Theory of Development
- psychosocial development - series of conflict that arise from conflicts between needs and social demands - emotional developments and interactions with the social environment - you can fail at resolving a conflict and still move on but resolution gives you skills and traits that will be carried on
schizophrenia
- psychotic disorder - positive symptoms: behaviors, thoughts, feelings added to normal behavior (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or behavior) - negative symptoms: absence of normal behavior (disturbance of affect and avolition)
ethnicity in demographics
- race = sort by phenotypic, ethnicity = sort by cultural - language, nationality, regions, etc. - can choose to display ethnicity but can't not display race - symbolic ethnicity: symbols and identity remain important even when everyday life isn't affected by it - ex: attending festivals, going somewhere only on holidays, st. Pattys day - agency for healthcare research and quality (AHRQ) say that ethnicity and race have a a huge effect on care -
race in demographics
- race: social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups; may be real or perceived - race not necessarily determined by genetics but classifies based on looks - racialization: definition or establishment of a group as a particular race; Jewish has become seen as a race and a religion - racial formation theory: racial identity is fluid and dependent on congruent political, economic, social factors
REM sleep
- rapid eye movement - interspersed between stages 1-4 (NREM) - arousal levels reach that of wakefulness but muscles are paralyzed - "paradoxical sleep" - HR, breathing, EEG mimic waking but - dreaming and memory consolidation
delirium
- rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (non-psychological) causes -ex: malnutrition, low bs, pH imbalance, drugs, alcohol, pain
reinforcement schedules
- rate of acquisition of desired behavior also affected by schedule of reinforcement/punishment - Reinforcement schedules: fixed or variable and ratio or interval - variable ratio is FASTEST and most resistant to extinction; fixed interval is slowest - fixed R and I have moments of no response after reward - stop pressing button until want more food once they figure out they will get one after a certain amount of time
amacrine and horizontal cells
- receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before the information is passed on to ganglion cells - Accentuate slight differences between the visual information in each bipolar cell --> important for edge detection by increases contrast perceptions
EEG
- records average of electrical patterns within different portions of the brain - 4 patterns: 1. alpha 2. beta 3. theta 4. delta 5. REM sleep
depressants
- reduce nervous system activity --> sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety - alcohol is the most common! - barbiturates and benzodiazepines
homeostasis
- regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal stale set of conditions; external factors are encountered, system reacts to push itself back to optimal state - controlled w negative feedback loops, esp w hunger (need food turns on, feed turns off) - often have multiple points of regulation for extremely important things (like hunger w stomach receptors, glucose levels, insulin and glucagon, etc.) - many endocrine systems regulated by three hormone axes
appraisal model
- related to the basic model of emotional expression - accepts that there are biological predetermined expression when an emotion is experienced but there must be a cognitive precess prior to that (not just automatic)
panic disorders
- repeated panic attacks - panic attacks: fear, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, sense of unreality - sense of impending doom and think they are about to lose their minds - even after long periods of treatment they are still symptomatic - accompanied by agoraphobia bc scared they will have a panic attack - many of the symptoms from activation of SNS (autonomic overdrive) - reduced HR, palpitations, etc.
signal detection testing
- response bias = tendency to systematically respond in a way not due to sensory factors - testing consists of many trials and stimulus/signal only presented in some - catch trial = presented, noise trials = not presented - after each ask if they perceived - hits, misses (does not perceive catch), false alarm, correct negative - lots of misses or false alarms indicates response bias
context effects
- retrieval clue - memory aided by being in the physical location where the memory took place (taking an exam where you learned the info)
serial positive effect
- retrieval cue for learning lists - higher recall for first and last items on a list - Primary and Recency effect (remember early and late items) - Later, strong recall for the first items remain while last few fade (perhaps the first recall, last few items were still in short term memory on initial recall)
interference forgetting
- retrieval error caused by the existence of other (usually similar) information - classified by direction: proactive vs retroactive
lens
- right behind the iris - helps control the refraction of incoming light
bipolar cells
- rods and cones connect w them and they highlight gradients btwn adjacent rods or cones - synapse with ganglion cells
downward drift hypothesis
- schizophrenia --> decline in socioeconomic status, leads to worsening symptoms --> worsening cycle of poverty and psychosis - high rates among homeless and indigents
body dysmorphia disorder
- see a certain part of the body as extremely ugly or horrific even though it is actually normal - may lead to many plastic surgeries - related to obsessive compulsive
foraging
- seeking and eating food - biological: hunger, controlled by hypothalamus (lateral = hunger, ventromedial = satiety) (damge to lateral = no appetite, damage to ventromedial= never full) - genetics: genes play a role in the onset and division of foraging - cognitive: foraging skills - spatial awareness, memory, decisions; group foraging is learning behavior
sensation
- sensation = raw signal - unfiltered/unprocessed until in CNS - aligns with transduction - transduction: conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, etc. from our internal and external env to electrical signals in the nervous system - sensation performed by receptors in the peripheral NS which forward to CNS as action potentials and neurotransmitters - not linked to experience and internal/external bias
mass hysteria
- shared, intense concern ab the threats to society - many of the factors of groupthink lead to a shared delusions that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, fear - ex: Salem witch trials
McDonaldization
- shift in focus towards efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies - news channels do this w 24 hr head line streams and businesses may use "big data" to make controlled decisions
aging and memory
- simply aging doesn't lead to loss of memories; some experience but many don't - many 70 and up have broader span than 20s - BUT older ppl say best/pivotal memories are in their 20s so possibly this is best time for encoring (but also its jsut the best time in life sooo) - even elderly retain recognition and skill based and easily relearn semantic based things - time-based memory (like remembering meds at 7am) DOES decline but prospective based memory does not usually (passing grocery reminds you to buy milk)
endocrine system
- slower than the nervous system bc hormones travel through blood - hypothalamus links endocrine and nervous system ; regulates hormonal function of pituitary gland
false memories
- so influenced by mood and situation at time of creation and recall - confabulation with memory gaps - misinformation effect: if you show a picture to people and then later describe it differently people will remember it differently or if you use leading language people will remember it differently
deindividuation
- social action - in group settings, cause loss of identity or feeling of anonymity bc of large group setting - antinormative behavior can result; ex: violent behavior in crowds and riots - enhanced if in a mask/disguise, feel much more willing to do something you normally wouldn't bc feel identity loss or anonymity - just part of the group
social loafing
- social action - less effort put forth in group settings than individual - physical (ex: carrying things), mental effort (group projects), initiative (problem solving)
bystander effect
- social action - people don't intervene to help someone if in a group - Kitty Genovese in NY, 38 bystanders - factors: less likely to notice, cues: if no one else is responding you don't think its an issue, high-danger = more likely to provide aid and responsibility of bystander (if know them/place) - if group of strangers = more likely to respond
social facilitation
- social action - perform better on simple tasks when others watching - naturally exhibit a performance response; being in the presence of others naturally raises arousal a lot --> Yerkes-Dodson performance much higher for a simple, mastered task - BUT hinders performance of unfamiliar or complex tasks - ex: pro-athlete better w a crowd (high arousal red) but amateur is worse (blue line high arousal) - in pic blue like = only non-familiar/new tasks, red line = familiar/simple task
peer pressure
- social action - social influence exerted on a person - peer: person equal to the affected - can be positive or negative (children will usually conform to the norm whether + or -) - most seen in adolescents as they are gaining independence from parents, more peer influence - identity shift effect = mechanism: individual state of harmony affected by fear of social rejection -> conform --> internal conflict bc following norms of society rather than personal values --> shift identity to adopt social standards - cognitive dissonance - Asch conformity experiment
gender as a demographic
- social construct that corresponds to the behavioral cultural, psychological traits typical of one sex - roles influenced by cultural norms/values - differences aren't inequities tho many are - gender inequality: intentional or unintentional empowerment of one culture and detriment to other - gender segregation: separation of individuals based on perceived gender (male, female, gender-neutral bathrooms; sports; single sex schools) - sex is not gender (sex = XY male, XX female; gender = the cultural/behavioral of m/f); some cultures have more than M/F
social stratification
- social inequalities - who gets what and why - ascribed status: from clear characteristics like age, gender, skin color; involuntary - achieved status: from direct, individual efforts - Caste and estate systems = ascribed status only; class by achieved (or should be) - Master status is the 3rd and pervades all aspects
group processes
- social interaction: looks at how two people's behavior shape each others (as opposed to action which focuses on the one person) - group polarization -groupthink
feminist theory
- social structure theory - explains social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender - gender roles, sexuality, financial and other opportunities - ex men may be rewarded for something that women are punished for - like promiscuity - women more frequently objectified - being viewed as a sexual object instead of as a person - institutional discrimination might marginalize or devalue women -glass ceiling: financial inequality, promotion or top level admin attainment issues
social institutions
- social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships; fundamental part of culture - regulate behavior of ppl 1 - family 2 - education 3 - religion 4 - government 5 - economy 6- medicine
Norms
- societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior; mores = widely observed social norms - norms aren't necessarily laws but do provide means for regulation of behavior and social control - sanctions: enforce norms either through formal fines, incarceration, corporal/capital punishment, or informal social reactions - what's a norm in one culture might be taboo in another - folkways: polite behavior in particular interactions (ex shaking hands after a game)
Somatic symptom and related
- somatic (bodily) symptoms that cause significant stress or impairment - Somatic symptom disorder - illness anxiety disorder - conversion disorder
deviance as structure
- some theorists say we need deviance in order to make clear the boundaries and promote social change
hereditary genius
- some think intellect is hereditary - this book by Galton - does run is families but is a combo of genetics and the environment (expectation, opportunity, nutrition)
spatial inequality
- spacial stratification and access to resources depending on location - helps show inequalities abc it attends geographical influences - cultures also view and use land, home, etc. differently spaces can create inequality and lead to population segregation --> ghettoes or slums - spatially varied social structures - where more affluent ppl live there will be better resources and where poorer and less politically/social influential ppl live there are more plants and undesirable things (lack the resources to fight)
autonomic nervous system and emotions
- specific physiological reactions are associated w specific emotions (HR, BP, temp, breathing) - cold = scared, warm = anger - high HR w anger and fear, low HR with happy; decreased variability with stress anger and frustration - pulse volume high with anger or stress and low with sadness - BP increased most with anger then fear, sadness, happiness - skin temp is directly correlated (can't use to tell obviously tho)
demographics
- statistics of populations; mathematical applications of sociology - can be informal (ppl raising their hands in a class) or formal (census) - age -gender - race -ethnicity - sexual orientation - immigration status
self-fulfilling prophecy
- stereotypes lead to expectations --> can create conditions that lead to confirmation of those expectations - you can do this to yourself too - on your first day you might be so nervous that you don't do anything right just as others expected or bc you know that ppl think you won't be able to throw knots in your first surgery you can't
amphetamines
- stimulant - increase release of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin at the synapse and decrease their uptake - this increases arousal and causes reduction in appetite and reduced need for sleep - increases HR and BP - euphoria, hypervigilance (on edge), anxiety, delusions of grandeur (believe they are someone else) - prolonged use --> brain damage or stroke - high withdraws
cocaine
- stimulant - coca plant in South America = natural source; can e made synthetically too - also decreases reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin - very similar to amphetamines in effects and withdrawal symptoms - also used as anesthetic and vasoconstrictor --> used then surgery on highly vascularized area like nose or throat - if used recreationally tho can cause heart attack and stroke - crack is cocaine that is smoked
ecstasy (MDMA)
- stimulant - hallucinogen + amphetamine - "designer amphetamine" --> similar effect - high HR, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, hyperthermia - euphoria, increased alertness, sense of well-being and connectedness - packaged as colorful club/rave pills
symbolic interaction
- study of the way individuals interact with a shared understanding of words, gestures, symbols - symbols which we attach meaning to are the key for us understanding the world - one gesture or symbol may mean very different things in Dif cultures
cognitive appraisal of stress
- subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress - stage 1: primary appraisal : initial eval of environment and the threat; label as irrelevant, benign positive, or stressful - stage 2: secondary appraisal: if stage1 = threat stage 2 is evaluation of if you can cope with the threat; includes evaluation of 1. harm or damage caused by event 2. potential for future damage by event 3. challenge: potential to overcome and cope; less stressful if you think you can cope - appraisal and stress level differ by person with differing skills, abilities, coping mechanisms - some situation require reappraisal (ex: walking home alone at night and making sure you aren't being followed)
emotion in decision making
- subjective experience of a person in a certain situation - how a person feels often influences how a person thinks and makes decisions ex. angry person - more likely to engage in risky behavior (being the dare devil) - the emotions that a person *expects* to feel also play a role - think a car will make you feel powerful or clothes will make you feel pretty or good ab yourself --> more likely to buy them from expected feelings
cognitive response to emotions
- subjective interpretation of the feeling - largely based on memory of past feelings and perceptions of cause of emotion
psychotic disorders (DSM-5)
- suffer from one or more of the following: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized though, disorganized behavior, catatonia, negative symptoms - diagnosis requires 6 months of continuous disturbance and within that, one month of active symptoms listed above
Wrnicke's area
- superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe of dominant hemisphere - language comprehension - connected to Borca's bt the arcuate fasciculus
choroidal and retinal vessels
- supply nutrients - choroidal = complex intermingling of blood vessels between sclera and retina
flavors
- sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (savory) - flavor = interplay btwn smell and taste and affected by non chemical stimuli like texture and mood
Government/economy as a social institution
- systematic arrangement of political and capital relationships, activities, social structures -affect societal rules, representation of the individual, rights, divisions of labor, production of goods - impact all other institutions - affect institutions in rules, if they recognize, funding of school, medicine, relg, families, etc.; affect individuals - monarchy = ruler but usually in conjunction w parliament/constitution; dictatorship = single person in power, systems to quell threats; theocracy = power to religious leaders - charismatic authority - leader has compelling personality -capitalist economies: free market, support laissez-faire policies (gov't doesn't control, up to consumers); division of labor btwn develop, manufacture, etc.)--> specialization and efficiency - socialist economies: large industries = collective; profit dist equally to the workforce
interaction process analysis
- technique for observing, classifying and measuring interactions within small groups - revised to the SYMLOG: system for multiple level observation of groups
hippocampus and emotion
- temporal lobe - long term memories - storage and retrieval of emotional memories - context for stimuli to lead to emotions - explicit (hippocampus and temporal lobe) and implicit (amygdala) memory; both important in formation and retrieval of emotional memories
attribution theory
- tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior - disposition (internal) attributions: relate to person whose behavior is being considered - beliefs, sttitude, personality - situational (external) attribution: relate to features of surroundings, like threats, money, social norms - ex: heidi won hoo's choice because she worked hard and deserved it or because she was lucky and kevin just liked her accent - consistency cues: same behavior all the time - more regular = more associated with that person's motives - consensus cues: extent of deviation from socially expected behavior - distinctive cues: if behavior differs in different situations - similar in similar situations = situational attribution - correspondent inference theory - fundamental attribution error - attribution substitution - cultural attribution
phonology
- the actual sound of language - 40 speech sounds in English - many others exists - to speak a language you must learn these - categorical perception: knowing when a pronunciation is meaningful or just a variation because of colloquial pronunciations (an auditory example of constancy)
characteristic institutions
- the basic organization of society - prehistory = clans and kin - modern = cities, trade and commerce, bureaucracy (rational system of political organization) - bureaucracies have so many levels and regulations that they are slow to chance and less efficient - iron law of oligarchy: democratic and bureaucratic will naturally shift to an elite group ruling bc you always need a core group for day to day decisions and some will arise with leadership characteristics - mcdonaldization
implicit personality theory
- the categories we place people in during impression formation is based on this implicit personality theory - there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits and their behaviors are related - can lead to stereotyping
cognitive development
- the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory across lifespan - limited in childhood by pace of brain maturation (focused on body control and learning to interact with environment); characterized by mastering physical environment then move on to abstract thinking
deja vu
- the first time you see something takes longer to process it - deja vu is when you see something for the first time but your brain processes it faster than expected giving you the "seen before" feeling bc you have seen it in pictures, movies, etc. - BUT only feel if your memory system can't remember when/where you've seen it
cultural transmission or learning
- the manner in which a society socializes its members
Personality types
- used by Type personality theory - Greeks used this with the "humors" - somatotypes: personality based on body type - Type A: competitive and compulsive; Type B: laid-back and relaxed; type A more CHD prone but not higher mortality rate - Myers-Biggs
defensive mechanisms
- used by the ego to relieve anxiety caused by coach of id and superego feature 1: - distort, falsify, deny reality feature 2: - operate unconsciously - eight defense mechanisms: repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation
sleepwalking or somnambulism
- usually during SWS - some eat, sleep, have sex, drive - usually return to bed and don't remember - not harmful to wake but just leading them back is easier
values, beliefs, norms, rituals in culture
- values: what a person deems important; dictates behavior and ethical principles - beliefs: things someone accepts as truth - values and beliefs often shared among culture and can cause cultural barriers in medicine - norms: societal rules defining boundaries of acceptable behavior - rituals: formalized ceremony w specific materials, symbols, mandates on acceptable behavior; usually have an order and routine and can be anything from holiday to mass to ceremony to getting ready in the AM
magnocellular cells
- very high temporal resolution - detect motion - LOW spatial resolution - not much rich detail can be seen once in motion --> blurry image of moving object
classical and operant together
- very impactful when used together - ex: dolphins receive a fish if they perform well --> primary enforcer (a treat the dolphin responds to naturally [unconditioned stimulus]) - Clickers create a sound that has become a conditioned reinforcer bc it has been paired w fish (also called a secondary reinforcer) - trainers often becomes discriminative stimulus
gestalt principles
- ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete - Law of Pragnanz! 1. proximity: elements close to one another tend to be perceived as one unit 2. similarity: similar objects grouped 3. good continuation : elements that appear to follow same pathway grouped - perceive pattern over change 4. subjective contours: perceive shape not present from contours (from law 3) (ex: not a diamond over a square) 5. closure : space enclosed y contour gets perceived as complete figure
self-discrepancy theory
- we each have 3 selves 1. actual self: made up of self-concept; how we see our current self 2. ideal self: who you would like to be 3. ought self: how we think other think we should be - the closer these three are, the high self-esteem will be (esteem is one of Maslow's needs)
fundamental attribution error
- we have a general bias towards making dispositional rather than situational attributions esp in negative contexts
groupthink
- when group members begin to focus solely on group ideas and ignore outside ideas - leads to lack of exploration of ideas or diversity of thought - member start to self-censor and not express a belief not shared by the group
attribute substitution
- when ppl must make a complex judgement so they substitute a simpler solution or app a heuristic - may include addressing a different question or scenario without even realizing it - ex: if asked to envision how much vol a share inside a cube is like most will instead think ab a circle in a square or when people instinctively answer a riddle wrong bc their minds simplify too far - ex: picture: our minds distort the bird - the expected 3D size substituted the actual 2D size; in color illusions/shadowing this also happens and we substitute the color that makes sense
discrimination
- when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals to be treated differently than others - prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behavior - prejudice does not always result in discrimination (may not express or act on them) - individual vs. institutional
physiological response to emotion
- when something first happens - arousal is stimulated by the autonomic nervous system changes in : HR, BP, breathing, temp - some emotions = more pronounced physically than othres
extinction (of conditioned response)
- when the conditioned stimulus is presented enough times without the unconditioned stimulus the organism will become habituated to the conditioned stimulus and extinction will occur - extinction also not permanent - if presented after a while a weak conditioned response may occur --> spontaneous recovery
learned helplessness
- when you have been powerless against an experience before you don't think you can escape ever, even when you have the opportunity in the future - ex: dogs and socks - thought to play large role in depression
intersections with race, age, gender
- where most social inequality is seen - social inequality increases with intersectionality (compounding of multiple oppressed group statuses) - 5 ethnicities model: census classifies into white, black, asian, latino, Native American; many argue we are more dynamic and hyper diverse than
residential segregtion
- where you live has a huge impact on how ppl interact and advance; huge impact of chances - rural = less likely to fall into occupational or family roles (like taking over the family farm) and often have more opportunities and connections - affluent usually = better schools, homeowners, graduates, higher SES connections vs. low income w worse schools and higher crime rates - Suburbanization: middle class families to suburbs bc less homeless ppl and better schools - low SES cannot move --> urban decay bc of less resources and social/political power in their areas; gentrification and urban renewal
Inner ear
- within bony labyrinth - cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals - these structures continuous and filled by the membranous labyrinth which is filled w endolymph (K+ rich) and suspended in the bony labyrinth y a thin layer of perilymph fluid
Piaget
- woman! - insisted qualitative dif btwn child and adult thinking - 4 stages to cognitive development; passage = continuous and sequential through them; completing one prepares you for the next one
syntax
- word order - notice effect of word order on meaning ex: only Emily has 3 pieces of candy vs. Emily only has 3 pieces of candy
goal inequities
- world system theory: categorizes countries and shows inequalities in division of labor on global scale - core nations: higher paying skills and productions - peripheral nations: lower skilled productions - semi-peripheral nations: midway - working to be core nations - many nations in P and S-P live on less than $1.25/day - globalization --> limits access to power and resources bc production shifts between nations; worldwide increase in social inequalities - interactions between developing and industrial nations and a huge population spike has led to increased inequalities of space, food, etc - malnutrition, bad healthcare, infection worse
sleep and circadian rhythms
- ~24 hrs - affected by external cues like light - sleepiness from pineal gland making melatonin (retina connects to hypothalamus which controls pineal --> light decreases --> sleepiness --> melatonin) - Cortisol: helps you wake
cognitive process dream theory
- ∂reams are a sleeping stream of consciousness - same shifts and (not)random jumps
dishabituation
-Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred - temporary - always refers to changes in response to the original stimuli and not the new one - usually when a second stimuli breaks it up; habituation on a high way --> don't notice sounds, lines, etc. --> exit ramp --> new highway --> notice everything again even though its the same
Intuition
-ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence - "feel" like its correct even if you have no evidence - usually from experience - also called recognition-primed decision model: brain is sorting through information they recognize and trying to match a pattern (like an ER doc)
algorithms
-a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem - can be mathematical or a set of rules/instructions designed to produce the solution
implicit memory
-aka non-declarative or procedural - = skills, conditioned response ex: riding a bike
prefrontal cortex and emotion
-anterior portion of frontal lobes - planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, making decisions - receives arousal inputs from the brainstem and coordinates with cognitive states - left prefrontal cortex = positive emotions, right = negative - dorsal prefrontal cortex: attention, cognition - ventral prefrontal cortex: connects emotion regions of the brain - ventromedial prefrontal cortex: decision making/controlling emotions from the amygdala
cluster B
-behavior that is labeled as dramatic, emotional, erratic -antisocial personality disorder - borderline personality disorder - histrionic personalità disorder -narcissitic personality disorder
smell
-chemical sense -responds to incoming chemicals from the outside world -responds to volatile/aerosolized compounds -olfactory chemoreceptors or nerves
influence of others on identity
-children mimic behavior from those they are more like (observational learning, Bandura) -children become more able to see the identities of others as different from their own and imagine others' perspectives (role-taking with pretend play) - theory of mind =cultural and biosocial ability to sense working of another' mind (pick up "social cues") -from development of theory of mind children begin to see how others perceive them and imagine themselves from the outside world = looking-glass self = how we interpret that (better/worse than reality); dependent on reference group
working memory
-closely related to short term - supported by hippocampus - keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate it - must integrate short-term, attention, and executive function (uses frontal, parietal and hippo) - this is how you do simple math in your head
punishment (operant conditioning)
-consequence that makes target behavior UNLIKELY 1. Positive punishment: ADD something bad (ex: spanking) 2. Negative punishment: TAKE away something good (ex: take away dessert for bad behavior) *punishments work best in nature where it helps us avoid dangers -should be CERTAIN and IMMEDIATE - often used in society (along w reinforcements)
group conformity
-groups hold power over its members, creating group pressures that ultimately shapes members behaviors - individuals are compliant with the groups goals even if the group's goals might be the opposite of what the individual wants - individuals will conform and attempt to fit in to be accepted by the group - individuals would usually participate in behaviors that they normally would not
dramaturgical approach to impression management
-individuals create almost theatrical versions of themselves societal settings: - front stage self: when the actor is in front of the audience performing according to setting, role, etc to conform to what he wants others to see - backstage self: when the actor is not being observed and is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image
dispositional vs. situational
-is a behavior primarily determined by personality (disposition) or environment (situation)
cluster A
-labeled as odd or eccentric by others paranoid personality disorder - distrust of others and suspicion regarding motives - may be in the primordial phase of schizophrenia schizotypal persoanlity disorder - pattern of odd or eccentric thinking - ideas of reference (less severe delusions of reference) - magical thinking (superstitiousness, clairvoyant belief) schizoid personality disorder: - pattern of detachment from social relationships and restricted range of emotions - little desire for social interaction, few friends, poor social skills
mood disorder basis
-monoamine or catecholamine theory of depression: too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania while too little leads to depression - taking antidepressants can unmask underlying bipolar
Dopamine
-neurotransmitter, catecholamine - smooth movement and posture stability - high in basal ganglia, help soothe moments and maintain posture - imbalances: schizophrenia, parkinsons
shaping
-operant conditioning - process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors - ex: getting a bird to spin and push a button you reward for turning then only for turning half way then only for spinning then only for spinning and moving to button, etc.
visual pathways
-physical anatomical connections b/w the eyes & brain and the flow of visual info along these connections - right half of each eye projects onto left side of that eye's retina and vice versa
religion as a social institution
-pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address meaning of existence - members are resocialized into structure - religiosity: how religious one cosiders themself - includes strength of beliefs and engagement - Church: multiple coexisting groups that can bee divided into denominations - Sect: religion that has broken off from parent relg - cult: sects that take on extreme or deviant philosophy - 21st cent religion: some modernizing (getting rid of the strict traditions), some secularizing and leaning towards individualism and science, some predominated by fundamentalist (strict adherence) - spirituality and religion dif but linked - play a part in patients' understanding
medicare covers
-people over the age of 65 - ALS patients -end-stage renal disease
ciliary body
-produces aqueous humor which bathes the front part of the eye - drains into the canal of Schlemm - ciliary muscle is a component and is under parasympathetic control
meditation
-quieting of the mind for some purpose -produces a sense of relaxation and relief from anxiety and worrying -decreased heart rate and blood pressure - on EEG resembles alpha waves and sleep stage 1
depth perception
-relies on both monocular and binocular cues - monocular = relative size of objects, partial obscurant of one y another, convergence of parallels at a distance, lighting and shadowing - binocular cues = slight dif in images on two retinas and angle between eyes needed to bring into focus
neurocognitive models of dreaming
-seeks to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming -correlates subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming w/ measurable physiological changes
confirmation bias
-tendency to focus on information that fit's an individual's beliefs evenjhough there is rejecting evidence against it - causes overconfidence
place theory
-the location of a hair cell on basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch when that hair cell is vibrated - highest frequency vibrate basilar membrane near oval window and lowest near apex away from oval - aka cochlea has tonotopic organization: which hair cells are vibrating indicates pitch to the brain
perceptual organization
-use top-down and bottom-up tg to produce whole picture/idea with other sensory clues - often throughout the day we can only see parts of objects but infer the rest of them - fill in the gaps w Gestalt Principles
pavlov's experiment
-you will get an MCAT question on this or a similar experiment - unconditioned stimulus (meat) caused unconditioned response (salivation) in dogs -Pavlov repeatedly rang a bell (neutral stimulus) before placing meat in the dogs' mouth - initially, the dogs didn't react much when they only heard the bell w/o receiving meat -After repeating procedure several times, dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell (even if he did not deliver meat) -turned the bell (neutral) into a conditioned stimulus that caused a new reflexive conditioned response
5 mechanisms of mate choice
1) phenotypic benefits: observable traits that make a mate more attractive to the opposite sex (ex. males that appear more nurturing); usually these are traits that increase offspring production 2) Sensory bias: development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population (fiddler crabs building pillars to attract females) 3) Fisherian/ runaway selection: a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time (ex. plumage of the peacock) 4) Indicator traits: trait that signifies overall good health and well-being of an organism (females cats are more attracted to male cats with clean and shiny coats) could be reflection of genetic or behavior 5) Genetic compatibility: creation of mate pairs, that, when combined have complementary genetics (mechanism for reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population if attracted to those with v different genetics)
3 components of attitude
1. cognitive: thoughts and beliefs ex: if you dislike republicans and think they're poopy heads and incompetent 2. affective: emotion ex: if you dislike republicans and thinking about them makes you feel angry 3. behavioral: tendency to act a certain way ex: every time you talk to one of your republican uncles you yell at them bc they're sexist and racist or not letting someone republican move into your appt
jung's 3 dichotomies of personality
1. Extraversion vs. introversion (e vs. i) 2. Sensing (objective fact) vs. intuiting (using info abstractly) (s vs. n) 3. Thinking vs. feeling (logic/reason vs. values and personal beliefs) (t vs. f) - have both but one usually dominates - these ideas used in Myers Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI); adds 4th: judging (prefer order) vs. perceiving (prefer spontaneity) (j vs. p)
Freudian Personality Theory 3 entities
1. Id 2. ego 3. superego - preconscious = thoughts we aren't currently aware of - unconscious = suppressed thoughts (often confused erroneously called subconscious) - instincts
8 factors indicative of groupthink
1. Illusion of invulnerability: optimism and encouragement of risk taking 2. collective rationalization: ignore warnings against group's ideas 3. illusion of morality: believe group = morally correct 4. excessive stereotyping: stereotypes against outside opinions 5. pressure for conformity: against anyone in the group that expresses contradictory thoughts, call it disloyal 6. self-censorship: withhold ur views if they oppose 7. illusion of unanimity: false sense of agreement 8. mindguards: appointment of members to protect against opposing views this poster shows 3, 4, 5, 8
theories of motivation
1. Intrinsic 2. arousal (yerces-dodson) 3. drive reduction (primary and secondary drives) 4. need based (Maslow and SDT) 5. Incentive theory 6. Expectancy-value theory 7. opponent process 8. sexual motivation
Theories of emotion
1. James-Lange 2. Cannon-Bard 3. Schachter-Singer - early psych: cognitive components of anger led to physiological components; feelings --> arousal --> action (ex: anger started as negative stimulus --> physiological temp or HR change --> yelling)
Schachter-Singer Theory of emotion
1. NS arousal and cognitive appraisal 2. conscious emotion -aka: cognitive arousal theory or two factory theory -arousal and labeling of arousal based on environment must occur for emotion to be experienced--I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy - cognitive appraisal unique to this theory: must analyze environment to feel emotion - study: inject with epinephrine and expose to actor that is angry or happy --> more emotion if they don't know they were injected or think they have a placebo than if they know they were injected with epinephrine and can label emotion as side effect and not bc of environment
important Jungian archetypes list
1. Persona - aspect of personality we show the world 2. Anima - man's inner woman 3. animus - women's inner man 4. Shadow - unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, actions in our consciousness
components of language
1. Phonology 2. Morphology 3. Semantics 4. Syntax 5. Pragmatics
coping and stress management
1. Problem solving focused strategies - overcoming, reaching out, confronting, planning and following through 2. emotionally focused strategies - change ones feelings about a stressor: take responsibility, self control, distancing, positive reappraisal, all to focus on a positive outcome instead 3. stress management - exercise (endorphins and opioid neuropeptides), relaxation, meditation, breathing, etc.
conscious altering drug categories
1. depressants 2. stimulants 3. opiates 4. hallucinogens
4 key components of the information processing model
1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (not just responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making 3. decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to aid in new problem solving (situational modification) 4. Problem solving is dependent not only on cognition level but also on context and complexity of problem
Conflict of Erikson's pyschosocial theory
1. Trust vs. mistrust: 0-1 - resolved: child trusts environment and self - mistrust: child suspicious of world, possibly throughout life 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt: 1-3 - resolved: feel able to exert control over world and exercise choice and restraint - shame and doubt: doubt and persistent external locus of control 3. initiatives vs. guilt 3-6 yrs - resolved: sense of purpose, initiate activities, enjoy accomplishment - guilt: fear of punishment --> unduly restrict oneself or overcompensate abby showing off 4. industry vs. inferiority: 6-12 - resolved: feel competent, intelligent, exercise abilities, affect world in way they want - inferiority: sense of inadequacy, inability to act competently, low self-esteem 5. identity vs. role confusion 12-20 - physiological revolution: - resolve: fidelity, see oneself as unique and integrated - role confusion: confusion about identity, amorphous personality shifting day to day 6. intimacy vs. isolation: 20-40 - resolve: intimate relationships, commit to another person and own goals - isolation: avoid commitment, alienation, distancing; either withdrawn or only superficial relationships 7. generativity vs. stagnation: 40-65 - resolve: capable of being productive, caring, contributing member of society - stagnation: self-indulgent, bored, self-centered 8. integrity vs. despair: 65 on - resolve: wisdom, assurance of meaning, dignity acceptance of worthwhile life, readiness for death - despair: bitterness, worthlessness, fear of death
3 components of attitude
1. affective - the way a person feels towards something and is the emotional component of attitude - ex: snakes scare me, I love matt 2. behavioral - the way a person act with respect to something - ex: avoid snakes, spend time w matt 3. cognitive - way u think ab someone/thing; usually the justification for affective and behavioral components - ex: knowing that snakes can be dangerous or matt is nice :)
front of eye divisions
1. anterior chamber: infant of the iris 2. Posterior chamber: between iris and lens
3 fundamental dimensions of interaction of SYMLOG
1. dominance vs. submission 2. friendliness vs. unfriendliness 3. instrumental controlled vs. emotional expressive - SYMLOG is based on these
formation of memories processes
1. ecoding 2. storage 3. retrieval
problem solving tools
1. heuristics 2. biases 3. intuition 4. emotions speed up and simplify but can lead to short sighted decisions
freud stages of psychosexual development
1. oral stage: 0-1: mouth - gratification: sucking, biting, anything with mouth - fixation: excessively dependent adult 2. anal stage: 1-3: anus - gratification: elimination and retention of waste; toilet training - fixation: excessive orderliness in adults (anal-retentiveness) or excessive sloppiness 3. phallic stage: 3-5: Odepal for boys, electra for girls - gratification: male feels jealous of father's relationship with mother, fears castration by father, wishes to eliminate father but feels guilty; girls have penis envy, exhibit less "female" behavior both: de-eroticize/subliminate libidinal energy 4. Latency: 5-puberty: - gratification: focus on collecting things or schoolwork 5. genital stage: puberty on - gratification: if successful proceeding through stages enter into healthy heterosexual relationship - if sexual trauma: manifestation in homosexuality, asexuality and fetishism
types of receptors that receive tactile information
1. pacinian corpuscles: deep pressure and vibration 2. meissner corpuscles: light touch 3. Merkel cells (discs): deep pressure and texture 4. Ruffini endings: stretch 5. free nerve endings: pain and temperature
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
1. physical and mental emotion 2. action - wanted to study the James-Lange theory - studied expression of emotion and relationship to sympathetic NS feedback w cats whose afferent nerve were severed - thought that physical and emotional feeling were simultaneous --> severing sympathetic feedback should not alter emotions - respond with action after physical and mental emotion - stimulus --> sensory info to cortex and SNS by thalamus - flaws: vagus nerve also functions as feedback between peripheral organs and CNS - Visual stimuli through thalamus --> rough info to amygdala (fear) and SNS (arousal) --> action (muscle contraction, HR, BP)
3 elements of emotion
1. physiological response 2. behavioral response 3. cognitive response
kohlberg's stages of moral development
1. pre-conventional morality: preadolescent - emphasis on consequences - Stage 1: obedience - Stage 2: self-interest (gain reward [like save wife so u can spend time w her]) = instrumental relativist stage bc based on reciprocity (I do for u, u do for me) 2. conventional morality: adolescence and up - this is basic adult reasoning - see urself in terms of relationship to others - based on understanding/accepting social rules - stage 3: conformity (good boy; seek approval) - stage 4: law and order (social order = highest regard) (if everyone steals businesses will close, etc) 3. post-conventional morality: subset of people - highest moral reasoning; only some capable - stage 5: social contract (greater good conventions) (everyone deserves __ right) - stage 6: universal human ethics (abstract principles: it is wrong to hold another - begin in stage one and progress through - some argue that post conventionalist is culturally based - only studied with males ***
4 theories of personality
1. psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) 2. humanistic (phenomenological) 3. type and trait 4. behaviorist
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational
types of problem solving
1. trial and error 2. algorithms 3. deductive reasoning 4. inductive reasoning
sleep-wake disorders
2 types: 1. dyssomnias: insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea 2. parasomnias: night-terrors, sleepwalking
multiple intelligences
7 defined types of intelligence: 1. linguistic 2. logical-mathematical 3. musical 4. visual-spatial 5. bodily-kinetic 6. interpersonal 7. intrapersonal - western culture values first two over everything
mediating variable
A mediating variable is a variable that attempts to assess the mechanisms underlying in the relationship between an independent and dependent variable. Therefore, food selection habits as a mediating variable would help clarify the relationship between social networks and obesity
sensitive period
A time during which environmental input has a maximal impact on the development of a particular ability
prodromal phase
Before schizophrenia is diagnosed, a patient often goes through a phase characterized by poor adjustment - social withdrawal, deterioration, inappropriate behavior. etc. - followed by active phase of symptomatic behavior - better prognosis if very quick onset of symptoms
culture
Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people, learned by living in that society - material and symbolic - use both to draw people together esp in hard times; think war or in high school you have a mascot and song to create community - human characteristic - outside of instinct; all animals care for their kids in the same way but there is great diversity among human mothers - learned behavior, pressure from group, expectations - assimilation and multiculturalism -subsultures
collective unconscious
Carl Jung - powerful system shared among all humans - residue of experiences of our ancestors - made up of archetypes: shared images of common experiences like having a mother and father; may differ between cultures
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
DSM- 5 - based on description of symptoms - used to diagnose
Frued vs. Jung vs. Adler
Freud: behavior motivated by inborn instincts and sexual libido Jung: person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes Adler: ppl motivated by striving for superiority
Projection tests used with them
Freudian psychoanalytic theory of defensive mechanisms - attribute undesired feeling to another/others - ex: I hate my parents --> my parents hate me - Rorschach inkblot test: uses projection; assumption is that they will project onto the shape - thematic apperception test: series of pictures, ask patient to make up a story about them in hopes that story will makes expose feelings and thoughts
repression
Freudian psychoanalytic theory of defensive mechanisms - banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories to unconsciousness - underlies many defensive mechanisms - tries to disguise threatening impulses that may find their way out of unconscious - an unconscious forgetting (often w trauma) (suppression on the other hand is a conscious forgetting or decision not to think ab something)
rationalization
Freudian psychoanalytic theory of defensive mechanisms - justification of behavior in a way that is acceptable to self and society ex: everyone else is drinking under 21 what is one more person
regression
Freudian psychoanalytic theory of defensive mechanisms - reversion to an earlier developmental state - when stressed older children may thus-scuk, throw tantrums, etc.
Reaction formation
Freudian psychoanalytic theory of defensive mechanisms - suppress urges by unconsciously converting to opposite - ex: unrequited love --> showing hate for the person
displacement
Freudian psychoanalytic theory of defensive mechanisms - transference of and undesired urge from one person or object to another - ex: mad at friend but take it out on matt
sublimation
Freudian psychoanalytic theory of defensive mechanisms - transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior - pent up sexual drive into driving really fast or art
Community and society groups
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft - unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, geography, etc - Gemeinschaft: families and neighborhoods - Gesellschaft: groups formed bc of mutual self-interests working towards the same goal - companies and countries
disconfirmation principle
Idea that states that if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised - bc of a confirmation bias an individual might not do so
Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
In this experiment children watched a model attack a doll and then the children were put in a room with toys including the same doll and children it was found that the kids who watched the model were much more likely to imitate the actions can work the opposite way: children who watched the adult get scolded after were the least likely to act violently towards the doll
Homophily
Individuals with similar health risks such as high blood pressure are less likely to dissolve social ties with one another.
SIG E. CAPS
Mnemonic used to identify depression; 5 or more SIG E CAPS and 2+ weeks of symptoms are necessary for diagnosis. Sleep, Interest, Guilt, Energy, Concentration, Appetite, Psychomotor, Suicidal thoughts
Karen Horney
Neo-Freudian - offered feminist critique of Freud's theory - focused on interpersonal relationships - neurotic personalities --> neurotic needs to make interactions and life bearable - basic anxiety: if early child's perception of self is not able to develop for some reason - basic hostility: neglect and rejection of child --> anger
marxist theory of social stratification
Proletariat/have-nots could overthrow the bourgeoisie/haves and capitalism if they develop class consciousness Class consciousness: if working class realizes their position and their shared goals and need for collective political action they could overthrow the current system and create a socialist one; hindered by false consciousness or the misperception of one's status or impreceptions of how and things are -
habituation
Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response
Jung "Self:
Self = intersection between collective unconscious (archetypes) and personal unconscious and the conscious mind - self wants unity - mandala: reconciler of opposites and promoter of harmony
Stereotype vs prejudice vs discrimination
Stereotypes - cognition (thought process/belief) - expectations, impressions, opinions of particular personality trait because of group membership Prejudice - affect (emotion) - Think someone is good or bad based on... Discrimination - behavior - Treating them differently based on...
DIG FAST
Symptoms of Mania Distractibility Irresponsibility Grandiosity (inflated self-esteem, belief that they are all powerful, famous, wealthy) Flight of Ideas (racing thoughts) Activity and Agitation (goal directed) Sleep (decreased need) Talkativeness
Szasz
The Myth of Mental Illness - argues that we shouldn't label "mental illnesses" as illnesses bc they are just deviations from cultural norms; we shouldn't imply that they should change just bc they are outside of norms
Law of Pragnanz
The most general Gestalt principle, which states that the simplest, most regular and symmetrical organization will emerge as the figure
arcuate fasciculus
a bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area with Broca's area; damage causes conduction aphasia - allows appropriate association between language production and comprehension
meritocracy
a system in which promotion is based on individual ability or achievement - advancement based on skill or work - with increasing inequality this allows for less and less movement in US --> more plutocracy or rule by upper class
Eustachian tube
connects the middle ear with the nasal cavity to allow pastiche of air to equalize press between middle ear and the environment
primary neurotransmitter of parasympathetic NS
acetylcholine
conformity
aka majority influence - matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms - pressure to conform can be real or imagined: actual pressure from others or a perceived judgement/expectation - Asch experiments show normative conformity - internalization: conformity in which one change's their behavior to fit in w a group while also internally coming to agree with the ideas of the group - identification: outward acceptance/changes to fit in with others' ideas without personally coming to agree (less likely in western culture which values "being urself" more likely in eastern where group is more valued)
groups
aka social group - 2+ ppl w similar characteristic and sense of unity - dyad = 2 ppl; triad = 3ppl - larger groups trade intimacy for stability - NOT just ppl being in the same place like waiting to cross the street; need to share interests/background - provide acceptance, etc.; learn, earn, worship - peer group: self-selected equals; friendship, belonging - family group: not self-selected conflict from cultural gaps and competition w peer groups - in-groups are the groups you're in while out groups are the ones you compete with/oppose - reference groups: est terms by which people evaluate themselves (ex: our ref group = all med school applicants - primary and secondary groups
client-centered therapy
aka: person-centered or non-directive therapy - Carl Rogers - Humanistic personality development - people have freedom to control their behavior (not slaves to the unconscious like psychoanalysts think) or subjects of faulty learning (behaviorists) - help client reflect, problem solve, make choices, generate solutions, determine their destiny - Created ideas of real and ideal self - unconditional positive regard: therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy to promote a positive environment
only drug with which overdose and withdrawal are lethal
alcohol
states of conciousness
alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states of consciousness - sleep and dreaming are also altered but considered separately from hypnosis, meditation, drug-induced, sickness, dementia, delirium, coma states
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" - applies to future and past selves - use self-schema, which are self-given taels that carry qualities
stimulus
anything to which an organism can respond
canal of Schlemm
aqueous humor drains into this
Assimilation v Multiculturalism
assimilation: process by which an individual or group's behavior begin to resemble that of another group - can be groups merging or one merging with a group - merge new and old aspects of society and culture - not even usually: for immigrants measure w socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, intermarriage - slowed by ethnic enclaves: locations with high conc. of one specific ethnicity (China town/little Italy names) Multiculturalism: - communities with multiple distinct cultures (like a mosaic instead of a melting pot) - encourages and respects cultural differences, enhance diversity and acceptance subcultures: - groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture - symbolic attachment = big - can be anything - not just ethnicity - counterculture: subculture gravitates towards being at odds with the major culture
fad
behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community - can be having things or saying/doing things/ watching popular videos
biomedical v biopsychosocial approach
biomedical: - symptom reduction interventions - root = biomedical and solution should also be - very narrow; no account of social/life impacts - (think ab how heart disease is biomedical and lifestyle if we treated it as only biomedical it'd never stop) biopsychosocial: - biological, psych, and social components - psych: individuals thoughts, emotions, behaviors - soc: components from surroundings (class, discrimination, stigmas) - all 3 aspects considered in treatment (ex: depression: genetic predisposition + stress can exacerbate + bullying exacerbates) - goals: direct therapy (treatments that acts directly not he individualizing; [meds or psychologist meetings]) and indirect therapy (increase social support by education and empowering fam and friends)
schachter-singer theory differs from james-lange theory in that (also cannon bard and gross-barrett)
both: see physiological arousal as necessary to experience emotion S-S: also says cognitive interpretation is also necessary to experience the emotion - cannon-bard: emotions stem from dorsal thalamus - gross-barrett: emotion = collection of psychological states, inc expressive behavior, subjective experience, physiological responses
inductive reasoning
bottom-up - try to create a theory via generalizations - start w specific instances and draw conclusions - create theories based on what you know
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissue
retinal cones
color and fine details - most effective in bright light - 3 forms: short (absorb short wavelengths)) aka blue, medium/green, and long/red
display rules
cultural expectations of emotions - ex: some cultures think anger is never acceptable - deviant or taboo - may differ between culture, gender, class in a culture - can change emotions y simulating one you don't feel or amplifying, deamplifying or qualifying one you do, can also mask one with another or neutral all emotion
mortality
deaths caused by a given disease
second sickness
exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice - low income groups are more likely to have poor health, be uninsured, die younger than upper and middle classes - also more likely to die from suicide or homicide - no differences between age - fetal to elderly - or race BUT minorities more likely to be in poverty
deviance and stigma
deviance: violation of norms, rules, expectations - usually has and connotations but can be a good thing if society is wrong :( - vary is severity: jay walking vs murder - includes any act frowned upon like "sluttiness" stigma: extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from rest of society - beliefs, ability, behaviors, appearance - can be your relationship to someone (ex: fam of murderer) or u having/being something like mental illness and HIV
resocialization
discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones during transitions in one's life - can be good or bad - ex: armed forces OR joining a cult
nonmaleficence
do no harm - avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs potential for benefit
demographic shifts
ex: Am is becoming more racially and ethnically diverse, average age much higher and population doubled since 1950 - dependency ratio: ratio of economically dependent (non-woking like kids and elderly) to economically productive - population pyramid: histogram of age cohort in population
retrieval of emotional memories
emotional event --> sensory systems --> conscious memory of event in explicit memory system and expression of emotional response from implicit memory system
fertility, mortality, migration
fertility rate: children per woman per lifetime, biggest driver of population increases mortality rate: deaths per 1000 ppl per year - decreasing in the US birth rate: births per 1000 ppl per year migration rate: immigration minus emigration - US = larger net immigration - increase pop size - pull factors pull people to a new place and push factors push ppl out of an old one US is getting bigger, older, and more diverse
schizophrenia biological basis
genetic, trauma at birth (hypoxemia), excessive marijuana - if a person has it their first order relatives 10x more likely - may have structural changes in the brain - excess of dopamine in the brain Medications: - neuroleptics (antipsychotic) : block dopamine receptors, increases sedation; can lead to parkinson-like side effect
innate behavior
genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience
sexual orientation
heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual - coming out --> decreases in depression and anxiety - more fluid than we thought - kindly scale = 1-6 w 1 being super straight and 6 being super not and most ppl in middle - diseases with higher prevalence w LGBT: HIV high with MSM but affects all population; street hormones for trans can be dangerous; increases mental illness and suicide rates
physical change when new information forms
in brain as new synaptic connections form
somatosensory transduction
in the 5 receptors --> CNS --> somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe
individual vs institutional discrimination
individual: one person discriminating against a person or group - considered to be conscious and obvious - can be eliminated by removing the person displaying the behavior institutional: entire institution discriminates against a group or person - discrimination built into the structure of society - more covert and harder to extricate - maintained by the status quo or social norms
physiological response to stress
initial response =sympathetic NS; fight or flight initiates increases HR and decreased digestion
game theory fails to account for
injury that an aggressor might get when meeting another aggressor - just accounts for willing half to time and cost half the time but not wining AND cost at the same time
anomie
lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society - capitalism is leading to this and increasing social inequality --> erosion of social solidarity - excessive individualism, social inequality, isolation strain theory: how anomic conditions lead to deviance - social trust comes from norms of reciprocity and social networks which have been decreasing with urbanization, self-orientedness, materialism
MGN vs. LGN
lateral vs medial geniculate nuclei lateral = light = visual medial = music = sound
plasticity links
learning to memory
2 types of culture
material and symbolic
choroid
middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera
disturbance of affect
negative schizophrenia symptoms - affect: experience and display of emotion - blunting: severe reduction in affecte expression - flat affect (emotional flattening): almost no signs of emotional expression -inappropriate affect: affect is discordant with the content of speech (laugh while speaking of parent's death) - avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions - many medications have a blunting and flattening affect --> hard to monitor
learned behaviors
not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment
prevalence
number of cases of an illness overall - whether new or chronic ex: number of people with lunch cancer, new or chronic, per 1000 people per year
emotional and behavioral responses to stress
people can become moody, irritable, tense, fearful, have effects on concentration and memory withdrawal of others difficulties at school/work substance use agression suicide anxiety and depression (mental disorders)
important Jungian archetypes descriptions
persona - like a mask you wear in public - part of your personality that you present to the world - ** adaptive to social interactions - improve qualities that improve social standing and suppress others Anima (feminine) and Animus (masculine) - sex-inappropriate qualities; feminine qualities in a man and vice versa - anima = suppressed femaleness in males --> emotional - animus = suppressed male in females --> power-seek shadow - appearance of unpleasant and socially unacceptable thoughts, feelings, actions in our consciousness
personality vs. identity
personality = how u act and react identity = what defines you; traits, talents, etc
respect for patient autonomy
physician must respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare - exceptions: children, psychiatric, diseases impairing decision making ability, PH threat - always have the right to forgo life-saving therapy
delusions of grandeur
positive schizophrenia symptoms - also common in bipolar I - believe they are remarkable inventor, religious icon, historical figure
delusions of perception
positive schizophrenia symptoms - believe they are being interfered with, plotted against, threatened
disorganized thought
positive schizophrenia symptoms - characterized by loosening of associations - speech: ideas shift from one thought to another and listen cannot follow - word salad: loss of all speech structure - neologisms: invent new words
disorganized behavior
positive schizophrenia symptoms - inability to carry out daily tasks like laundry, bills, - catatonia: characteristic motor behaviors: rigidity, reduced movement OR bizarre and useless movement - echolalia: repeating others' words - echopraxia: imitating another's actions
hallucinations
positive schizophrenia symptoms - perceptions not due to external stimuli but have very real sense of reality - commonly auditory (voices); may perceive as coming from inside or outside the head - Visual and tactile are less common but may be seen with drugs and withdrawal - olfactory and gustatory only really seen as auras before seizures
modalities of somatosensation
pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature
proactive vs retroactive interference
proactive: old info memories affect ability to remember new information (i.e. remember the first thing or set of things you learned but net second; more broadly remember old mems but not new) retroactive: memorizing new information causes forgetting of old information (when you learn new things you forget old ones)
arousal
psych and physical state of being awake and reactive to stimuli - arousal involves brainstem, autonomic nervous system, endocrine system - plays a role in behavior and cognition
cultural syndrome
shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme - can make you suppress or express an emotion - can make you feel an emotion differently - happiness in America is usually a internal thing having to do with attainments whereas in Japan it is often felt in community - gender also plays a role in "acceptable" emotion expression - women are better at detecting emotion in
social reproduction and poverty
social inequalities esp poverty can beb reproduced or passed down through generations - can come from social inequalities or where people live or inability to plan for future - structural poverty: holes in the structure of society lead to poverty rather than decision of individual; unless these holes are closed the same percent of ppl will be below poverty line (may be dif ppl but same %) - absolute poverty: can't afford basic necessities; relative poverty: poor in comparison to pop they live in poverty line = gov't calculation of how much $ needed for basic necessities BUT this doesn't take into account differences in location that affect value of money (ex NYC cost of living rural place
social constructivism
someone working to change an idea/practice that is considered a staple or absolute in order to correct a problem
Demographic transition
specific demographic shift referring to changes in birth or death rates in a country in transition from preindustrial to industrial stage 1: preindustrial - birth and death rates are both high stage 2: - improvements in health care, nutrition, sanitation, wages - death rate drops stage 3: - contraception, women's rights, shift from agriculture to industry --> birth rates drop - also drop bc families have to send kids to school now and support kids for longer stage 4: industrialized society - low birth and death rates **death rate drops first - big growth until birth rate drops too
power
the ability affect others' behavior through real or perceived rewards or punishment - unequal distribution of valuable resources - maintains order and defines relationships but can also exploit ppl - social inequalities as most are in-between haves and have-notes
morbidity
the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
adaptive value
the extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species --> adaptation through natural selection
two-factor theory of emotion and case study explanation
the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it - so if you inject ppl w epinephrine and tell some its saline and others that its gonna make them feel like epi does -> those who didn't know or are misinformed will experience more emotion than those who knew what it was or had a placebo bc the misinformed/uninformed will think epi side-effects are due to emotion
physiological zero
the normal temperature of the skin to which objects are compared to determine if they feel warm or cold - 86-97 F
incidence
the number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time ex: # lung disease cases per 1000 ppl per year - only relevant to population at risk - you're no longer at risk if you have it
Socialization
the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs; gain skills/knowledge necessary for inclusion in society - primary and secondary
somatosensation
the skin sensations: touch/pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
cultural diffusion
the speed of norms, customs, and beliefs, esp new ones, throughout a culture
kinestetic sense
the system for sensing the position/location and movement of individual body parts
fundamental attribution error + example
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition - ex: if christopher says there's a bear and when i turn i don't see it i will assume he's lying bc he's a kid and not that the bear ran away
cannon-bard emotion theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion - emotions stem from dorsal thalamus
social cognition
the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior
gross-barrett emotion theory
theory that emotion = collection of psychological states, inc expressive behavior, subjective experience, physiological responses
deductive reasoning
top-down reasoning - start from a set of rules or givens and draw conclusions from them ex: logic puzzles; set of things that must be true - based on givens - use theories to state facts
vitreous
transparent gel that supports the retina behind the lens
Trait theorists
use clusters of behaviors to describe individuals - Hans and Sybil Eysenck - Gordon Allport - David McClelland
base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
social loafing
when an individual works less in a group than they would have alone
social exclusion
when poor individuals feel segregated from society - can cause mental health and learned helplessness issues - can magnify feelings of inequality for minorities - kinda like how anomic conditions accelerate inequality
sclera
white of the eye covers most of the exposed portion of eye frontmost part = cornea
2 categories of nervous system
CNS (central) PNS (peripheral)
William James
- "father of American psychology" - pushed for importance of studying adaptations of the individual to his or her environment - helped for functionalism
dichotic listening task
- A task in which a person hears two or more different, specially recorded messages over earphones and is asked to attend to one of them. - requires frontal cortex, temporal, parietal
Paul Broca
- Studied behavioral deficits after brain damage - specific impairments linked to specific legions - Borca's area: part of brain on left side that is hurt lose speech
sympathetic nervous system
- activated by stress - can be anything from school stress to fight or flight - increased HR, blood to locomotion muscles, increases blood glucose (break down glycogen) - relaxes bronchi - decrease digestion and peristalsis - dilates the eyes - release adrenaline and epinephrine
Amnesia
- anterograde: not being able to establish new long-term memories; can associate with patterns; still have pre-event memories - retrograde amnesia: memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury
cerebrospinal fluid
- aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest - produced by cells that line the ventricles (inner cavities) of the brain
association areas
- area that integrates input from diverse brain regions - need multiple inputs for problem solving, instruments, planning, decisions
projection areas
- areas that perform simple perceptual and motor tasks - ex: visual or motor cortexes
neurotransmitters
- chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons - acetylcholine, epinephrine and norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, GABA and glycine, glutamate, endorphins
Forebrain summary
- complex perpetual, cognitive, behavioral processes - emotion and memory - greatest influence on human behavior; not survival but what makes you human
CT
- computed tomography - multiple x-rays at angles --> cross sectional slice images created
anterior hypothalamus
- controls sexual behavior - damage --> permanent inhibition of sexual activity and drive - regulates sleep and body temperature - A: asexual
cortical maps
- created with the help of an awake patient, activates individual neurons to see what they do - stimulation by electrodes (no pain receptors in the brain) in humans and animals and in some animals go to deeper regions - the electrodes can elicit anything from movement to sleep to sexual arousal to rage
Pierre Flourens
- first to study sections of brain - extirpation/ablation; concluded that different brain regions have specific functions
Hypothalamus
- forebrain - four Fs: feeding, fighting (aggression), flighting, F-ing (sexual function) - sudivisions: lateral, ventromedial, and anterior - links nervous system and endocrine system - homeostatic functions - key in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive and sexual behavior, some endocrine functions and autonomic nervous system - its receptors regulate metabolism, temperature, water balance; signals for correction if any imbalance (ex: osmoreceptors trigger release of antidiuretic to increase resorption) - primary autonomic receptor: drive behavior regulation: thirst, hunger, sex
Thalamus
- forebrain - sensory way station: relay station for incoming sensory information - all senses EXCEPT smell - sorts and transmits the incoming sensory impulses and transmits to appropriate areas of cerebral cortex
pineal gland
- forebrain, diencephalon - biological rhythms, esp melatonin for circadian rhythms
posterior pituitary
- forebrain, diencephalon - atonal protections from hypothalamus - site of hypothalamic hormone release: ADH/vasopressin and oxytocin
basal ganglia
- forebrain, telencephalon - help make movements smoother and posture steady - coordinate muscle movement - receive info from cortex and relay to brain and spinal cord via extrapyramidal system - middle of the brain group of structures - extrapyramidal system: gather info about body position and carries to CNS but doesn't function directly thought motor neurons - Parkinson's is associated w destruction of portions of it (jerky movements, tremors) (not enough dopamine) - may play a role in Schizophrenia and OCD (too much dopamine)
Limbic system
- forebrain, telencephalon - interconnected structures looping around the central portion of brain - emotions and memory - primary structures: septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus -aggression, fear, pleasure, pain
cerebral cortex
- forebrain, telencephalon - sometimes called neocortex - most recent to evolve - most "human" part of brian - bumps (gyri) and folds (sulci) - Increase surface area - divided into two cerebral hemispheres - divided into 4 lobes made of interneurons held by glial (glue) cells: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
broca's area
- forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex, frontal lobe - speech production - usually only in dominant hemisphere and usually in left
motor homunculus
- forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex, frontal lobe, motor cortex - motor pathways - those needing finer control (think facial expressions vs. your toe) take up more area relative to size
fMRI
- functional magnetic resonance imaging - specifically looks at blood flow changes, usually used to study neuronal activity
John Dewey
- helped found functionalism w James - criticized "reflex arc" or breaking process of action into parts - thought psych should study the whole organism as it functions to adapt to the environment
subdivisions of the human brain
- hindbrain (basic survival) - midbrain (basic survival) - forebrain (complex functions)
Cerebellum
- hindbrain (other part other than brain stem) - mushrooms out of pons - maintain posture and balance and coordination - damage --> clumsiness, slurred speech (alcohol)
Fetal hindbrain
- hindbrain = rhombencephalon --> divides to form the myencelphalon and metencephalon meyecephalon --> medulla oblongata metencephalon --> pons and cerebellum
pons
- hindbrain, part of brain stem - helps medulla control autonomic function, esp arousal and sleep - above the medulla; helps with sensory and motor information relay - damage --> insomnia
Septal nuclei
- in the forebrain, telencephalon, limbic system - one of the primary pleasure/reward centers - mild stimulation is intensely pleasurable - association with addictive behavior
places information goes after optic chiasma
- lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus - through radiation in the temporal and parietal lobes to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe - inputs into the superior colliculus (controls some responses to visual stimuli and reflexive eye movements - aligns eye with where it thinks a startling sound came from - deer in headlights)
LH (in brain)
- lateral hypothalamus - hunger center - triggers eating and drinking when you need it - if destroyed rats refuse to eat/drink and must be force tube fed w lab experiments - LH: lacks hunger
MRI
- magnetic resonance imaging - magnetic field interacts w H (H1-NMR) - map out hydrogen dense regions
parasympathetic nervous system
- main role: conserve energy - resting and sleeping - reduce hr and constrict bronchi - manage digestion: increase peristalsis and exocrine secretions - acetylcholine - "rest and digest"
cereal cortex
- most recent evolutionarily - outer coverings of cerebral hemisphere - language processing, problem solving, impulse control, long-term planning
Self-determination theory
- need based motivational theory - emphasize role of 3 universal needs: 1. Autonomy (need to be in control of ones actions and ideas) 2. Competence (need to be complete and excel at difficult tasks) 3. Relatedness (need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships) - must develop all 3 of these in order to have healthy relationships w urself and others
reflex arcs
- neural circuits that control reflexive behavior - what causes you to pull away from something hot even before the message travels from the foot through sensory to the spinal cord and connect with interneurons to the brain
methods of mapping the brain
- neuropsychology - study lesions - what doesn't function when a specific part is messy) (several parts damaged can't tell) (in animal experiments can make the legions - extirpation or damage w electrodes) - electrically stimulate a part of the brain (human) --> neurons fire --> if motor = movement, if optical = flashes of light --> create cortical maps - use electrodes to record electrical activity produced by the brain - EEG or can study individual neurons y inserting ultra-sensitive micro electrodes into them - rCBF: detects broad patters of neural activity based on increased blood flow to parts of the brain - CT, PET, MRI, fMRI
acetylcholine
- neurotransmitter - voluntary muscle control, parasympathetic NS, attention, alertness - found in CNS and PNS; efferent limb - In PNS used to transmit nerve impulses to muscle - in CNS used for attention and arousal - excretory in skeletal muscle or CNS but inhibitory w some receptors like heart - responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body and small portion of sympathetic (sweat) - loss of cholinergic neurons connecting hippocampus associated w Alzheimers
Franz Gall
- one of the earliest theories the behavior, intellect, personality linked to brain - Developed phrenology: part of brain used for a skill expands as you use practice skill, thought would cause bulge in skull, thought you could measure brain function by feel/measurement of skull
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- part of PNS - regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular muscles - involuntary muscles - Helps regulate temperature - sweat or piloerection
somatic nervous system
- part of PNS - sensory and motor neurons throughout skin, joints, muscles - transmit information through afferent fibers (motor = through efferent)
medulla oblongata
- part of hindbrain - lower brain structure - regulated vital functions: breathing, hr, bp
Frontal lobe
-forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex regions: 1. prefrontal cortex: personality, thoughts, synthesis of information 2. Primary motor cortex: executive and voluntary movements (left side of brain controls right side) 3. Broca's area: motor function of speech
signal detection theory
- perception of stimuli affected by non sensory factors (experiences/memories, motives, expectations, bias) - changes in perception of the same stimuli due to psychological and external/environmental factors - if someone calls your name in a crowd - are you expecting, it do you turn every time you hear ur name (ex: emily vs Mckelvey), extroverts (personality) turn more often, how loud it is (env), etc. - response bias: systematic response not due to sensory
PET
- positron emission tomography - radioactive sugar injected and absorbed - image dispersions and uptake by tissue
Fetal forebrain
- prosencephalon - splits into telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system) and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland)
diencephalon
- region of forebrain - thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, pineal gland derived from it
telencephalon
- region of the forebrain - cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system derived from it
rCBF
- regional cerebral blood flow - detects broad patters of neural activity based on increased blood flow to parts of the brain - music increases flow to right auditory cortex - inhale radioactive gas --> scans show levels of blood in area
dominant hemisphere
- side of the brain that is more heavily stimulated during language reception and production - most ppl are left brained, no correlation to handedness - dominant = primarily analytic, details, language, logic, math - language production (borca's) and comprehension (wernicke's) driven by dominant - Visual: letters and words - Auditory: language sounds - Language: speech, reading, writing, arithmetic - movement: complex voluntary
corpus callosum
- the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them - surgical split brain --> hold something in left hand and can't name it bc only transmits to right brain and naming is from left - OR right and left side of body cant communication - button with right as you unbutton with left
brainstem
- the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions - hind and midbrain
meninges
- thick sheath covering brain - protect, anchor, resorb cerebrospinal fluid 3 layers: 1. dura mater: "tough mother:" fibrous, tough, outer layer 2. arachnoid: like spider webbing 3. Pia mater: "soft mother:" think inner membrane - cerebral spinal fluid inside pia then brain in that
Colliculi
- two prominent nuclei in the midbrain Superior - receives visual sensory input Inferior - received auditory sensory input (role in reflexive to loud sudden noise)
EEG
- use electrodes to record electrical activity produced by the brain - studies electrical activity by larger groups of neurons - electrodes on the scalp (to study single neurons micro electrodes must be inserted into the individual brain cell) - sleep, seizure, brain lesions all rely on EEGs
non dominant hemisphere
- usually the Right - intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing - processes and assembles pieces of a stimulus - less ab words and more ab tone/emotion; visual and auditory emotional perceptions - visual: faces - auditory: music - language: emotion/tone - spatial processing: geometry, sense of direction
catecholamines
-closely related dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine neurotransmitters - aka monoamines aka biogenic amines
fetal brain
-develops from the neural tube - at first has 3 swellings and then hind and forebrain split into two --> 5 swellings in neural tube in mature
Hermann von Helmholtz
-first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse -credited with the transition of psychology into a field of the natural sciences
Temporal lobe
-forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex - auditory cortex and Wernicke's area
Primary motor cortex
-forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex - on the precentral gyrus (in front of central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes) - initiates voluntary motor movement: neural impulses down spinal cord -projection area (motor = simple function) - motor homunculus - organization of motor pathways
Parietal lobe
-forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex - rear of frontal lobe - Somatosensory cortex projection on postcentral gyrus (behind central sulcus): destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, pain - closely related to motor cortex (sometimes called sensorimotor cortex) - central region correlated with spatial processing and manipulation - orientation of urself
occipital lobe
-forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex - very rear of brain - contains visual cortex (striate [striped]) - learning and motor control
Prefrontal cortex
-forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex's region of the frontal lobe - executive function, supervising and directing operations of other brain regions for perception, memory, emotion, impulses control, long-term planning - doesn't store memory traces but reminds the individual that there's something to remember - regulated reticular formation --> wake or relax - is an association area - damage --> impulsive, less in control of behavior, rude remarks
Wernicke's area
-forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex, temporal lobe - language reception and comprehension - memory processing, emotion, language - hippocampus deep inside --> stimulation often --> memory
Auditory cortex
-forebrain, telencephalon, cerebral cortex, temporal lobe - primary site for sound processing, inc. speech and music
Interneurons
-found between other neurons - most numerous of the three types of neurons - predominantly in the brain and spinal cord - often linked to reflexive behavior
amygdala
-in the forebrain, telencephalon, limbic system - defensive and aggressive behaviors; fear and rage - legions in the area in humans and rats --> hyper-sexuality and docility
hippocampus
-in the forebrain, telencephalon, limbic system - learning and memory processing *also smell (olfactory) senses - why smells are so linked with memory* - consolidate information into long term memories - redistributes remote memories into cerebral cortex - communicates with others of the limbic system through fornix projections - HN: Henry Molaison: hippocampus and amygdala removed for epilepsy: intelligence intact, memory --> amnesia for new information (anterograde amnesia)
midbrain
-inferior and superior colliculi -just above hindbrain, considered part of brain stem - receives sensory and motor information from the rest of body - involuntary reflex triggered by visual or auditory stimuli - called mesencephalon in fetuses
PNS composed of
-nerve tissues and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord - includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves - olfactory and optic nerves (cranial nerves I and II) are structural outgrowths of CNS but components of PNS - PNS connects CNS to the rest of the body - can be decided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems
epinephrine and norepinephrine
-neurotransmitter, catecholamine - fight or flight, wakefulness, alertness - adrenaline and noradrenaline - control alertness/awakeness - primary sympathetic NS neurotransmitters w fight or flight - Norepinephrine more of a local level while epinephrine is secreted from the adrenal medulla to act as a systematic hormone - low norepinephrine = depression, high = anxiety and mania
neuropsychology
-the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain - used for research and to treat brain legions/disease
Hindbrain
-where brain meets spinal cord - controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, general arousal processes like sleeping and waking aka vital functioning for survival
kinsey scale
0 to 6 scale of sexuality 0 being solely heterosexual 6 being exclusively homosexual 3= bisexual
Lobes of the cerebral cortex
F-POT: all = interneurons held by glial (glue) cells 1. frontal: prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, Broca's area 2. parietal: somatasensory/sensation; wired reverse 3. occipital: back of brain; vision 4. temporal: speech proessing and comprehension; has wernicke's area
ipsilateral communication
In some cases, like hearing, cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body
plasticity (of brain)
ability of brain to reorganize/modify functions if one part or even one hemisphere has legion/damage
sensory neurons
afferent neurons, neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord - afferent Ascend in the chord to the brain
speech shadowing
an experimental technique in which subjects repeat speech immediately after hearing it (usually through earphones) - suttering and speech perception
CNS composed of
brain and spinal cord
Hindbrain Principal Structures
cerebellum - refined motor movements, balance, proprioception brain stem - medulla, midbrian, pons
Forebrain principle structures
cerebral cortex - complex perceptual, cognitive, behavioral processes basal ganglia - movement limbic system - emotion and memory thalamus - sensory relay hypothalamus - hunger and thirst, emotion
motor neurons
efferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from spinal cord/brain to muscles and glands - efferent Exit the cord on their way to the rest of the body
Sir Charles Sherrington
first to infer the existence of synapses He thought it was an electric process but now we know that its a chemical process
laterality
left of brain controls right site of body - certain sides have certain functions
cerebral hemisphere contralateral communication
one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body movement
extrapyramidal system
part of basal ganglia - gather info about body position and carries to CNS but doesn't function directly thought motor neuron - evidence of damage in parkinsons - doesn't produce enough dopamine (too much in schizo)
3 kinds of nerve cells
sensory neurons, motor neurons, interneurons
neural ventricles
specialized cells that line the inner cavities of the brain and make cerebrospinal fluid
Subdivisions of ANS
sympathetic and parasympathetic - often act in opposition (ex: sympathetic=accelerate heart rate and inhibit digestion; parasympathetic = decelerate hr and increase digestion)
exterpation/ablation
take out parts of the brain (usually rabbit or pigeon) and see effect
NDMA receptor
type of glutamate receptors - super high concentration in the hippocampus
