MCAT Biology

Corpus luteum

'Yellow body.' The remnants of an ovarian follicle after ovulation has occurred. The cells enlarge and begin secreting progesterone, the dominant female hormone during the second half of the menstrual cycle. Some estrogen is also secreted.

Accessory organs

(1) In the GI tract, organs that play a role in digestion but not directly part of the alimentary canal. These include the liver, the gallbladder, the pancreas, adn the salivary glands.

Summation

(1) The integration of input (EPSPs and IPSPs) from many presynaptic neruons by a single postsynaptic neuron, either temporaly or spatially. Summation of al input can either stimulate the postsynaptic neuron and possibly lead to an action potential, or it can inhibit the neuron, reducing the likelihood of an action potential. (2) The integration of single muscle twitches into a sustained contraction (tetany).

Secretion

(1) The secretion of useful substances from a cell, either into the blood (endocrine secretin) or into a cavity or onto the body surface (exocrine secretion). (2) in the nephron, the movement of substances from the blood to the filtrate along the tubule. Secretion increases the rate at which substances can be removed from the body.

Gq

(ALL CELLS)-> Phospholipase C PLC-> `PLC->DAG(->PKC+Ca) PLC-> PIP2> IP3( increase Ca in cell by binding IP3 gated channel on ER) Ca-> Ca+Calmodulin-> CAM dependent Protein Kinase_>act/inact protiens

Villi

(Singular:villus). Folds of the intestinal mucosa that project into the lumen of the intestine; vili serve to increase the surface area of the intestine for absorption.

Alveoli

(singular alveolus.) Tiny sacs, with walls only a single cell layer thick found at the end of the respiratory bronchiole tree. Alveoli are the site of gas exchange in the respiratory system.

Dynamin a 100 kD GTPase

(ts) mutant of Drosophila shibire paralyzed when put at high temperature. 2)Electron microscopy NO synpvesicles/NO coatvesicles, *lots of coated pits/excess PM Dynamin collars form but cant hydrolyze gtp as mutant: so no pinching NO dynamin-> NO pinched off coated vesicles -> NO recycling so more nt release-> NO movement

Focus on Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis:

*1) Clathrin-mediated -concentrated uptake 2) Calveolae-mediated = another way of REM "little cavities" - calveolin protein

Whate genes

*3) DNA Repair Genes (mutate so can't repair DNA) 1) Proto-oncogenes (mutate to Oncogenes) 2) Tumor Suppressor Genes (mutate to not suppress)

Rh factor

+ means you have the antigen; dominant expression (2 alleles; both must be recessive to be -)

Blood

- a human body contains 4-5 L of blood - composed of both liquid (55%) and cellular components (45%)

Lymphatic System

- a secondary circulatory system - collects excess body fluids and returns them to the cardiovascular circulation

Hormonal Control

- adrenal medulla exerts hormonal control via epinephrine (adrenaline) secretion - causes an increase in the heart rate

Veins

- are relatively thinly walled - vessels are inelastic - brings deoxygenated blood towards the heart - exception: pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart - much of the blood flow in veins depends on their compression by skeletal muscles during movement rather than on the pumping of the heart - due to gravity, larger veins (those in legs) have valves that prevent back flow Transport mainly deoxygenated blood to the heart, thin-walled, inelastic (stretch out easily, do not recoil); pump blood from lower body via large pressures, can exceed systolic P.

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

- are the oxygen-carrying components of blood - contains approximately 250 million molecules of hemoglobin - have a distinct biconcave, disk-like shape - are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow - are anaerobic, obtain ATP via glycolysis - circulate in the blood for about 120 days - 5 million erythrocytes per 1 mm cubic of blood

Blood Type Compatibility

- as a donor/recipient

Blood Flow - Circulation to Heart

- capillaries -> venules -> veins - deoxygenated blood back toward the right side of the heart - blood returning from the lower body & extremities enters the heart via the inferior vena cava - deoxygenated blood from upper head & neck flows through the jugular vein and into the superior vena cava, which leads into the right atrium - blood goes into right ventricle through tricuspid valve

The Heartbeat: Mechanism and Control

- cardiac muscle contracts rhythmically without stimulation from the nervous system - cardiac contraction starts from the sinoatrial node (SA) - impulse arrives at the atrioventricular node (AV), which conducts slowly, allowing enough time for atrial contraction and for the ventricles to fill with blood - impulse then carried by the budle of His (AV bundle) and through Purkinje fibers

Cardiovascular System

- circulatory system that transports respiratory gases, nutrients and wastes to and from cells - composed of: a) a muscular four-chambered heart b) a network of blood vessels c) blood

Connective Tissue

- connective tissue is a supportive tissue consisting of a relatively few cells scattered among a great deal of extracellular material (matrix) - includes adipose tissue (fat), bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and blood.

Heart Contraction: Phases

- divided into two alternating phases: diastole and systole - together makes up the heart beat

Heart Sounds: Lub Dubs

- first heart sound (S1): produced when the two atrioventricular valves close at the start of systole - second heart sound (S2): produced when the two semilunar valves close at the conclusion of systole

Arteries

- have thick walls - muscular and elastic - transport oxygenated blood away from the heart - exception: pulmonary arteries transport deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs Arteries always carry blood away from the heart to lungs and tissues; most contain oxygenated blood; strong, thick walled, elastic (causes high resistance to flow which is why LV needs to generate high pressures).

Capillaries

- have very thin walls - composed of a single layer of endothelial cells across - respiratory gases, nutrients, enzymes, hormones and wastes can readily diffuse through - have the smallest diameter of all three types of vessels - red blood cells must often travel through them in single file

Atrioventricular Valves

- located between the atria and ventricles on both sides of the heart - prevent backflow of blood into the atria

Atrioventricular Node (AV)

- located between the atrium and the ventricle - slows down the impulse so the ventricles have time to fill with blood

Bundle of His (AV bundle)

- located in the middle of the heart - branches into the right and left bundle branches

Purkinje Fibers

- located in the walls of both ventricles - generate a strong contraction

Mitral Valve

- located on the left side of the heart - has two cusps

Tricuspid Valve

- located on the right side of the heart - has three cusps

Autonomic Nervous System

- modifies the rate of heart contraction - parasympathetic system: innervates the heart via the vagus nerve, decreases heart rate - sympathetic system: innervates the heart via the cervical and upper thoracic ganglia, increases heart rate

Granular leukocytes

- nonspecific - attack general invading pathogens - have granules filled with toxins for invading microbes; involved in inflammatory rxns, allergies, pus formation, and destruction of bacteria and parasites

Blood Flow Summary

- right side pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs via pulmonary arteries - oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary veins - blood pumped into the aorta -> arteries -> arterioles -> microscopic capillaries

Coronary Veins & Coronary Sinus

- the first branches off the aorta - return deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart

Blood Composition: Plasma

- the liquid portion of the blood (55%) - an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, wastes, hormones and blood proteins (immunoglobulins, albumin, fibrinogen)

Sinoatrial Node (SA)

- the pacemaker - a small mass of specialized tissue located in the wall of the right atrium - spreads impulses through both atria, making them contract at the same time

Portal Systems

- three special circulatory routes in systemic circulation blood travels through two capillary beds before returning to the heart - location: a) liver (hepatic portal circulation) b) kidneys c) brain (hypophyseal portal circulation)

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

- tools to record electrical impulses in the heart - depolarization will precede cardiac muscle contraction, EKG occurs just before a cardiac contractile event - P wave: occurs right before atrial contraction - QRS complex: occurs right before the ventricles contract - T wave: ventricular repolarization

Ventricles

- two lower chambers of the heart - extremely muscular - left ventricle is more muscular because it's responsible for generating the force that propels systemic circulation and it pumps against a higher resistance

Atria

- two upper chambers of the heart - thin-walled; waiting room for blood - blood received here from body or lungs moved to ventricles

Stroke Volume

- volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per contraction

Leukocytes

- white blood cells, less than 1% blood volume, fight infection - arise from stem cells int the marrow of long bones - larger than erythrocytes - have protective functions - normally there are 5,000-10,000 leukocytes per one mm cubic of blood, but can substantially increase when there is an infection in the body.

Sympathetic Nervous System

-"fight or flight" -Preganglionic use acetylcholine (or also cause the release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla) -Postganglionic use norepinephrine

ElectroCHEMical gradient

-70mV inside

Pupil

-After light passes through the cornea -more light available, greater degree of pupil constriction

Lens

-After pupil -does final focusing of the light

Polysynaptic

-At least one interneuron between the sensory and motor neuron -ex: withdrawal reflex

Cerebellum

-Checks that the motor signal sent form cortex is in agreement with the sensory info coming from the body. -Helps the cortex adjust to new situations -"Quality control agent"

Impulse Propagation

-For a signal to be conveyed to another neuron, the AP must travel down the axon and initiate neurotransmitter release. -As Na+ from the axon hillock rushes in, it will cause depolarization -Causes opening of of Na+ channels along the axon in a wavelike fashion. -Depolarization of membrane to 35+ mV causes the Na+ channels to slam shut just as the potassium channels begin to open.

Hyperpolarization

-Inhibitory inputs -make the cell more negative

Saltatory Conduction

-Insulation of myelin causes membrane to be only permeable to ion movement at the nodes of Ranvier. -Signal hops from node to node

Voltage-gated Ion Channels

-Ions in the membrane that open in response to the depolarization -Respond to voltage -Two types responsible for action potentials: 1. Na+ voltage-gated channels (depolarization) 2. K+ voltage-gated channels (hyperpolarization)

Tight Junctions

-Linkage of protein in two cells like a quilted row -Impermeable so in polarized epithelium low glucose on apical side can only cross by Glu/Na symptort into epi then out via glucose diffusion channel but not inbetween

Stress Fibers keep me grounded(contractile bundles)

-Myosin II fit inbeween alpha-actinin crosslinkers contracile -Focal adhesion complex bind tension rod to integrin which interacts with Fibronectin in ECM (Contractile ring also contracile for cytokinesis)

Cilia/Flagella NOT DYNAMIC both ends capped!!! BEND NOT ROTATE DUE TO LINK PROT

-NOT dynamic mictrotubules - end basal body + end protein cap -9Doublet(a13pf)b11pf) microtubule connected by springy nexin spoke inside +2 normal microtubules -dynein 3 headed A point attached to B of another protofilament to move Activation of "ciliary dynein" motor causes microtubules to bend not rotate (LINKING PROTEINS)

Resting Membrane Potential

-Potential difference between the inside of neuron and the extracellular space -Usually -70 mV

Midbrain

-Relay point between more peripheral structures and the forebrain. -Passes sensory and visual info to the forebrain -Receives motor instrucitons from the forebrain and passing them to the hindbrain.

Hindbrain

-Responsible for many involuntary functions -contains cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata

Exteroceptors

-Responsible for monitoring the external environment -light -sound -touch -taste -temperature

Monosynaptic

-Single synapse between the sensory neuron that received the information and the motor neuron that responds. -ex: knee-jerk reflex

Parasympathetic Nervous System

-Vagus nerve is responsible for many of parasympathetic responses in the thoracic and abdominal cavities -uses ACh for both preganglionic and postganglionic neurons.

Axon hillock

-Where info from the dendrites is integrated -enlargement at the beginning of the axon -where action potential is generated -provides connection between the cell body and the axon

Ciliary muscles

-adjust the thickness of the lens, which focuses the image on the retina

Action Potentials

-all or nothing -relay info to and from the CNS and PNS -cause a release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

Depolarization

-caused by excitatory inputs and amkes the cell less negative -If axon hillock is depolarized to threshold value (-55 mV to -40 mV) an action potential is triggered

Soma

-cell body -includes nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and ribosomes

Four sections of the spinal cord

-cervical -thoracic -lumbar -sacral

Telecephalon

-consists of the left and right hemisphere -each hemisphere can be sectioned into the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes -contains cerebral cortex

Forebrain

-contains the telecephalon and the diencephalon

Semicircular Canals

-important for balance -three in each ear, oriented in each plane (x,y,z) -filled with fluid called endolymph

Hemoglobin

-it is a protein with four heme groups (i.e. has quaternary structure) - can bind up to four molecules of oxygen via iron - adult hemoglobin consists of 2β chains and 2α chains

Ossicles

-malleus -incus -stapes *transmit information through the oval window to the fluid-filled inner ear (cochlea and semicircular canals) where fluid waves depolarize the hair cells of the cochlea

Cones

-manage color images -contains pigment that absorbs a different wavelength of light (red, green, and blue)

Medulla oblongata

-most highly conserved part of the brain. -responsible for modulating ventilation rate, heart rate, and gastrointestinal tone.

Iris

-muscular and pigmented -adjusts the amount of light entering the eye by altering the diameter of the pupil.

Axon

-nerve fiber that is specialized to carry an electrical message -insulated by myelin

Cerebral Cortex

-part of telecephalon -highly convoluted gray matter -responsible for the highest-level functioning in the nervous system, including creative thought and future planning. -Integrates sensory info and controls movement

Myelin

-prevents signal loss -increases speed of conduction in axons

Dendrites

-processes -made to receive info. -transmit this info to the cell body

Schwann cells

-produces myelin in the PNS

Rods

-responsible for transmission of black and white images and respond to low-intensity illumination -have only one pigment, rhodopsin

Nociceptors

-sense pain and relay this info to the brain.

Nodes of Ranvier

-small breaks in the myelin sheath at regular intervals along hte axon membrane. -critical to proper signal conduction

Olfaction

-smell -when odorous substances enter the nasal cavity, they bind to receptors in the cilia, depolarizing the olfactory receptors and travel down axons from the olfactory receptors.

Synaptic cleft

-space between two neurons

Nerve terminal

-synaptic bouton -enlarged and flatted to maximize neurotransmission to the next neuron

Gustatation

-taste -taste receptors are located on the tongue, soft palate, and epiglottis.

NKA

-three Na+ out for every K+ into the cell

Autonomic Nervous System

-two neuron system -involuntary

Cornea

-where light first passes through -bends and focuses light

Antibody-mediated Immune Response (Ab or ab)

1 B Cell: 1 specific Ab IgM "non-secretedBcell + An-> Divide with help to clones plasma and memory->increase ER in B cell with it is AB secreting 1st) IgM membrane-bound 2nd) IgM secreted 3rd) IgG (secreted) Once a B cell starts secreting: billion abs total dies in a few -abs used to bind to measles virus in blood No clonal deletion for self antigens leads to autominue disorders like MS

NLS

1) "Classical" NLS --- ex: SV40 T Antigen and importin 2) PY NLS --- hnRNP and transportin NLS can be anywhere in the protein NLS IS NOT CLEAVED NLS DOESNT MATTER IF ERss on N-term!!! Follow improt via gfp tag

Cancer Therapies

1) Cytotoxic therapy -- kills dividing cells (but develop resistance= MDR) some cause DNA damaging mutations taxol - interferes with microtubules/spindles inhibitors of kinases & effectors - Brian Druker - CML --> Gleevec

Multiple Mutations cause cancer 7

1) Dont need GF to divide 2. Dont need adherence to divde 3. Disorganzied actin skeletion 4. No density dep inhibition 5. No Apoptosis 6. Immoratal no sensces due to high telomerase 7. Bad DNA repair

Why Add Oligosaccharides? 5 reasons

1) Folding/Qual contro 2. Prevent degradation in proteosome 3) water soluble. 4) Target to Lys (M6->M6P)

Dynein faster to the centrosome (+ to - motor moves towards inside the cell)

1) Organelles move all the time. 2) Chromosomes move at mitosis. CARGO: 1. Golgi 2. Er to golgi via COPII anterograde vesicles

Passive Transport

1) Uncharged molecule=only concentration 2) Charged molcule=concentration AND charge matter) -70mv inside

Mitochondrial protein import (the 90% made outside)

1) Unfolding via Hsp70 & ATP posttrasnlational in cytoplasm 2) The Translocation Channel TOM/TIM thread unfolded protein and mito-Hsp70 keeps it unfolded inside 3) Protease in mito matrix cuts off mitoSS 4) Mito Hsp60 helps refold protein inside

Water sol vs Lip sol signals

1) Water-soluble signals c) usually use "2nd messengers" d) broken down quickly --> a short half-life They mediate short responses = seconds to minutes 2) Lipid-soluble signals (ex: steroids/thyroxin) f) Induce a very stable change = hours to days They induce a slow and long-lasting cellular change. MOST Steroid Receptors are actually transcription factors Lipid soluble hormones alter the pattern of gene expression.

Blood Composition: Cellular Components

1) erythrocytes 2) leukocytes 3) platelets

George Palade's conclusions

1)The ER is all secreted protein synthesis. 2) The pathway of regulated secreted proteinsynthesis is: ER->Golgi->immature zymogen (stop here if regulatory) ->Secretory granule fuse with PM to secrete 3) Secreted proteins never found free in the cytop **Polarized, typical cell er is spread out

Organelles

1)compartmentalized 2) structure

Mitochondrial protein synthesis (90% mito protein made in cytosol)

1,Organelle-specific translocation machinery (TOM TIM Hsp70, mt hsp70, hsp60) 2.Mitoss MUST BE AT N TERMINUS -20-80 aa with helix half ++/hydrophob

What are some oncogenes 3 oncogenes Type 1: src, erbB(tyrosinse kinase), gasp(gtpa) mutation so cascade always on Type II: myc promotor ecess

1. (Type 1)erbB= EGF receptor no lbd so tyrosine kinase is always on/always dividing myc 2. (Type 1) Gasp(mutant effector since only in some cell types)= pit/thyroid/ GTP always on alpha so always dividing myc 3.(Type II) myc= myc promotor mutation, excess myc, excess cdk2/cyclin e/excess divison

Na+-K+ Drives

1. 2 subunit 100kd TM protein + 45kd assoc protn 3. 100kd binding sites Na ATP(inside), K/Oubain(outside), 4. Oubain inhibit by binding to K site (on extracellular side of cell) 5. ATP split (100 atp/s= 300na out 200k in

Setting up ion gradient Conformation change of Na K driven by phosporylation/dephos

1. 3 Na bind inside 2. ATP hydrolysis and Autophosporylation 3. 3Na release outside 4. 2 K bind outside 5. Autodephosphorylation 6. 2 K release inside

Voltage gated ion opening

1. AP sequention opening Na chanel wave 2. Nerve terminal Na opens Ca2+ synpatic ves reslease 3. NT bind ligand gated chanel on msucle na inside contract

Phagocytes recognize and remove:

1. Antigen-antibody complexes 2. Virally-infected cells 3. Tumor cells 4.Transplant cells

Endosymbiont Theory (THE OTHER 10% GENE)

1. Circular genome 2. Not packaged by histones 3. rRNA encoded by mitochondria is more similar to bacterial rRNA 4. Own genetic code 5. Size shape like bacteria 5. Evolution allowed genes into euk nuc

Noncellular Stuff in ECM

1. Collagen 2. Elastin 3. GAGS + Proteoglycans 4. Fibronectin

How is cell division regulated in multicell organism by growth factor

1. Epithelium lung skin gut continous 2. Liver pancrease rare 3. RBC diff never Variation of cell cycle length in G1 Go stimulated to divide if damaged Cardia cell arrested in G2 GROWTH FACTORS!!! EGF: Epidermal GF binds HER2 PDGF: fill damaged gap via platlet sec

Microtubule Functions

1. Highway for organelle ie mito/sec ves 2. Form ER Network/Place Golgi 3. Mitotic Spindle chrom mov *4. Cilia (epithelium) *5. Flagella (protazoan/sperm)

It Can Take 8Mutations To Make A Fully Cancerous Cell.

1. Immortal 2. Adherance independence 3/4. Loss cell cycle control 5/6. Chew basal lamina into blood invasiveness 7. Stick and grow metastasis 8. Stimulate VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) angiogensis

Import Receptors

1. Importin ="Classical" import NLS -adaptor α binds the NLS -β binds to the FGs & Ran/Alpha 2. Transportin-mediated import= PY NLSs no adaptor RNA-binding proteins, like hnRNPs 3. Snurportin

Na+-K+ ATPase controls 4 things

1. Ion concentration of cell 2. membrane potential across PM 3. Cell VOLUME!!! (if no na K cell explode na flow in with h20) 4. Drive active trasnport of aa, glu, nucleotides 1/3 of cell energy used in NaK ATPase 2/3 in neuron brain

THE DIFFERENT FUNCTIONAL DOMAINS OF THE β-ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR:

1. Ligand bind charged res 2. G protein bind 3rd loop 3. Receptor is desenitized by PKA phosphoylating where G prtein usually binds turned down action of protein phosphatases/hydrolysis of the GTP on the α subunit

All biological membranes

1. Made of lipids & protein 2. Held together by noncovalent bonds

TIMS MiT******

1. No diff in polymerization or depolymerization rate 2. Catastrophe in mitotic cyt increase 5x 3. 5x shorter mt length

6 ECM FUNCTIONS

1. O2&Nutrient diffusion 2. Growth factor diffusion 3. Immune/fibroblast migration 4. Increase strength(collagen) flexibility (elastin) uncompressibility (GAG/proteoglycan) 5. Cell regeneration template for neurons (ie where do i grow!!) 6. Mark tissue location (ECM varies in diff tissues normal cells prefer own organs ecm :)

Non-contractile (myosin I and fimbrin) Actin Bundle

1. Parallel actin filaments. 2.Short crosslinker = fimbrin 3. Myosin cannot fit between, so it's a non-contractile bundle

Mitochondrial Lipids (2 Places

1. Phospholipid exchange proteins take it from ER 2. Cardilipin made in inner membrane with 4-FA tail lower perm to protein/20% comp

3. Target the vesicle to the correct compartment

1. RabGTP bind SPECIFIC Rab effector 2. VSnare fusion of plasma by stalk Golgi's TSnare 3. Fuse of cis golgi ONLY

2. Uncoating.

1. SAR GTP now GDP and tail pop into SAR out of vesicle 2. SAR come off 3. COPII coat come off

1. Form a vesicle from ER lumen

1. SARGTP attracts-COPII 2.Exit signal bind cargo 3.Rab GTP- correct conformation of VSNARE 4. Bud:D

Basic ER Functions

1. Source of integral membrane proteins. 2. Source of all secreted proteins. 3. Source of ER, Golgi, and lysosomal resident proteins. 4. Source of lipid synthesis. 5. Store Ca++. 6. Protein folding 7. Initial glycosylation 8. Quality control.

Biological membrane fluidity achieved by

1. Temperature 2. Lipid Type Unsaturated & Short is fluid Saturated & Long is stiff (dense interactions) 3. Cholesterol

4 Types of Cell Junctions***

1. Tight Junction Impermeable + Divide P.M. domains 2. Adhesion/Contractile Belt Link Actin CS + STRENGTH 3. Desmosomes Link Int Fil CS + STRENGTH 4. Gap Junctions a.Electricle coupling in heart/brain/muscle b.Chemical coupling in fish pigment(cAMP diffusion)/pancreas secretion ALL USE CAMS (Ca sensitive adhering proteins)

Evidence of Bilayer

1. X-Ray Diffraction (dense light dens) 2. Tranmission EM Osmium+RBC (Railroad 2nm in between tract) 3. Freeze fracture down middle

CO2 is carried in what form in the body to the blood

1. in physical solution; 2. as bicarbonate ion and; 3. in carbamino compounds (combined with hemoglobin and other proteins).

Microtubule Function to

1. placement of golgi 2. transport memb bound organelles in cell (Ie neuron mitochondria head to toe via motors so not 8 years)

Contractile ( myosinII and alpha actinin ) Actin Bundle

1.Anti-parallel filaments. 2.long crosslinker = α-actinin. 3.Myosin can fit between, so the bundle is a contractile bundle

Cell-mediated Immune Response - T cells Killer T cells, MHC

1.EACH T CELL RECEPTOR ONLY RECOGNIZE 1/ CD* recognizes MHC1 matching 2. Kill by secreting perforin punch holes 3. If bind T cell life is elongated, if no bind will die in few days

Targeting to the ER

1.ERss at n term 30 aa in sytosol 2. SRP bind ERss stop transcription 3. SRP bind SRP receptor + 2 GTP 4. Ribosome on translocon transcription restart 5. Slide out 6. SIGNAL PEPTIDASE CLEASE ERss

Types of Signaling

1.Endocrine signaling 2. Paracrine signaling ( short, neuromuscular junction/embryogensis) 2a. Synaptic Signaling NMJ) 3. Autocrine signaling self tumor/immune cell) 4. PM protein attached (Infected cell bind t cell to alter action) 5. Pheromone signaling mating, dominance, air, water)

Microvilli (non-contractile bundles)

1.Epithelial cell to increase surface area 2.Stereocilia bent by sound waves ope adjacent stereocilium. Fimbrin cross linkers and Myosin I for stab

Export Receptors

1.Exportin 1 = Exportin1/CRM1 Leu NES Cargo RanGTPEXPORTINNES -> Exporting + RanGDP + NES 2. CAS = alpha subunit for importin 3. Exprotin t = trna

Types of G Proteins******************************

1.Gs-all->++ Ac (as Bs gs) 2.Gi-all-> -- Ac (ai Bi gi) 3.Rhodopsin->Gt-> Transducin 4.Golf-> more pseudo in human many 5. Ggust-> gustducin sweet bitter umami 6. Gq(ALL CELLS)-> Phospholipase C PLC-> `PLC->DAG(->PKC+Ca) PLC-> PIP2> IP3( increase Ca in cell by binding IP3 gated channel on ER) Ca-> Ca+Calmodulin-> CAM dependent Protein Kinase_>act/inact protiens

Inclusion-cell Disease (I-cell Disease) NO M6P!!!!!! All lysosomal enz misisng except in liver

1.Mutant in GlcNAc phosphotransferase no M-6-P 2.All hydrolases are secreted 3.Thus lysosomes have no enzymes 4.Lysosomes build up junk inside 5.Causes retardation, skeletal deformaties.

4. Controlled fusion of the vesicle to the target organelle.

1.NSF unpairs snares to recycle 2.Rab GDP falls off since tail goes back in 3. cargo now is cis woo5.

Nuclear Envelope 2 bilayers and lamin underneath

1.Outer bilayer is like RER 2.Inner bilayer has pores and binds to lamina 3. Lamins(intermediate filament): 70 Kda proteins (ABC) Laminopathies: Diseases from lamin protein mutants 1) Muscular dystrophies 2) Progeria HGPS Lamin A gene

Nuclear Import

1.Passive Diffusion if less than 40kDa 2.Receptor-mediated transport: More than 40kDa, Ribsomoes/mRNA/tRNA out Histone/Polymerases/Tf come in

Cell endocytosis

1.Receptor-mediated endocytosis nutrition:Cholesterol,Fe (iron),downregulation of GFR 2.Pinocytosis 3.Phagocytosis Macrophages 100% of their PM every 30' 1) eat invading bacteria 2) eat dying or dead RBC cells

Nuclear reconstitution using Xenopus egg extract

1.Sol protein + membranes + chromatin + atp= nuclei in vivo dna, able to import/pores 2. Eukaryotic sequences no needed

Models for Nuclear Import

1.The waving filament model 2. The FG meshwork or gel model 3. The binding sites of increasing affinity

3 lysosomes receive material

1.phagosome 2. late endosome m6p+lysosomal signal patch+erss protein comes via clathrin coated receptor in trans golgi to late endo then lyso 3.autophagosome

The limit of resolution for a light microscope

1/2 wavelength of light Visible light: wavelength=.4-.7um .4um is violet light: min .2um obj .7um is red light: min .35um obj An object larger than .2-.35 affects light wave and is visible An object smaller than .2-.35 is not visible and does not perturbate light wave Smallest object visible with light microscope is mitochondria and small bacteria (400x better than naked eye)

GAGs & Proteoglycans

100s of strings of 80+ sugars attached 10% ECM by weight due to being polar so easily hydrated up with water 1. Resist Compression 2. Allow diffusion of nutrients 3. Take up space

Electron Microscope can see sizes of

1mm-.1nm

Light Microscope can see sizes of

1mm-.35 to .2 um

Cytoplasmic Dynein 2 HEADED FOR MT HIGHWAY NOT FLAGEL/CILIA

2 HEADED (not 3!!) 1) Motor protien 3) hydrolysis to move for golgi localization.mitotic spindle chrom movement 4) attach to cargo via dynactin 5) Keeps Golgi

Mitotic Spindle

2 MTOC (centrosome is the spindle poles) Kinesin 13 no tap motor attach to microtubule with hear to help depolymerize

Immunology Approaches

2) Anti-angiogenic therapy Avastin 3) Antibodies to GFR a)antiHER2 for EGF 4) Vaccines a) Oncept -- inject tyrosinase raise response b)T cells and expose them to cancer cells, then replace in person 5) Inject IL-2 to stimulate the immune system 6) Inject antibody against PD1 Receptor (apoptosis reeceptor on tcell) OR inject ab against the PD1 ligand, a T-cell-inhibiting TO PREVENT THE INHIBITION OF T-CELLS BY THE PD-1 LIGAND PRESENT ON CANCER CELLS!

Post-translational Import

2. NLS= cyto to nucleus 3. mito ss= cyto to mito 4. perox ss= cyto to perox

Nuclear Pores

30 different proteins,multiple copies 1000 proteins total (1000s of pores) 1/3 contain "FG repeats" phenylalanine-glycine FG binding sites for:importin, transportin, snurportin

How many valves does the heart contain?

4

tetrad

4 chromatids that result when a pair of homologous chromosomes synapse during prophase I of meiosis I

What is the normal pH of the blood?

7.4

Vomeronasal organ (VNO):

: a specialized chemosensory epithelium of terrestrial vertebrates

How do things move through the Golgi?

?:Vesicular transport (full antero/full retro) TRUE:Cisternal maturation (full retro(carry back teacher enzymes/ only er->golgi antero copII) One gfp labeled Golgi cisterna, which matures from expressing only early green to only late red

Oogonium

A *precursor* cell that undergoes mitosis during fetal development to produce more oogonium. These cells are then activated to produce primary oocytes, which remain dormant until stimulated to undergo meiosis I during some future menstrual cycle.

What provides the directionality to nuclear import?

A Ran-GTP/Ran-GDP gradient RANGDP OUTSIDE RANGTP ONLY INSIDE 1.RanGEF inside converts rangdp to rangtp when entering (bound to chromatin) 2.RanGAP outside converts rangtp to rangdf when exiting (bound to nucmemb) B binds Ran or Importin alpha

Coccus

A bacteria having a round shape (plural = cocci)

Membrane Transport Proteins

A bacterial Lactose Permease Mutant showed that very specific transport proteins existed since galactose/glucose could come uin but lactose could

Restriction endonuclease

A bacterial enzyme that recognizes a specific DNA nucleotide sequence and that cuts the double helix at a specific site within the sequence.

F (fertility) factor

A bacterial extrachromosal elent that allows the bacterium to initati conjugation. Bacteria that possess teh F factor are known as F+ 'males'.

Endospore

A bacterial structure formed in unfavorable growth conditions. Endospores have very rough outer shells made of peptidoglycan and can survive harsh conditions. The bacterium inside the endospore is essentially dormant and can become active (called germination) when conditions again become favorable.

Bacilus

A bacterium having a rod-like shaped (plural = bacilli).

Spirochete

A bacterium having a spiral shape (plural = spirochetes)

Auxotroph

A bacterium that cannon survive on minimal medium (glucose alone) because it lacks the ability to syntheisze a molecule it needs to live (typically an amino acid). Auxotrphs must ave the needed substance (the auxiliary trophic substance) added to their medium in order to survive. The are typically denoted by teh susbstance they require followed by a "-" sign in superscript. For example, a bacterium that cannot syntehisze leucine would be a leucine auxotroph, and would be indicated as leu- (w/ a superscripth, though)

Epiphyseal plate

A band of carilage (hyaline) found between the diaphysis and epiphyses of long bones during childhood and adolescence. Cell proliferation in the middle of the eiphyseal plate essentially forces teh diaphysis and epiphyses further apart, while the older cartilage at the endes of the plate is replaced with bone. This is waht allows bone growth during childhood. The epiphyseal plate gets thinner and thinner teh older a person gets, until finally it fuses ( the diaphysis and epiphyses connect) in late adolescence, preventing further elongation of teh bones.

Thrombus

A blood clot that forms in an unbrokened blood vessel. Thrombi are dangerous they can break free and begin travelin in the bloodstream (become an embolus). Emboli ultimately become stuck in a small vessel and prevent adequate blood delivery to tissues beyond the sticking point, leading to tissue death. A brain embolism cna lead to stroke, a heart embolism to a heart attack, and a pulmonary embolism to respiratory failure.

Sphygmomanometer

A blood pressure cuff

Fibrinogen

A blood protein essential to blood clotting. The conversion of fibrinogen to its active form (fibrin) is among the final steps in clot formation, and is triggered by thrombin.

fibrinogen

A blood protein essential to blood clotting. The conversion of fibrinogen to its active form (fibrin) is among the final steps in clot formation, and is triggered by thrombin.

Albumin

A blood protein produced by the liver. Albumin helps to mantain blood osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure)

Artery

A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart chambers. Arteries have muscular walls to regulate blood flow and are typically high-pressure vessles.

Vein

A blood vessel that carries blood toward the heart chambers. Veins do not have muscular walls, have valves to ensure that blood flows in one direction only, and are typically low-pressure vessels.

Fascicle

A bundle of skeletal muscle cells. Fascicles group together to form skeletal muscles.

Uniporter

A carrier protein that transports a single molecule across the plasma membrane.

Symporter

A carrier protein that transports two molecules across the plasma membrane in the same direction. For example, the Na+-glucose cotransporter in intestinal cells is a symporter.

Antiporter

A carrier protein that transports two molecules acrss the plasma membrane in opposite directions.

Eukaryotic

A cell characterized by the presence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes can be unicellular (protists) or multicellular (fungi, plants and animals).

Memory cell

A cell produced when a B cell is activated by antigen. Memory cells do not actively fight the current infection, but patrol the body in case of future infection with the same antigen. If the antigen should appear again the future, memory cells are like 'preactivated' B cells, and can initiate a much faster immune response (the secondary immune response).

G-protein linked receptor

A cell surface receptor associated with an intracellular protein that binds and hydrolyzes GTP. When GTP is bound, the protein is active, and can regulate the activity of adenylyl cyclease; this modifies the intracellular levels of second messenger cAMP. When the GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP, the protein becomes inactive again.

Osteoblast

A cell that produces bone.

right atrium

A chamber of the heart that receives oxygen depleted blood from the vena cava and pumps through the tricuspid valve into its ventricle.

Retinal

A chemical derived from vitamin A found in the pigment proteins of the rod photoreceptors of the retina. Retinal changes conformation when it absorbs light, triggering a series of reactions that ultimately result in an action potential being sent to the brain.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on a postsynaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize slightlly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP). Examples are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, and others.

Interleukin

A chemical secreted by a T cell (usually the helper Ts) that stimulates activation and proliferation of other immune system cells.

Lymphokine

A chemical secreted by a T cell (usually the helper Ts) that stimulates activation and proliferation of other immune system cells.

Autosome

A chromosome that does not determine gender (is not a sex chromosome). Humans have two sex chromsomes and 22 autosomes.

closed circulatory system

A circulatory system in which the oxygen-carrying blood cells never leave the blood vessels

Plaque

A clear area in a lawn of bacteria. Plaques represent an area where bacteria are lysing (dying) and usually caused by a lytic virus.

Cerebrospinal fluid

A clear fluid the circulates around through the brain and spinal cord that helps to physially support teh brain and act as a shock absorber, and taht also exchanges nutrients and wastes with teh brain and spinal cord.

Ganglion

A clump of gray matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the peripheral nervous system.

pharynx

A common passageway for solid food, liquids and air

Peptidoglycan

A complex polymer of sugars and amino acids; the substance from which bacterial ell walls are made.

Lymph node

A concentrated region of white blood cells found along the vessels of the lympatic system.

Adrenergic tone

A constant input to the arteries that keeps them somewhat constricted to maintain a basal level of blood pressure.

Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)

A contact point between the afferent arteriole of the glomerulus and the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron. It is involved in regulating blood pressure.

Dynein

A contractile protein connecting microtubules in the '9+2- arrangement of cilia and eukaryotic flagella. The contraction of dynein produces the characteristic movement of these structures.

Actin

A contractile protein. In skeletal and cardiac muscle, actin polymerizes (along with other proteins) to form the thin filaments. Actin is involved in many contractile activities, such as cyotkinesis, pseudopod formation, and muscle contraction.

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

A cyclic version of adenosine monophosphate, where the phosphate is esterified to both the 5' and 3' carbons, forming a ring. Cyclic AMP is an important intracellular signaling moelcule, often called the 'second messenger.' It serves to activate cAMP-dependent kinases, which regulates the activity of other enzymes in the cell. Levels of cAMP are in part regulated by adenylyl cyclase, the enzyme that makes cAMP, adn the activity of adenylyl cyclase i ultimately controlled by the binding of various ligands to cell surface receptors.

Calmodulin

A cyoplasmic Ca2+-binding protein. Calmodulin is particularly important in smooth muscle cells, where binding of Ca2+ allows calmodulin to activate myosin light-chian kinase, the first step in smooth muscle cell contraction.

Release factor

A cytoplasmic protein that binds to a stop codon where it appears in the A-site of the ribosome. Release factors modify the peptidyl transferase activity of the ribosome, such that a water molecule is added to the end of the completed protein. This releases the finished protein from the final tRNA, and allows the ribosome subunits and mRNA to disassociate.

Signal recognition particle (SRP)

A cytoplasmic protein that recognizes the signal sequences of proteins destined to be translated at the rough ER. It binds first to the ribosome translating the protein with the signal sequence then to an SRP receptor on the rough ER>

Lawn

A dense grwoth of bacteria that covers the surface of a petri dish.

Compact bone

A dense, hard type of bone constructed from osteons (at the microscopic level). Compact bone forms the diaphysis of the the long bones, and the outer shell of the epiphyses and all other bones.

Follicle

A developing oocyte and all of its surrounding (supporting) cells.

Gallbladder

A digestive accessory organ near the liver. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver, and is stimulated to contrat by cholecystokin (CCK).

Zygote

A diploid cell formed by the fusion of two gametes during sexual reproduction.

Spermatogonium

A diploid cell that can undergo mitosis to form more spermatogonium, and can also be triggered to undergo meiosis to form sperm.

Respiratory acidosis

A drop in blood pH due to hypoventilation (too little breathing) and a resulting accumulation of Co2.

Endocrine gland

A ductless gland that secretes a hormone into the blood

Enterokinase

A duodenal enzyme that activates trypsinogen (from the pancreas) to trypsin.

Lysosome

A eukaryotic organelle filled with digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases) that is involved in digestion of macromolecules such as worng organelles or material ingested by phagocytosis.

Clathrin

A fibrous protein found on the intracellular side of the plasma membrane (also associated with the Golgi complex) that helps invaginate the membrane. Typically cel surface receptors are associated with clathrin-coated pits at the plasma membrane binding of the ligan to the receptor trigger invagination (example: cholesterol uptake via lipoprotein endocytosis).

Elastin

A fibrous, connective-tissue protein taht has the ability to recoil to its original shape after being stretche.d Elastin is found in great amounts in lung tissue, arterial tissue, skin, and the epiglottis.

Epiglottis

A flexible piece of cartilage in the larynx that flips downward to seal teh trachea during swallowing.

Blastocyst

A fluid-filled sphere formed about 5 days after fertilization of an ovum that is made up of an outer ring of cells and inner cell mass. THis is the structure that implants in the endometrium of the uterus.

antigen.

A foreign substance that stimulates the body's immune response is called a/an:

Convergent evolution

A form of evolution in which different organisms are placed into the same environment and exposed to teh same selection pressures. This causes the organisms to evolve along similar lines. As a result, they may share functional, but not structural similarity (because they possessed different startgin materials). Convergent evolution produces analogous structures.

Divergent evolution

A form of evolution in which the same organism is placed into different environments with different selection pressures. This causes organisms to evolve differently, to diverge from their common ancestor. The resulting (new) species may share structural (but not necessarily functional) similarity; divergent evolution produces homologous structures.

Conjugation

A form of genetic recombination in bacteria in which plasmid and/or genomic DNA is transferred from one bacterium to the toher through a conjugation bridge.

Mutualism

A form of symbiosis in which both organisms involved benefit from the association.

Oxaloacetate

A four-carbon molecule that binds with the two-carbon acetyl unit of acetyl-CoA to form citric acid in the first step of the Krebs cycle.

Hemoglobin

A four-subunit protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen. Each subunit contains a heme group, a large multi-ring molecule with an iron atom at its center. One hemoglobin molecule can bind four oxygen molecules in a cooperative manner.

Arousal

A function in the reproductive system, controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system, that includes erection (via dilation of erectile arteries) and lubrication.

Orgasm

A function of the reproductive system controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. In males, organs includes emission and ejaculation; in females it is mainly a series of rhythmic contraction of the pelvic floor muscles and the uterus.

Resolution

A function the reproductive system (conrolled by the sympathetic nervous system) that returns the body to its normal resting state after sexual arousal and orgasm.

Hemizygous gene

A gene appearing in a single copy in diploid organisms, e.g. X-linked genes in human males.

Pleiotropic gene

A gene that has effects on several different characteristics.

Desmosome

A general cell junction, used primarily for adhesion.

Fibroblast

A generic connective tissue cell that produces fibers; the progenitor of all other connective tissue cell types.

Testcross

A genetic cross between an organism displaying a recessive phenotype (homozygous recessive) and an organism displaying a dominant phenotype (for whic the genotype is unknown), done to determine the unknown genotype.

Heterozygous

A genotype in which two different alleles are possessed for a given gene.

Homozygous

A genotype in which two identical alleles are possessed for a given gene. The allelles can both be dominant (homozygous dominant) or both be recessive (homozygous recessive)

Ceruminous gland

A gland that secretes a waxy product, found in the external ear canal.

Exocrine gland

A gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Some examples of exocrine gland and their products are sweat glands (sweat), gastric glands (acid, mucus, protease), the liver (bile), sebaceous glands (oil), and lacrimanl glands (tears).

Myoglobin

A globular protein found in muscle tissue that has the ability to bind oxygen. Myoglobin helps to store oxygen in the muscle for use in aerobic respiration (it does not move, just stays there). Muscles that participate in endurance activities (including cardiac muscle) have abundant supplies of myoglobin.

Troponin

A globular protein that ssociated with tropomyosin as part of the thin filament of the sarcomere. Troponin binds Ca2+, which causes the conformaiton change in tropomyosin required to expose the myosin-binding sites on actin and initiate muscle contraction.

Bile

A green fluid made from cholesterol and secreted by teh liver. It is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. Bile isn an amphipathic molecule that is secreted itno the small intestine when fats are present, adn serves to emulsify the fats for better digestion by lipases.

Complement system

A group of blood proteins that bind non-specifically to the surface proteins of foreign cells (such as bacteria), ultimately leading to the destruction of the foreign cell - part of the innate immunity.

Stop codon

A group of nucleotides that does not specify a particular amino acid, but instead serves to notify the ribosome that the protein being translated is complete. The stop codons are UAA, UGA, and UAG. They are also known as nonsense codons.

Dorsal root ganglion

A group of sensory neuron cell bodies found just posterior to the spinal cord on either side. A pair of root ganglia exists for each spinal nerve that expands from the spinal cord. The ganglia are part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

A group of three enzymes that decarboxylates pyruvate, creating an acetyl group and carbon dioxide. The acetyl group is then attached to coenzyme A to produce acetyl-CoA, a substrate in the Krebs cycle. In the process, NAD+ is reduced to NADH. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is the second stage of cellular respiration.

Codon

A group of three nucleotides taht is specific for a particular amino acid, or that specifies 'stop translating'

Cilia

A hair-like structure on teh cell surface composed of microtubules ina '9+2' arrangement (nine pairs of microtubles surrounding 2 single microtubules in the center). Teh microtubules are conneted with a contractile protien called dynein. Cilia beat in a repetitive sweeping motion, which helps to move substances along the surface of the cell. They are particularly important in the respiratory system, where they sweep mucus out of the trachea and up to the mouth and nose.

Spermatid

A haploid but immature cell resulting from the second meiotic division f spermatogenesis. Spermatids undergo significant physical changes to become mature sperm (spermatozoa).

Secondary oocyte

A haploid cell resulting from the first meiotic division of oogenesi (not that the cytoplasmic division in this case is unequal, producing one large cell with almost all of they cytoplasm - the secondary oocyte- and one smaller cell with virtually no cytoplasm - the first polar body.). The secondary oocyte (along with some follicular cells) is released from the ovary during ovulation.

Tropomyosin

A helical protein that winds around actin helices in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells to form the thin filament of the sarcomere. In the absence of Ca2+, tropomyosin covers the myosin-binding sites on actin and prevents muscle contraction. When calcium is present, a conformation change in tropomyosin occurs so that the myosin-binding sites are exposed and muscle contraction can occur.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A highly specific cellular uptake mechanism. The molecule to be taken up must bind to cell surface receptor found in a clathrin-coated pit.

Pupil

A hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball. The diameter of pupil is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of the light.

Steroid hormone

A hormone derived from cholesterol. Steroids are generally hydrophobic and can easily cross the plasma membrane of cells, thus receptors for steroids are found intracellularly. Once this steroid binds to its receptor, the receptor-steroid complex acts to regulate transcription in the nucleus.

Peptide hormone

A hormone made of amino acids (in some cases just a single, modified amino acid). Peptide hormones are generally hydrophilic and cannot cross the plasma membranes of cells, thus receptor for peptide hormones must be found on the cell surface. An exception is thyroxine, which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily. Binding of a peptide hormone to its receptor usually triggers a second messenger system within the cell.

Erythropoietin

A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.

Epinephrine

A hormone produced and secreted by teh adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases teh effects of the sympathetic nervous system.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increases serum calcium levels. It targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption).

Calcitonin

A hormone produced by the C-cells of the thyroid gland that decreases serum calcium levels. It targets teh bones (stimulates osteoblasts), the kidneys (reduces calcium reabsorption), and the small intestine (decreases calcium absorption).

Calcitriol

A hormone produced from vitamin D that acts in essentially the same manner as parathyroid hormone.

Gastrin

A hormone released by teh G cells of the stomach in the presence of food. Gastrin promotes muscular activity of the stomach as well as secretion of hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, and mucus.

Growth hormone

A hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body. Growth hormone stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents, adn increases cell turnover rate in adults.

Oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH

A hormone released from the hypothalamus that triggers the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH.

Prolactin

A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that tarets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce breastmilk.

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A hormone secreted by the samll intestine (duodenum) in response to the presence of fats. It promotes release of bile from the gallbladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreas,and reduces stomach motility.

Secretin

A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to low pH (e.g., from stomach acid). It promotes the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas to act as a buffer.

Enterogasterone

A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to the presence of food. It decreases the rate at which chyme leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine.

Tropic hormone

A hormone tha tcontrols the release of another hormone.

Lipid

A hydrophobic molecule, usually fomred from long hydrocarbon chains. The most common forms in which lipids are found in the body are as triglycerides (energy storage), phospholipids (cell membranes), and cholestero (cell membranes and steroid synthesis).

Gap junction

A junction between cells, consisting of a protein channel called a connexon on each of the two cells that connect to form a single channel between teh cytoplasms of both cells. Gap junctions allow small molecules to flow between teh cells, and are important in cell-to-cell communication, for example, in relaying the action potential between cardiac muscle cells, and relaying nutrients between osteocytes.

Myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK)

A kinase in smooth muscle cells activated by calmodulin the presence of Ca2+. As its name implies, this kinase phosphorylates myosin, activating it so that muscle contraction can occur.

Syncytium

A large multinucleate cell, typically formed by the fusion of many smaller cells during development (e.g. a skeletal muscle cell), or formed by nuclear division in the absence of cellular division.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A large system of folded membranes within a eukaryotic cell that has ribosomes bound to it, giving a rough appearnce. These ribosomes synthesize proteins that will ultimately be secreted from the cell, incorporated into the plasma membrane, or transported to the Golgi apparatus or lysosome.

Graafian follicle

A large, mature, ovarian follicel with a well-developed antrum and a secondary oocyte. Ovulation of the oocyte occurs from this type of follicle.

Macrophage

A large, non-sepcific, phagocytic cell of the immune syste. Macrophages frequently leave the bloodstream to crawl around in the tissues and perform 'clean up' duties, such as ingesting dead cells or cellular debris at an injury site, or pathogens.

Cholesterol

A large, ring shaped lipid found in cell membranes. Cholesterol is the precursor for steroid hormones, and is used to manufacture bile salts.

Hardy-Weinberg law

A law of population genetics that states that the frequencies of alleles in a given gene pool do not change over time. There are five assumptions required for this law to hold true: there must be no mutation, there must be no migration, there must be no random mating between individuals in the population, and the population must be large. A population meeting all of these conditions, in which the allele frequency is not changing, is said to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

Thecal cells

A layer of cells surroudning the granulosa cells of the follicles in an ovary. Thecal cells help produce the estrogen secreted from the follicle during the first phase of the ovarian cycle.

Basement membrane

A layer of collagen fibers that separates epithelial tissue from connective tisse (example of epithelial cells in digestive tract) - they are actual connective tissue.

Dermis

A layer of connective tissue underneath the epidermis of the skin. The dermis contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, sensory receptors, and glands.

Productive cycle

A life cycle of animal viruses in which the mature viral particles bud from the host cell, acquiring an envelope (a coating of lipid bilayer) in the process.

Envelope

A lipid bilayer that surrounds the capsid of an animal virus. the envelope is acquired as teh virus buds out through the plasma membrane of its host cell. Not all annimal viruses possess and envelope.

Action potential

A localized change in a neruon's or musce cell's membrane potential that can propogate itself away from its point of origin. Action potentials are an all-or-none process mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to the threshold potential; opening of the Na+ channels causes a characteristic depolarization, while opening of the K+ channels repolarizes the membrane.

Axon

A long projection off the cell body of a neruon down which an action potential can be propagated.

Pilus

A long projection on a bacterial surface involved in an attachment, e.g., the sex pilus attaches F+ and F- bacteria during conjugation.

Epididymis

A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature.

Flagella

A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.

Spongy bone

A looser, more porous type of bone tissue found at the inner core of the epiphyses in long bones and all other bone types. Spongy gone is filed with red bone marrow, important in blood cell formation.

Synovial fluid

A lubricating, nourishing fluid found in joint capsules.

Appendix

A mass of lymphatic tissue at the befenning of the large intestine that helps trap ingested pathogens.

Chondrocyte

A mature, cartilage cell.

Osteocyte

A mature, dormant osteoblast.

Frank Starling mechanism

A mechanism by which the stroke volume of the heart is increased by increasing the venous return of the heart (thus stretching the ventricular muscle).

Motor unit recruitment

A mechanism for increasing tension (contractile length) in a muscle by activating more motor units.

Glycolipid

A membrane lipid consisting of a glycerol molecule esteried to two fatty acid chains and a sugar molecule.

Supercoiling

A method of DNA protection utilized by prokaryotes in which their large circular chromosome is coiled upon itself.

Synaptic cleft

A microscopic space between the axon of one neuron and the cell body or dendrites of a secon neruon, or between the axon of a neuron and an organ.

Antigen (Ag)

A molecule (usually a protein) capable of initiating an immune repsonse (antibody production).

Disaccharide

A molecule composed of two monosaccharides. Common disaccharides include maltose, sucrose, and lactose.

Polysaccharides

A molecule formed by joining many monosaccharides together. POlysaccharides are typically energy-storage molecules (glycogen in animals, starch in plants) or structural molecules (cellulose in plants, chitin in exoskeletons).

Shapes lipids can form

A monoglyceride is conic and forms a micelle A diglyceride is cyclindriv and forms a lipid biylar Energetically unfavorable to be a plane so sealed compartment via bilayer

Motor unit

A motor neuron and all the all the skeletal muscle cells it innervates. Large motor units are typically found in large muscles (e.g., the thighs and buttocks) and produce fross movements. Small motor untis are found in smaller muscles (e.g. the rectus muscles that controle movements of the eyeball, the fingers) and produce more precise movements.

Frameshift mutation

A mutation caused by an insertion or deletion of base pairs in a gene sequence in DNA such that the reading frame of the gene (and thus teh amino acid sequence of the protein) is altered.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A network of membranes inside eukarytoic cells invovled in lipid synthesis (steroid in gonads), detoxification (in liver cells), and/or Ca2+ storage (muscle cells).

Interneuron

A neuron found completely within the central nervous system. Interneous typically connect sensory and motor neurons, especially in reflex arcs.

Afferent neuron

A neuron that arries information (action potentials) to the central nervous system; a sensory neuron.

Efferent neuron

A neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron.

Bipolar neuron

A neuron with a single axon and a single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory organs; an example is the bipolar neuron in the retina of the eye. - note that one axon may innervate many different muscles, or other things.

Multipolar neuron

A neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system.

Synapse

A neuron-to-neuron, neuron-to-organ, or muscle to cell-to-muscle cell junction.

Bone marrow

A non-bony material that fills the hollow spaces inside bones. Red bone marrow is found in regiosn of spongy bone and is the site of blood cell (red and white) production. Yellow bone marrow is found in the diaphysis (shaft) of long bones, is mostly flat, and is inactive.

Prosthetic group

A non-protein, but organic, molecule (such as vitamin) that is covalently bound to an enzyme as part of the active site.

Virus

A nonliving, intracellular parasite. Viruses are typically just pieces of nucleic aid surrounded by a protein coat.

Angiotensin

A normal blood protein produced by the liver, angiotensin is converted to angiotensim I by renin (secreted by kidney when blood pressur falls). Angiotensin I si further onverted to angiotensim II by ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme). Angiotensin II is a powerful systemic vasocontrictor ans stimulator of aldosterone relase, both of which result in an increase in blood pressure.

Endotoxin

A normal component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Endotoxins produce extreme immune reactions (septic shock), particularly when many of them enter the circulation at once.

Nucleotide

A nucleoside with one or more phosphate gropus attached. Nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) are the building blocks of RNA and are also used as energy molecules, especially ATP. Deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs) are the building blocks of DNA; in these molecules, the ribose is replaced with deoxyribose.

Exon

A nucleotide sequence in RNA that contains protein-coding information. Exons are typically separated by introns (intervening sequences) that are spliced out prior to translation.

Operon

A nucleotide sequence on DNA that contians three elemtns: a coding sequence for one or more enzymes, *a coding sequence for a regulatory protein, and upstream regulatory sequences where the regulatory proteins can bind. An example is the lac operon found in prokaryotes.

Intron

A nucleotide sequence that intervenes between protein-coding sequences. In DNA, these intervening sequences typically contain **regulatory sequences, however, in RNA they are simply spliced out to form the mature (translated) transcript.

Tetrad

A pair of replicated homologous chromosomes. Tetrads form during prophase I of meiosis so that homologous chromosomes can exchange DNA in a process known as 'crossing over.'

Homologous chromosomes

A pair of similar chromosomes that have the same genes in the same order, but may have different versions (alleles) of those genes. One of the pair of chromosomes came from Mom in an ovum, and the other came from Dad in a sperm. Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.

Pharynx

A passageway leading from behind the nasal cavity to the trachea. The pharynx is divided into three regions, named for their location. The nasopharynx is behind the nasal cavity, the oropharynx is behind the oral cavity, and the laryngopharynx is behind the larynx. The nasopharynx is a passageway for air only, but the oropharynx and laryngopharynx are passageways for both air and food; consequently they are lined with a much thicker layer of cells to resis damage due to abrasion.

Pore

A pathway through a plasma membrane that restrics passage based only on the size of the molecules. Pore are made from porin proteins.

Insulin

A peptide hormone produced and secreted by the Beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin targets cells in the body, especially the liver and muscle, and allows them to take glucose out of gthe blood (thus lowering blood glucose levels).

Glucagon

A peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells, of the pancreas. It tartes primarily the liver, stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood gluocse level.s

Absolute refractory period

A period of time following an action potential during which no additional action potential can be evoked regardless of the level of stimulation. (usually because Na+ channel closed whle K+ efflux)

Universal acceptor

A person with blood type AB+. Because this person's red blood cells possess all of the typical blood surface proteins, they will not display an immune reaction if transfused with any of the other blood types.

Universal donor

A person with blood type O-. Because this person's red blood cells possess none of the typical blood suface proteins, they cannot initiate an immune reaction in a recipient.

Osteoclast

A phagocytic-like bone cell that breaks down bone matrix to release calcium and phosphate into the bloodstream.

Gap phase

A phase in the cycle between mitosis and S phase (G1) or between S phase and mitosis (G2). During gap phases the cell undergoes normal activity and growth; G1 may include preparation for DNA replication and G2 includes preparation for mitosis. Note that non-dividing cells remain permanently in G1, known as Go for these cells.

Enzyme

A physiological catalyst. Enzymes are usually proteins, although some RNAs have catalytic activity.

Melanin

A pigment produced by melanocytes in teh bottom cell layer of the epidermis. Melanin production is increased on sun exposure and helps prevent cllular damage due to UV radiation.

Iris

A pigmented membrane found just in from the lens of the eye. In the center of iris is the pupil, a hole through which light enters the eyeball. The iris regulates the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of light.

Missense mutation

A point mutation in which a codon that specifies an amino acid is mutated into a codon that specifies a different amino acid.

Silent mutation

A point mutation in which a codon that specifies an amino acid is mutated into a new codon that specifies the same amion acid.

Nonsense mutation

A point mutation in which a condon that specifies an amino acid is mutated into a stop (nonsense) codon.

Transversion mutation

A point mutation in which a pyrimidine is substitued for a purine, or vice versa.

Transition mutation

A point mutation in which a pyrimidine is susbstituted for a pyrimidine, or a purine is substituted for a purine.

Gene

A portion of DNA that codes for some product, usually a protein, including all regulatory sequences. Some genes code for rRNA and tRNA, which are not translated.

Chitin

A poysaccharide found in the cell walls of fungi and in the exoskeletons of insects.

Dendrite

A projection of the cell body of a neuron that recieves a nerve impulse form a different neuron and send the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites!

Gyrase

A prokaryotic enzyme used to twist teh single circular chromosome of prokaryotes upon itself to form supercois. Supercoiling helps to compact prokaryotic DNa and make it sturdier.

Ion channel

A protein channel in a cell membrane that is specific for a particular ion, such as Na+ or K+. Ion channels may be constitutively open (leak channels), or regulated (voltage-gated or ligand-gated).

Nuclear pore

A protein channel in the nuclear envelope that llows the free passage of molecules smaller than 60 kD.

ATP synthase

A protein complex foudn in the inner membrane of the mitochondira. It is essentially a channel that llows H+ ions to flow from teh intermembrane space to the matrix (down teh gradeint produced by the enyzmes complexes of the electron transport chain); as the H= ions flow through the channel, ATP is synthesized from ADP and Pi

Integral membrane protein

A protein embedded in the lipid bilayer of a cell. These are typicallly cell surface receptors, channels, or pumps.

Collagen

A protein fiber with a unique triple-helix that gives it great strength. Tissues with a lot of collagen fibers are typically very strong, e.g. bone, tendons, ligaments, etc.

Na+/K+ ATPase

A protein found in the plasma membrane of all cells in the body that uses the energy of an ATP (hydrolyzes ATP) to move three Na+ ions out of the cell and two K+ ions into the cell, thus establishing concentrations gradients for these ions across the cell membrane.

Inhibin

A protein hormone secreted by sustenacular cells of the testes that acts to inhibit the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary.

antibody

A protein that acts against a specific antigen

Peripheral membrane protein

A protein that is associated with the plasma membrane of a cell, but that is not embedded in the lipid bilayer. Peripheral proteins typically associate with embedded proteins through hydrogen bonding or electrostatic interactions.

Keratin

A protein-based substance secreted by cells of the epiderms as they migrate outward. The keratin makes the cells tougher (better able to withstand abrasion) and helps make the skin waterproof.

Pepsin

A protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the chief cells of the gastric glands. Pepsin is secreted in its inactive form (pepsinogen) and is activated by gastric acid. It is unusual in that its pH optimum is around 1-2; most of these enzymes in the body function best at neutral pHs

Saltatory conduction

A rapid from of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from nodde of Ranvier to node of Ranvier.

Proprioreceptor

A receptor that responds to changes in body position, such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle. These receptor allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts.

Thermoreceptor

A receptor that responds to changes in temperature.

Photoreceptor

A receptor that responds to light

transferrin receptor

A recycled receptor protein that binds an iron-carrying protein

Erythrocyte

A red blood cell; they are filled with hemoglobin, and teh function of the erythrocytes is to carry oxygen in the blood.

Acrosome

A region at the head of a sperm cell that contains digestive enzyems which, when released during the acrosome reaction, can facilitate penetration of the corona radiata of the egg, and subsequently, fertilization

Sinoatrial (SA) node

A region of specialized cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium of the heart that initiate the impules of heart contraction; for this reason the SA node is knownas the 'pacemaker' of the heart.

Nucleolus

A region within the nucleus where rRNA is transribed and ribosomes are partially assembled.

Repressor

A regulatory protein that binds DNA at a specific nucleotide sequence (sometimes known as the operator) to prevent transcription of downstream genes.

Reflex arc

A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.

Larynx

A rigid structure at the top of the trachea (so it is part of trachea, I assume) made completely out of cartilage. The larynx has three main functions: (1) its rigidness ensures that the trachea is held open (provides an open airway). (2) the epiglottis folds down to seal the trachea during swallowing, thus directing food the espohagus, and (3) this is where the vocal cords are found (voice production).

Aminion

A sac filled with fluid (aminotic fluid) that surroudns and protects a developing embryo.

Pacemaker potential

A self-initiating action potential that occurs in the conduction system of the heart and triggers action potentials (and thus contraction) in the cardiac muscle cells Tee pacemaker potential is triggered by the regular, spontaneous depolarization of the cells of the conductions system, due to slow inwar leak of positive ions (Na+ and Ca2+). Because the SA node has the fastest leak, it typically reaches the threshold for the pacemaker potential before any other region of the conduction system, and thus sets the pace of the heart.

Baroreceptor

A sensory receptor that responds to hcanges in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic ach that monitor blood pressure.

Mechanoreceptors

A sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances, such as shape changes (being squashed, bent, pulled, etc.). Mechanoreceptors include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells, in the ear, muscle spindles, and others.

Chemoreceptor

A sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and central chemoreceptors (responds to pH changes in teh cerebrospinal fluid).

Nuclear localization sequence

A sequence of amino acids (usually basic) that directs a protein to the nuclear envelope, where it is imported by a specific transport mechanism.

Anticodon

A sequence of three nucleotides (found int he anticodon loop of tRNA) that is complementary to a specific codon in mRNA. The codon to which the anticodon is complementary specifies the amino acid that is carried by that tRNA.

Electron transport chain

A series of enzyme complexes found along the inner mitochondrial membrane. NADH and FADH2 are oxidized by tehse enzymes; the electrons are shuttled down the chain and are ultimately passed to oxygen and to produce water. The electron energy is used to pump H+ out of the mitochondrial membrane; the resulting H+ gradient is subsequently used to drive the production of ATP.

Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system

A set of veins that connect a capillary bed in the hypothalamus (the primary capillary plexus) with a capillary bed in the anterior pituitary gland (the secondary capillary bed). Releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus travel along the veins to directly affect cells in the anterior pituitary.

Lymphatic system

A set of vessels in the body that runs alongside the vessels of the circulatory system. It is a one-way system, with lymphatic capillaries beginning at the tissues and ultimately emptying into the large veins near the heart. It serves to return excess tissue fluid (lymph) to the circulatory system, and filters the fluid through millions of white blood cells on its way back to the heart.

Lag phase

A short period of time **prior to exponential growth of a bacterial population during which no, or very limited, cell division occurs.

Signal sequence

A short sequence of amino aids, usually found at the N-terminus of a protein being translated, that directs the ribosome and its associated mRNa to the membranes of the rough ER where trasnlation will be completed. Signal sequences are found on membrane-boudn proteins, secreted proteins, and proteins destined for other organelles.

Chromosome

A single piece of double-stranded DNA; part of the genome of an organism. Prokaryotes have circular chromosomes and eukaryotes have linear chromosomes.

Incomplete dominance

A situation in which a heterozygot displays a blended version of the pheotypes associated with each allele, e.g. pure-breeding white-flowered plants crossed with pure-breeding red-flowered plants produces heterozygous offspring plants with pink flowers.

Codominance

A situation in which a heterozygote displays the phenotype associated with each of the alleles, e.g., human blood type AB.

Epistasis

A situation in which the expression of one gene prevents expression of all allelic forms of another gene, e.g., the gene for male pattern baldness is epistatic to the hair color gene.

Myofiber

A skeletal muscle cell, also known as a muscle fiber. Skeletal muscle cells are formed from the fusion of many smaller cells (during development) consequently they are very long and are multinucleate.

Polar body

A small cell with extremely little cytoplasm that results from the unequal cytoplasmic divsion of the primary (produces the first polar body) and the secondary (produces the second polary body) oocytes during meiosis (oogenesis). The polar bodies degenerate.

Prostate

A small gland encircling the male urethra just inferior to the bladder (only reproductive structure not paired). Its secretion contain nutrients and enzymes and account for approximately 35% of the ejaculate volume.

Plasmid

A small, extrachromosomal (outside the genome), circular DNA molecule found in prokaryotes.

Tetanus

A smooth sustained muscle contraction, such as occurs in skeletal muscle when stimulation frequency is high enough (this is the normal type of contraction exhibited by skeletal muscle).

Morula

A solid clump of cells resulting from cleavage in the early embryo. Because there is very little growth of these cells during cleavage, the morula is ony about as large as the original zygote.

Telomere

A specialized region at the ends of eukaryotic chromosmes that contains several repeats of a particular DNA sequence. These ends are maintained (in some cells) with the help of a special DNA poymerase called telomerase. In cells that lack telomerase, the telomeres slowly degrade with each round of DNA replication (as the RNA primer, is not replaced and the 5' of the new DNA would not exist); this is though to contribute to the eventual death of the cell.

Operator

A specific DNA nucleotide sequence where transcriptional regulatory proteins can bind.

Golgi apparatus

A stack of membranes found near the rough ER in eukaryotic cells that is involved in the secretory pathway. The Golgi is involved in protein glycosylation (and other protein modification) and sorting and packagin proteins.

Rule of addition

A statistical rule stating that the probability of either of two indpendent (and mutually exclusive) events ocuring is the sum of their individual probabilities minus the probability of them both occuring together.

Rule of multiplication

A statistical rule stating that the probability of two independent events occuring together is the product of their individual probabilities.

Progesterone

A steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the second half of the menstrual cycle Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of a fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy.

Myofibril

A string of sarcomeres with a skeletal muscle cell (hence smaller than myofiber). Each muscle cell contains hundreds of myofibirils.

Poly-A tail

A string of several hundred adenine nucletodies added to the 3' end of the eukaryotic mRNA.

Ligament

A strong band of connective tissue that connets bones to one another.

Cartilage

A strong connective tissue with varying degrees of flexibility. (1) Elastic cartilage is the most flexible, forming structures that reuqire support but also need to bend, such as the epiglottis and outer ear. (2) Hyaline cartilage is more rigid than elastic cartilage, and forms the cartilages of the ribs, the respiratory tract, and all joints. (3) Fibrocartilage is the least flexible of them all, and forms very strong connections, such as the public symphysis and the intervertebral disks.

Nucleoside

A structure composed of a ribose molecule linked to one of the aromatic bases. In a deoxynucleoside, the ribose is replaced with deoxyribose.

Centriole

A structure composed of a ring of nine microtube triplets, found in pairs in the MTOC (microtubule organizing center) of a cell. The centrioles duplicate during the cell division, and serve as the organizing center for the mitotic spindle.

Nucleosome

A structure composed of two coils of DNA wrapped around an octet of histone proteins. The nucleosome is the primary form of packagin of eukaryotic DNA.

Ribosome

A structure made of two protein subunits and rRNA; this is the site of protein synthessis (translation) in a cell. Prokaryotic ribosomes (also known as 70S ribosomes) are smaller than eukaryotic ribosome (80S ribosomes). The S value refers to the sedimentation rate during centrifugation.

Centromere

A structure near the middle of eukaryotic chromosomes to which the fibers of the mitotic spindle attach during cell division.

Somatic Nervous System

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles -motor neuron goes directly to muscle without synapsing

Ejaculation

A subphase of male orgasm, a reflex reaction triggered by the presence of semen in the urethra. Ejaculation is a series of rhythmic contractions of muscles near teh base of teh penis that increase pressure in the urethra, forcing the semen out.

Emission

A subphase of male orgasm. Emission is the movement of sperm (via the vas deferens) and semen into the urtehra in prepartion for ejaculation.

Secondary immune response

A subsequent immune response to previously encountered antigen that results in antibody production and T cell activation. The secondary immune response is mediated by memory cells (produced during the primary immune respone) and is much faster and stronger than the rpimary response, typicaly taking only a dya or less. THis is not long enough for the infection to become established, and symptoms do not appear, thus the person is said to be "immune" to that particular antigen.

Population

A subset of a species consisting of members that mate and reproduce with one another.

Mullerian inhibiting factor (MIF)

A substance secreted by embryonic testes that causes the regression of the Mullerian ducts.

Sudoriferous gland

A sweat gland located in the dermis of the skin. Sweat consists of water and ions (including Na+ and urea) and is secreted with temperatures rise.

nasal cavity

A system of air channels connecting the nose with the back of the throat. It filters, moistens, and warms incoming air.

Portal systems

A system of blood vessels where the blood passes from arteries to capillaries to veins, then through a second set of capillaries, and then through a final set of veins. THere are two portal systems in the body, the hepatic portal system and the hypothalamic portal system.

Endocrine system

A systme of ductless glands taht secrete chemical messengers (into) the blood - has to be into the blood.

Aminoacyl tRNA

A tRNA with an amino acid attached. This is made by an animoacyl-tRNA synthetase specific to the amino acid being attache.d

Vas deferens

A thick muscular tube that connects the epididymis of the testes to the urethra. Muscular contractions of the vas deferns during ejaculation ehp propel the sperm outward. Severing of the vas deferens (vasectomy) results in sterility of the male.

Vitreous humor

A thick, gelatinous fluid found in the posterior segment of the eye (between the lens and the retina). The vireous humor is only produced during fetal development and helps maintain intraocular pressure (the pressure inside the eyeball).

Zona pellucida

A thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte.

Cerebral cortex

A thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the conscious mind, and is functionally divided into four pairs of lobes: the frontal lobes, the parietal lobes, the temporal lobes, and the occipital lobes.

Aqueous humor

A thin, watery fluid found in teh anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and the cornea). THe aqueous humor is constantly produced and drained, adn helps to bring nutrients to the lesn and corena, as well as to remove metabolic wastes

Functional synctium

A tissue in which the cytoplasms of the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing the cells to function as a unit. Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues are examples of functional synctiums.

Exotoxin

A toxin that secreted by a bacterium into its surrounding medium that help the bacterium compete with other species. Some exotoxins cause serious disease in humans (botulism, tetanus, diptheria, toxic shock syndrome).

Sex-linked rait

A triat determined by a gen on either the X or Y chromosomes (the sex chromosomes).

Adrenocoricotropic hormone (ACTH)

A trop hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gand that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to relase corisol and aldosterone.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads. In females LH triggers ovulation and the development of a corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, LH stimulates the production and release of testosteron.

FSH

A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads. In females, FSH stimulates the ovaries to develop follicles (oogenesis) and secrete estrogen; in males, FSH stimulates spermatogenesis.

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the thyroid gland, stimulating it to produce and release thyroid hormone.

Meiosis

A type of cell division (in diploid cells) that reduces the number of chromosomes by half. Meiosis usualy produces haploid gametes in organisms that undergo sexual reproduction. It consists of a single interphase (G1, S, and G2) followed by two sets of chromosomal divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I and II can both be subdivided into four phases similar to those in mitosis.

Chylomicron

A type of lipoprotein; the form in which absorbed fats from the intestines are transported to the circulatory system.

B cell

A type of lymphocyte that can recognize (bind to) an antigen adn secrete an antibody specific for that antigen. When activated by binding an antigen, B cells mature into plasma cells (that secreted antibody) and memory cells (that patrol the body for future encounters with that antigen). - must be activated by Helper T cell also, though.

T cell

A type of lymphocyte. The major subtypes of T cells are the helper T cells (CD4) and the killer T cells (CD8, or cytotoxic T cells). Helper T cells secrete chemicals that help killer Ts and B cells proliferate. Killer T cells destroy abnormal self-cells (e.g., cancer cells) or infected cells.

Point mutation

A type of mutation in DNa where a single base is substituted for another.

Cooperativity

A type of substrate binding to a multi-active site enzyme, in which the bnidng of one substrate molecule facilitates teh binding of subsequent substrate molecules. A graph of reaction rate vs. substrate concentration appears sigmoidal. Noe that cooperativity can be foudn in other situations as well, for example, hemoglobin bind oxygen cooperatively.

Electrical synapse

A type of syanpse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore an action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell, usually in smooth and cardiac muscle. - compared to chemical synapse.

Chemical synapse

A type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from teh axon of a neuron into the ysnaptic cleft where it binds to receptors on the next structure in sequence, either another neuron or an organ.

Leukocyte

A type of white blood cell; leukocytes are either B or T cells and are involved in disease defense.

Hepatic portal vein

A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and gluocse absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system.

Allele

A version of a gene. For example, the gene may be for eye color, and the allels include those for brown eyes, those for blu e eyes, those green eyes, etc. At most, dploid organsims can posses only two alleles for a given gene, one on each of the two homologous chromosomes.

Platelets

A very small blood cell derived from the fragmented cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. Platelets participate in coagulation, wound healing, and inflammation

RNA dependent RNA polymerase

A viral enzyme that makes a strand of RNA by reading a strand of RNa . All prokaryotic and eukaryotic RNa polymerases are DNa dependent; they make a strand of RNa by reading a strand of DNA.

Lytic cycle

A viral life cycle in which the host is turned into a "virus factory" and ultimately lysed to release the new viral particles.

Lysogenic cycle

A viral life cycle in which the viral genome is incorporated into the host genome where it can remain dormant for an unspecified period of time. Upon activation, the viral genome is excised from the host genome and typically enters the lytic cycle.

Bacteriophage

A virus that infects a bacterium.

Retrovirus

A virus with an RNA genome (e.g. HIV) that undergoes a lysogenic life cycle in a host with a double stranded DNA genome. In order to integrate its genome with the host cell genome, the virus must first reverse trasncribe its RNA genome to DNA.

Urea

A waste product of protein dbreakdown, produced by the liver and relased into the bloodstream to be eliminated by the kidney.

Peristalsis

A wave of contraction that sweeps along a muscular tube, pushing substances along the tube (e.g., food through the digestive tract, urine through the ureters, etc.)

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

A, D, E and K

Universal receiver?

AB

Auditory Nerve

AP from hair cells travel to the brain

Antibody-mediated Immune Response (Ab or ab) Antibody diversity

Ab HC/LC in ER 1. Hc variable 2. Lc variable 3. Junctional diversification 4. Somatic hypermutation B cell unique via V D J regional in lc and hc and junctional diversification and hypermutiation in variabkle region only T cell subsunit made with variable gene One α chain and one β chain make up the dimeric receptor

Susumu Tonegawa

Ab diversity due to rearrangement of V/D/J regions of heavy chain gene

Endosomes Acidicc

Acid ph due to atp H pump

Adhesion Belt

Actin belts linked by Ca2+ sensitive CADHERIN DIMERS

Seondary active transport

Active transport that releies on an established concentration gradient, typically set up by a primary active transporter. Secondary active transport relies on ATP indirectly.

Primary active transport

Active transport that relies directly on the hydrolysis of ATP.

4. The ER is the Site of Core Glycosylation

Add to AsnxSer/Thr DURING TRANSLACTION to make glycoprotein via oligosaccharyl transferase

circulatory stem cells

All blood cells differentiate from the same type of precursor, a stem cell residing in the bone marrow

Interphase

All of the cell cycle except for mitosis. Interphase includes G1, S phase, and G2.

Periperal nervous system

All parts of the nervous system except for the brain and spinal cord.

Genome

All the genetic information in an organism; all of an organism's chromosomes.

DNA polymerase

Also called DNA pol, this is the enzyme that replicates DNA. Eukaryotes have a single version of the enzyme, simply called DNA pol (not need to know much detail); prokaryotes have three versions, called DNA pol I, DNA pol II, and DNA pol III.

Interstitial cell

Also called Leydig cells, these are teh cells within testes that produce and secrete testosteron. They are stimulated by luteinizing hormone (LH).

Uterine tubes

Also called falopian tubes, these tubes extend laterally from their side of the uterus and serve as a passageway for the ocyte to travel from the ovary to the uterus. This is also the normal site of fertilization. Severing of the uterine tubes (tubal ligation) results in sterility of the femlae.

Antibody (Ab)

Also called immunoblobins, the antibodies are protiens secreted by B-cells upon activation that bind in a highly specific manner to foreign proteins (such as those found of the surface of pathogens or transplanted tissues). The foreign proteins are called antigens. Antibodies generally do not directly destroy antigens, rather they mark them for destruction through other methods, and can inativate antigens by clumping them together or by convering necessary active sites.

Feedback inhibition

Also called negative feedback, the inhibition of an early step in a series of events by the product of a later step in the series. This has the effect of stopping the series of events when the products are plentiful and the series is unnecesseary. Feedback inhibition is the most common form of regulation in the body, controllin such things as enzyme reactions, hormone levels, blood pressure, body temperature, etc.

Tight junction

Also called occluding junctions, tight junctions form a seal between cells that prevents the movement of substances across the cell layer, except by diffusion through the cell membranes themselves. Tight junctions are found between the epithelial cells lining the intestines and between the cells forming the capillaries in the brain (the blood-brain barrier).

Islets of Langerhans

Also called simply, "islet cells" these are the endocrine cells of the pancreas. Different cell types wihtin the inslets secrete insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin

Thyroxine

Also called thryoid hormone, thyroxine is produced and secreted by follicle cells in the thyroid gland. it targets all cells in the body and increases overall body metabolism.

T tubules

Also called transverse tubules, these are deep invaginations of the plasma membrane found in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. These invaginations allow depolarization of the membrane to quickly penetrate to the interior of the cell.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Also called vasopressin, this hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and secreted by teh posterior pituitary gland. It tartes teh kidney tubules, increasing their permeability to water, adn thus increasing water retention by the body. Also raises blood pressure by inducing moderate vasoconstriction.

Atrioventricular bundle (AV) bundle

Also known as the Bundle of His, this is the first portion of the cardiac conduction system, after the AV node.

Anterioir pituitary gland

Also known as the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of gland tissue and makes and secretes six different homrones: FSH, LH, ACTH, prolactin, TSH, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled b yreleasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus.

Slow block to polyspermy

Also known as the cortical reaction, the slow block invovles an increase in intracellular [Ca2+] in the egg, which causes the release of cortical granules near the egg plasma membrane. This results in the hardening of the zona pellucida and its separation from the surface of the egg, preventing the entry of more than one sperm into the egg.

Alimentary canal

Also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of the digestive tract, the alimentary canal is the long muscular "tube" that includes the mouth esophagus, somatch, small intesitne, and large intestine.

Posterior pituitary gland

Also known as the neurohyophysis, the posterior pituitary is made of nervous tisssue and stores and secretes two hormones made by the hypothlamus; oxtytocin and ADH. The posterior pituitary is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus.

A site

Amino-acyl tRNA site; the site on a ribosome where a new amino acid is added to a growing peptide.

Cofactor

An **inorganic molecule that associates non-covalently with an enzyme and that is required for the proper functioning of the enzyme

Coenzyme

An **organic molecuel taht associates non-covalently with an enzyme, and that is required for the proper functioning of the enzyme.

Primase

An RNA polymerase that creates a primer (made of RNA) initiate DNa replication. DNA pol binds to the primer and elongates it.

Hemophilia

An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood fails to clot properly, leading to excessive bleeding if injured.

Spleen

An abdominal organ that is considered part of the immune system. THe spleen has four functions: (1) it filters antigen from the blood (2) it is the site of B cell maturation, (3) it stors blood, and (4) it destroys old red blood cells.

Plasma cell

An activated B cell that is secreting antibody.

Semen

An alkaline, fructose-rich fluid produced by three different glands in the male reproductive tract and released during ejaculation. Semen is very nourishing for sperm.

Surfactant

An amphipathic molecule secreted by cells in the alveoli (type 2 alveolar cells) tha reducs surface tension on the inside of the alveolar walls. This prevents the alveoli from collapsing upon exhale and sticking together, thus reducing the effort required for inspiration.

Binary fission

An asexual method of bacterial reproduction that serves only to increase the size of the population; ther is no introduciton of gnetic diversity. THe bacterium simply grows in size until it has doubled its cellular components, then it replicates its genone and splits into two.

Resting membrane potential

An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell.

Yolk sac

An embryonic structure particularly important in egg-laying animals because it contains the yolk, the only source of nutrients for the embryo developing inside the egg. IN humans, the yolk sac is very small (since mammals get their nutrients via the placenta) and is the site of synthesis of the first red blood cells.

Creatine Phosphate

An energy storage molecule used by muscle tissue. The phosphate from creatine phosphate can be removed and attached to an ADP to generate ATP quickly.

Noncompetitive inhibitor

An enzyme inhibitor that binds at a site other than the active sit of an enzyme (binds at an allosteric site). THis changes the three-dimensional shape of the enzyme such that it can no longer catalyze the reaction

Competitive inhibitor

An enzyme inhibitor that competes with substrate for binding at the active site of teh enzyme. When the inhibitor is bound, no product can be made.

Carbonic anhydrase

An enzyme present in erythrocytes (as well as in other places) that catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and H2O into carbonic acid (H2CO3).

Renin

An enzyme secreted by the juxtaglomerular cells when blood pressure decreases. Renin onverts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.

Ligase

An enzyme that connects two fragments of DNA to make a single fragment; also called DNA ligase. This enzyme is usedd during DNA replication and is also used in recombinant DNA research.

Topoisomerase

An enzyme that cuts one or both strands of DNa to relieve the excess tension caused by the unwinding of the helix by helicase during replication.

Amylase

An enzyme that digests starch into disaccharides. Amylase is secreted by salivary glands and by the pancreas.

Lysozyme

An enzyme that lyses bacterial cell walls. Lysozyme is produced in the end stages of the lytic cycle so that new viral particles can escape their hosst; it is also found in human tears and human saliva.

Kinase

An enzyme that phosphorylates something else. Kinases are frequently used in regulatory pathways, phosphorylating other enzymes.

Reverse transcriptase

An enzyme that polymerizes a strand of DNA by reading an RNA template (an RNA dependent DNa polymerase); used by retrovirus in order to integrate their genome with the host cell genome.

Apoenzyme

An enzyme that requires cofactors in order to become catalytically active

RNA polymerase

An enzyme that transcribes RNa. Prokaryotes have a single RNA pol, while eukaryotes have three; in eukaryotes, RNA pol I transcribes rRNA, RNA pol II transcribes mRNA, and RNA pol III transcribes tRNA.

Helicase

An enzyme that unwinds the double helix of DNA and separates the DNA strands in preparation for DNA replication.

Inducible enzymes

An enzyme whose transcription can be stimulated by an abundance of its substrate (as opposed to repressible enzyme). Usually in catabolism.

Repressible enzyme

An enzyme whose transcription can be stopped by an abundance of its product (as opposed to inducible enzymes). Usually part of anabolism of product.

Thymus

An immune organ located near the heart. THe thymus is the site of T cell maturation and is larger in children and adolescents.

Autoimmune reaction

An immune reaction directed against normal (necessary ) cells.Fo example, diabets melitus (typeI) is an autoimmun reaction directed against teh beta cells of the pancrease (destorying them and preventing insulin secretion) and aginst insulin itself.

Zymogen

An inactive precursor of an enzyme, activated by various methods (acid hydrolysis, cleavage by another enzyme, etc.)

Capacitation

An incrase in the fragility of the membranes of sperm cells when exposed to the female reproductive tract. Capacitation is required sot aht the acrosomal enzymes can be relased to faciliate fertilization.

Myelin

An insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body. Myelin is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells; Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system, and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system.

Carrier protein

An integral membrane protein that undergoes a conformational change to move a molecule from one side of the membrane to another. See also 'uniporter', 'antiporter', and 'symporter'.

Cell surface receptor

An integral membrane proteint hat binds extracellular signaling molecules, suchas hormones and peptides.

Channel protein

An integral protein that selectively allows molecules across the plasma membrane. See also entries under 'ion channel', 'voltage-gated channel', and 'ligand-gated channel'.

Second messenger

An intracellular chemical signal (such as cAMP ) that relays instructions from the cell surface to enzymes in the cytosol.

Potassium leak channel

An ion channel specific for potassium found in the plasma membrane of all cells in the body. Leak channels are constitutively open and allow their specifi ion to move across the membrane according to its gadient. Potassium leak channels allow potassium to leave the cell.

Leak channel

An ion channel that is constitutively open, allowing the movement of teh ion across the plasma membrane according to its concentration gradient.

Voltage-gated ion channel

An ion channel that is oepend or closed based on the electrical potential across the plasma membrane. Once opened, the channel allows ions to cross the membrane according to their concentration gradients. Examples are the Na+ and K+ voltage-gated channels involved in the action potential of neurons.

Ligand-gated ion channel

An ion channel that is opened or closed based on the binding of a specific ligand to teh channel. Once opened, the channel allows the ion to cross the plasma membrane according to its concentration gradient. An examples is the acetylcholine receptor at the neuromuscular junction, which, when Ach binds, opens a cation channel in the muscle cell membrane.

hemoglobin

An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen.

Inflammation

An irritation of a tissue caused by infection or injury. Inflammation is characterized by four cardinal symptoms; redness (rubor), swelling (tumor), heat (calor), and pain (dolor).

Placenta

An organ that develops during pregnacy, derived in part from the mother and in part from the zygote. The placenta is the site of exchange of nutrients and gases between the mother's blood and the fetus' blood. The placenta is formed during the first three months of pregnancy.

Nucleus

An organelle bounded by a double membrane (double lipid bilayer) called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus contains the genome and is the site of replication and transcription.

Mitochondrion

An organelle surrounded by a double=membrane (two lipid bilayers) where ATP production takes place. The interior (matrix) is where PDC and the Krebs cycle occur, and the inner membrane contains the enzymes of the electron trasport chain and ATP synthase.

Saprophyte

An organism (such as a fungus) that feeds of dead plants and animals.

Obligate anaerobe

An organism that can only survive in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic metabolism); oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobes.

Tolerant anaerobe

An organism that can survive in the presence of oxygen (oxygen is not toxic), but that does not use oxygen during metabolism (anaerobic metabolism only).

Heterotroph

An organism that cannot make its own food, and thus must ingest other organisms.

Haploid organism

An organism that has only a single copy of its genome in each of its cells. Haploid organisms possess no homolous chromosomes.

Diploid organism

An organism that has two copies of its genome it each cell. The paired genomes are said to be homologous.

Prokaryote

An organism that lacks a nucleus or any other memrane-bound organelles. All prokaytes belong to the Kingdom Monera (not protista!)

Autotroph

An organism that makes its own, typically using CO2 as a carbon source.

Chemotroph

An organism that relies on a chemical source of energy (such as ATP) instead of light (which phototrophs).

Obligate aerobe

An organism that requires oxygen to survive (aerobic metabolism only).

Parasite

An organism that requires the aid of a host organism to survive, and that harms the host in the process.

Phototroph

An organism that utilizes light as its primary energy source.

Facultative anaerobe

An organism that will use oxygen (aerobic metabolism) if it is available, and that can ferment (anaerobic metabolism) if it is not.

Pancreas

An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.

Erythrocytes

Another name for red blood cells (RBC) Job is to deliver oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.

Gonadotropins

Anterior pituitary topic hormones FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing homeon) that stimulates the gonads (testes and ovaries) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids.

agglutinate

Antibodies causing antigens to clump or stick together

Immunofluorescence

Antibodies stain Antibodies defense to infection recognizing diff antigen Inject one protein of interest into rabbit to act as antigen and take out the antibodies made to detect the initial protein injected Label those collected antibodies to get a specific stain Fix a cell Permeabilize it (with mild detergent) Add a fluorescently labeled antibody (ANTI-tubuilinprotein) Let it bind to structure (microtubules with tubulin) Wash away excess antibody Look in fluorescence microscope

Which is the larges artery of the human body?

Aorta

Caldarchaeol

Archea span both bilayers 140 degrees

Water Sol signaling Adrenaline One chemical Signal ---> Affects many cells

Arenaline sole purpose SIGNAL! 1) Breakdown glu in liver for all cells and muscle for muscle function 3)Breakdown fat for all cells 4) Increase HR and contraction strength 5)Relax smooth muscle intestine

Respiratory alkalosis

Arise in blood pH due to hyperventilation (excessive breathing) and a resulting decrease in CO2.

Purine bases

Aromatic bases found in DNA and RNA that are derived from purine. They have a double rightn structure and include adenine and guanine.

Pyrimidine bases

Aromatic bases found in DNa and RNA that have a single-ring structure. They include cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

Hypodermis

Aso called a subcutaneous layer, this is a layer of *fat located under the dermis of the skin. The hypodermis helps to insulate the body and protects underlying muscles and other structures.

lymph system

Associated with the Cardiovascular system, include : Lymph nodes, spleen, Thymus, Tonsils

Water-Soluble Vitamins

B Complex and C

Lymphocytes that mature in the spleen or lymph nodes are called _________ and those that mature in the thymus are called _________.

B cells mature in spleen and lymph nodes T cells mature in thymus

What lymphocytes are responsible for antibody generation?

B-cells

Gram-positive bacteria

Bacteria that have a thick peptido glycan cell wall, and no outer membrane. They stain very darkly (purple) in Gram stain.

Gram-negative bacteria

Bacteria that have a thin peptidoglycan cell wall covered by an outer plasma membrane. They stain very lightly (pink) in Gram stain. Gram-negative bacteria are typically more resistant to antibiotics than Gram-positive bacteria.

Properties of membranes

Barrier to isolate process Rigid structure but flexible&dynamic

5 Basic Tissue Types

Blood Cells Muscles Neuronal Tissue Epithelial Tissue** (tightknit cells) Connective Tissue** (ECM+ few cell)

Leukocytes

Blood cells involved in defending the body against infective organisms and foreign substances., Alternate name for white blood cells

Blood Groups/Antigens Chart

Blood has either antigen OR antibody. NEVER BOTH *You could always donate to yourself and AB+. *You could always receive from yourself and O-.

lowered pH, which shifts the curve to the right is known as the...

Bohr Effect

Cell-mediated Immune Response - T cells Helper T cells Aids binds cd4 kills so no b cell or t cell respose

CD4 Helper T bind MHC II on specific immune presenting will secrete IL2 to self IL2 to Killer CD8 T BCGF/BCDF to B cell

S Phase Check Point

CDK1 phos by Kinase ATR until all rep fork done so no Mitosis until DNA rep complete

Different Golgi compartments have different enzymes that process N-linked oligosaccharides

CIS: M6P TRANS: SORT

Why is cyanide deadly

CN bind proton pump, stops etc, decays proton gradient, ATP cant be made, cells die from lack of energy

Efferent Neurons

CNS to PNS

Mixed Nerves

Carry both sensory and motor information

Parietal cells

Cells found in gastric glands that secrete hydrochloric acid (for hydrolysis of ingested food) and gastric intrinsic factor (for absorption of vitamin B-12).

plasma cells

Cells that develop from B cells and produce antibodies.

stem cell

Cells that divide and remain undifferentiated. Three types are totipotent, pluripotent, and multi-potent.

Sertolli cells

Cells that form the walls of the seminiferous tubules and help in spermatogenesis Sertoli cells are also called susenacular cells.

Acinar cells

Cells that make up exocrine galnds, adn that secrete their products into ducts. For example, in the pancreas, acinar cells secrete digestive enzyme; in the salivary glands, acinar cells secrete saliva.

Antigen presenting cell

Cells that possess MHC II (B cells and macrophages) and are able to display bits of ingested antigen on their surface in order to activate T cells. See also "MHC"

killer T cells

Cells that stop the spread of disease with in the body by releasing toxins that destroy abnormal and infected cells.

MTOC CENTROSOMES:

Centrsome 2 Centrioles(perpendicular) and GammaTURC ring per 1 mt alpa - end in pericentriolar material

left atrium

Chamber that receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps it into systemic circulation.

Olfactory receptors

Chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that respond to odo chemicals.

Gustatory receptors

Chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in a food.

Cilia and mucus

Cilia moves the mucus and dust back toward the pharynx, so that it may be removed by spitting or swallowing

Microtubules cilia

Cilia on ciliated epithelium move particles over cells a) throat (cough etc) b) oviduct (infertilbity) MTOC= basal body - end at basal body + end at tip

pulmonary circulation.

Circulation of blood between the heart and the lungs

Barbara Pearse

Clathrin coated vesicles 3 copies of 2 proteins triskelion cages of coated vesicle

3 Types of Coated Vesicles

Clathrin: sort to lysosome/endocytosis COPI: Retrograde: Golgi and Golgi to er COPII: Anterograde: ER to golgi only

Steve Hedrick

Clone T cell receptor

cDNA

Complementary DNA. DNA produced synthetically by reverse trascribing mRNA. Because of eukaryotic mRNA splicing, cDNA contains no inrons.

Loose connective tissue

Connective tissue that lacks great amount of collagen or elastic fibers (hence, loose), e.g., adipose tissue and areolar (general connective) tissue.

Dense connective tissue

Connective tissue with large amounts of either collagen fibers (making them strong) or elastic fibers, or both. Dense tissues are typically strong (e.g. bone, cartilage, tendons, etc.)

electrical synapses

Contains gap junctions that permit the action potential to move directly from cell to cell

Monomeric GTPase active when gtp***

Control actin cytoskeleton I get stressed when Rhowing Rack up the c(l)amel cdc 42 filipodia 1.Rho= stress fiber (Myosin2 +contractile mundle lots of focal contacts) 2.Rac=Lamellipodia (Actip network Arp2/3 no focal contacts) 3.cdc42=Filipodia (noncontractile acitn bundle with focal contacts)

Experiment 2/ Figure 2

Control: Use CTX and resistance rapidly developed, targeting highly mutagenic tumor cell rapidly leads to resistance

1.ER = Site of Protein Folding

Corect folding or else trapped used charperones and glyocosylation( secretory)

Through which pathway is oxygen and nutrients supplied to the heart?

Coronary Arteries

Vagus nerves

Cranial nerve pair X. The vagus nerves are very large mixed nerves (They carry both sensory input and motor input) that innervate virtually every visceral organ. They are especially important in transmitting parasympathetic input to the heart and digestive smooth muscle.

Cyclin CDK complex

Cyclin regulatory CDK is hammer Mitotic Kinase = CDK1/cyclinB G1/S phase Kinase = CDK2/cyclinE

Cellular Changes CDK1/Cylin

Cyclin rise at S to M and fall CDK constant CDK1/Cylin kinase full at M Phosphorylates: 1. Pore disassemble 2. Lamin dissassemble 3. Chromosome condense via phosH1 4. Tfactor shut down transcription 5. Kinase X break nuclear envelope 6. Kinase X 5x gtpase mt catastrophe

Where are lipids made

Cytoplasmic side of ER bilayer

Intermediate filaments

Cytoskeletal filaments with a diameter in between that of the microtubule and the microfilament. Intermediate filaments are composed of many different proteins and tend to play structural roles in cells.

Theta replication

DNA replication in prokaryotes, so named because as replication proceeds around the single, circular chromosome, it takes on the appearnce of the Greek letter theta.

Semiconservative replication

DNA replication in which each of the parental strands is read to make a complementary daughter strand, ethus each new DNa molecule is composed of half the parental molecule paired with a newly synthesized strand.

Heterochromatin

DNA that is densely packed around histones. The genes in heterochromatin are generally inaccessible to enzymes and are turned off.

Euchromatin

DNA that is loosely packed around histones. This DNA is more accessible to enzymes and the genes in euchromatin can be activated if needed.

Anti Angiogenesis

Decrease chance of tumor resistance by targeting human endothelial cells (supply o2nut) since emote genetically stable, antigen inhib do not induce drug res, rate of tumor growth does not change and response is same whether it is first time or firth, repeated endostatin causes tumor dormancy for longer periods of time Angiogeneis is new blood vessel growth for healing

pulmonary veins

Deliver oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Primary spermatocytes

Diploid cells resultinf rom the activation of a spermatogoium; primary spermatocytes are ready to enter meiosis I. remember: cyte means ready to undergo meiosis.

Primary oocytes

Diploid cells resulting from the activation of anoogoium; primary oocytes are ready to enter meiosis I. remember: cyte means ready to undergo meiosi

Tim Mitchison

Dynamic instability mitotic cytosol 5x catastrophe rate

Fibronectin

ECM Collagen-FN-IntegrinSTRESSFIBER+MyosinII-SF-Integrin-FN-CollageECM

2) E Site of disulfide bond formation

ER and downstream is oxidizing environment until cytosol so disulfide bonds can form to keep folded

Co-translational Import

ER ss= ERss in cyto protien in ER to Golgi, Lysosome, PM protein, Secreted

Mullerian ducts

Earlier embryonic ducts that can develop into femal internal genitalia in the absence of testosteron.

Wolffian ducts

Early embryonic ducts that can develop into male internal genitalia under the proper stimulation (testosterone).

Transmission EM

Electron Gun 50k-100k Volt e Condensor Sanple Objective Lens Monitor (Flipped upside down light microscope with a monitor) Can see DNA,ribosomes, proteins

In order to see .2-.35um TEM

Electron Microscopy CELERATED electrons at 50k volts wave wavelength of .005nm NOT .0025nm it is .1nm due to technical problems 400x better than light microcope

Experiment to reveal characteristics of lipids in bilayers

Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy Add nitroxl group to phospolipd which has unpaired electron broad peak Phospholipids can rotate Phospholipids move laterally NO FLIP FLOP DUE TO POLAR HEAD 2D liquad

Driving Active Import of Glu AA Nucleotides

Energy stored in Na grad drive transp of other molec into cell 2Na/1Glu Symporter (Glu up grad/Na down grad) All driven are higher inside cell so transport is against concentration gradient

Brush border enzymes

Enzymes secreted by the mucosal cells lining the intestine. The brush border enzymes are disaccharides adn dipeptidases taht digest the smallest peptides and carbohydrates into their respective monomers.

Acid hydrolases

Enzymes that degrade various macromolecules and that require an acidic pH to function properly. Acid hydrolases are found within the lysosomes of cells.

four main tissue types?

Epithelial, Connective, Nervous and Muscle tissues - Connective tissue supports other tissues and binds them together (bone, blood, and lymph tissues) - Epithelial tissue provides a covering (skin, the linings of the various passages inside the body). - Muscle tissue includes striated (also called voluntary) muscles that move the skeleton, and smooth muscle, such as the muscles that surround the stomach. - Nerve tissue is made up of nerve cells (neurons) and is used to carry "messages" to and from various parts of the body.

Nuclear Shuttling

Ex: glucocorticoid receptor - goes in only when hormone is present (import) NLS and comes out when hormone is gone (export) NES

EPSP

Excitatory postsynaptic potential; a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential.

Kinesin slower to the PM - to + motor moves to PM

Exp: Squin neuron squeeze out 1. - to + motor 2. ATP hydrolysis 3. Towards PM 4. Dimer coiled coil Kinesiin 1/2: Organelle transport/ stretches out ER towards PM Kinesin 13: Mit spindle depolym

Platelets

Extremely small pseudo-cells in the blood, important for clotting. They are not true cells, but are broken-off bits of a larger cell (a megakaryocyte).

Light Microscope

Eye Eyepiece magnify 10x Objective lens magnify 10-100x Sample Condenser Lens focuses on sample Light Source

How to tell if membrane protein can move around

FRAP- Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching Determnine mobility of GFP labeled membrane protiens in bilyarer if bleach spot recovers quickly GFP highly mobile IF bleach spot does not recover quickly GFP labeled proteins immobile ie tethered to something like nuclear lamina

Smell OF Fear Experiment 1

Figure A is the setup for the experiment Mice are attracted to the control odors and avoid the cat odors Higher risk assessment with the cat odor TrpC2 is required for the mice to display risk assessment and risk avoidance Figure 1c Measured ACTH concentration which increased in response to a physical restraint (positive control) and cat odor compared to negative control Figure 1d Risk Assessment behavior to rat and snakes, two other predators Figure 1e Showed that rabbit did not cause a fear response Figure 1f Naphthalene caused risk avoidance but not risk assessment Conclusion WT mice showed fear induced behaviors TrpC2 mice did not display the same predator induced behavior as WT mice did VNO is necessary to induce fear related behavior in mice from kairomones from another species Other sensory cues are not sufficient to signal danger to mice and those detected by the VNO are necessary to induce fear responses between species Risk avoidance is specific to predators. When exposed to naphthalene, mice display strong risk avoidance behavior even when TrpC2 -/-

Fimbriae

Fingerlike projection of the uterin (fallopian) tubes that drape over the ovary.

Elastin- 3 places

Flexibility Super random coil recoils into random position again 5x strechier than rubber band 1. Skin- shape retention 2. Blood vessels exp/cont 3. Lung air sac (emphysema elastase ruins elastin so air sac filled up with air and cant contract it out:( )

Basic structure of cell membranes

Fluid Mosaic Model

What is blood pressure a measure of?

Force/unit area on blood vessel walls; same as pressure P = F/A. bp = systolic P/ diastolic P sphygmomanometer measures gauge P in systemic circulation (P above atmospheric).

Lower esophageal sphincter

Formerly called the cardiac sphincter, this sphincter marks the entrance to the stomach. Its function is to prevent reflux of acid stomach contents into the esophagus; note that it does ***not regulate entry into the stomach*.

See 3D, lifelike, AND good res Freeze Etch EM- 5 steps helium

Freeze cell in liquid helium (-300C) Fracture with knife ETCH AWAY H20 with VACUUM Coat with metal View Example Clathrin-coated pits(good preservation, no artifacts, lots of detail)

See 3D but more lifelike Freeze Fracture EM-4 steps nitro

Freeze cell in liquid nitrogen (-200C) Fracture with Knife Coat with metal View

Growth Factor Receptors

G1 Phase EGF/PDGF Receptor: Tyrosine Kinase->Dimerize on-> Cascade-> MAPKK -> Transcription factor->myc/jun transcribed->cdk2/cylcin E -> S phase->

GFP labeling of Live Organisms

GFP green light (yellow blue mutants) GFP fuse with gene of interect and transfect into cell line or entire organism Expressed selectively in tissue or cell GFP can be used of fixed cells, live cells, live organisms, movies of live organisms GFP-talin binds to actin cytoskeleton Betabarrel Mouse can glow

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of peripheral neruons. Action potentials can 'hump' from node to node, thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction).

Innate immunity

General, non-specific protection to the body, including the skin (barrier), gastric acid, phagocytes, lysozyme, and complement.

Maternal inheritance

Genes that are inherited only from the mother, such as mitochondrial genes (all organelles come only from the ovum).

Brian Druker

Gleevec specifically blocks ongogenic kinase kill cancer cells

Histones

Globular protein that assist in DNA packaging in eukaryotes. Histones form octamers around which DNA is wound to form a nucleosome.

Phospholipids

Glycerol12: Fatty acid (1 sat, 1 kinked/unsat) Glycerol 3: Phsphoric acid and hydrophilic choline Ester is on side closer to glycrol

Bicarbonate

HCO3-. THis ion results from the dissociation of carbonic acid, together wiht carbonic acid forms the the major blood buffer system. Bicarbonate is also secreted by teh pancreas to neutralize stomach acid in the intestines.

How does most CO2 exists in the blood? Where?

HCO3-; in the polar plasma; only a small amount of CO2 is actually bound to hemoglobin; HCO3- re-enters RBC when it is ready to be converted backed to CO2 and dumped at the lungs.

Secondary spermatocytes

Haploid cells resulting from the first meiotic division of spermatogenesis. Secondary spermatocytes are ready to enter meiosis II.

Hydroxyapatite

Hardy crystals consisting of calcium and phosphate that form the bone matrix.

All Plasma membranes

Have membrane potential/echem grad favoring + ions in (Na+ will enter) and - ions out (Cl- will leave)

Totipotent

Having the ability to become anything; a zygote is totipotent.

hnRNA

Heterogeneous nuclear RNA; the primary transcript made in eukaryotes before splicing.

Hfr bacterium

High frequency of recombination bacterium An F+ bacterium that has the fertility factor integrated into its chromosome. When conjugation takes place, it is able to transfer not only the F factor, but also its genomic DNA.

hCG

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin, a hormone secreted by the trophoblast cells of a blasocyst (i.e. developing embryo) that prolongs the life of the corpus luteum, and thus increases the duration and amount of secreted progesterone. This helps to maintain the uterine lining so that menstruation does not occur. The presence of hCG in the blood or urine of a woman is used as a positive indicator of pregnancy.

Sister chromatid

Identical copies of a chromosome, produced during DNA replication and held together at the centromere Sister chromatids are separated during anaphase of mitosis.

3) The ER is the Site of Quality Control:

If misfolded sent to cytosol for ubiquitin tag and degraded in proteosome

immunoglobulins,

Immune defense and inflammatory response

bronchioles.

In human lungs, the windpipe branches into two bronchi. The bronchi then branch several times to become:

Thin filament

In skeleta and cardiac muscle tissue, a filament composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin. Thin filaments are attached to teh Z lines of the sarcomers and slide over thick filaments during muscle contraction.

Thick filament

In skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue, a filament composed of bundles of myosin molecules. The myosin head groups attach to the thick filaments and pull the toward the center of the sarcomere during muscle contraction.

Postganglionic neuron

In the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its *cell body located in the autonomic ganglion* (where a preganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target axon.

Preganglionic neuron

In the autonomic divison of the PNS, a neuron that has its *cell body located in the CNS*, and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonoic ganglion. (The second neuron's axon synapses with the target axon)

Response to Acidosis (decreased pH)

Increase respiratory rate to reduce PCO2 so as to shift the curve to the left resulting in a decrease in H+ (higher pH)

suppressor T cells

Inhibit function of T and B cells

IPSP

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential; a slight hyperpolarization of the postysynaptic cell, moving the membrane potential of that cell further from threshold.

primary response

Initial response to a specific antigen. During a primary response, T and B lymphocytes are activated and specific antibodies and memory cells to the antigen produced.

sinoatrial node

Initiates the heart's intrinsic beat aka SA node

inflammation,

Injury to tissue results in inflammation, which includes dilation of blood vessels, increased permeability of capillaries, swelling of tissue ceils, and migration of granulocytes and macrophages to the inflamed area.

Spatial summation

Integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) from multiple sources.

Ion Channels --- The Fast and the Furious (Passivee)

Ions pass DOWN concen gradiet Not always open 30,000 ions/msec 1. Voltage gated opening 2. Ligand gated opening 3. Mechanically gated opening

What is the actual metal that binds oxygen in the heme group of hemoglobin?

Iron

Coagulation process

Just know that the coagulation process involves many factors starting with platelets and including the plasma proteins prothrombin and fibrin.

Motor for MT highway

Kinesin - to + Dynein + to - special vesicles can have both

Michaelis constant

Km, the ratio of the breakdown of an enzyme-substrate complex to its formation in simple michaelis-menten reactions. Km is also Vmax, low Km indicates a strong affinity between an enzyme and its substrate

What to know about respiratory tract

Know the basic anatomy given here. Also. understand that the job of the respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to the blood and expel carbon dioxide. Part of the respiratory tract functions to prepare the air by warming, moistening, and cleaning. Know that since microtubules are found in cilia. and ciliated cells are found in the respiratory tract (and the Fallopian tubes and ependymal cells of the spinal cord), a problem in microtubule production might result in a problem in breathing (or fertility or circulation of cerebrospinal fluid).

Discovery of the LDL receptor & human mutations 100 rounds endosome ph 6 lysosome ph 5

LDL receptor mutation=excess cholesterol in blood since not being uptaken to degrade 1. No TM = secreted receptor 2. No sugar= nothing 4. No LBD= no endocytosis (usually bind apob) 5. No cy tail= receptor not in pits so no endocyt 5. no b probellor= endocytosed onyl once by ldl parrticle and recprotr both get degraded

Mike Brown and Joe Goldstein

LDL structure and familial hypercholesteremia

Avascular

Lacking a blood supply; cartialge is an example of this

2 Actin Networks (THESE ARE NOT BUNDLES)

Lamellipodium Cell Cortex

Lipoprotein

Large conglomerations of proteins, fats, and cholesterol that transport lipids in the bloodstream. (chylomicrons are a type of lipoprotein).

diaphragm

Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing. It is a skeletal muscle, and innervated by the phrenic nerve. When relaxed, the diaphragm is dome-shaped. It flattens upon contraction, expanding the chest cavity and creating negative gauge pressure.

TEM Stains

Lead, URanism, or Osmium Make objects they bind to denser

Infection path

Let's imagine a bacterial infection . First we have inflamtnation. Macrophages, then neutrophils, engulf the bacteria. Interstitial fluid is flushed into the lymphatic system where lymphocytes wait in the lymph nodes. Macrophages process and present the bacterial antigens to B lymphocytes. With the help of Helper T cells, GB ymphocytes differentiate into memory cells and plasma cells. The memory cells are preparation in the event that the same bacteria ever attack again (the secondary response). The plasma cells produce antibodies, which are released into the blood to attack the bacteria. You must know that '-1 single antibody is specific for a single antigen, and that a single B lymphocyte produces only one antibody type.

Pons

Links medulla to the thalamus

Ladderane

Lipid laders

Lipids made only on cytoplasmic side of ER Problem if no flippinf

Lipids equilibrate faster in ER due to head-group/assymetrically specifici flippas

What do listeria do

Listeria use arp2/3 and actin to grow + at butt of bacteria and cross cells without being seen by immune since not in ECM (network)

Lipid Raft

Longer lipid/protein all moelcules float together

Typical Lumen to inner layering

Lumen Epithelium Connective tissue Smooth Muscle Connective Tissue Epithelium

Spindle Assembly Checkpoint

MAD2 blocks APC/C until kinechores attached in metaphase so no anaphase (APC/C degrades cyclin/glue)

microtubules and ER

MT used to place ER

Factors for whether an object can be seen

Magnification- a lens can to this to any magnification size possible Resolution- the minimum distance two objects can approach each other and still appear separate Resolution is limited

MHC

Major Histocompatability complex, a set of proteins found on the plasma membranes of cells that help display antigen to T cells. MHC I is found on all cells and displays bits of proteins from within the cell; this allows T cells to monitor cell contents and if abnormal peptides are displayed on the surface, the cell is destroyed by killer T cells. MHC II is found only on macrophages and B cells. This class of MHC allows these cells (known as antigen presenting cells) to display bitts of "eaten" (phagocytosed or internalized) proteins on their surface, allowing the activation of helper Ts --> thus further activating immune response.

Androgens

Mal sex hormones. Testosteron is the primary androgen.

Active Carrier Proteins-- ABC Transporters

Many TM domain 2 ATP-binding domains 1. P glycoprotein (MDR1) 4. Cystic fibrosis Cl- channel

Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel's seond law. States that genes found on different chromosomes, or genes found very far apart on the same chromosome (i.e., unlinked genes) sort independently of one another during gamete formation (meiosis).

Law of Segregation

Mendels' first law. The Law of Segregation states that the two alleles of a given gene will be separate from one another during gamete formation (meiosis).

mRNA

Messenger RNA; the type of RNa that is read by a ribosome to synthesize protein.

Lisa Stowers

Mice detect predators VMO single protein MUP13 fear behavior

Actin BUNDLES

Micovilli (non contractile) Filopodia (non contractile) Adherens Belt (contractile) Stress Fibers (contractile) Contractile ring (contractile)

Overview of Cytoskeletons

Microfilament:Actin 7-9nm on leasding exdge and everywhere Microtubules:abtubulin dimer in middle long 25nm Int fil: 10nmin middle cirle

Microvilli

Microscopic outward folds of the cells lining the small intestine; microvilli serve to increase the surface area of the small intestine for absorption.

capillaries.

Microscopic vessels designed to exchange nutrients and wastes between blood and tissue fluid around the cells are known as________.

Tay-Sachs Disease 1 lysomal enzyme misisng

Missing hexosaminidase A - Build up glycolipids

Competitive inhibitor

Molecule that inhibits the activity of an enzyme by directly binding to the active site of the enzyme. This type of inhibition is usually reversible and can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration.

Proteins

Molecules made by connecting amino acids via peptide bonds. Proteins are synthesized (translated) by ribosomes, and function as enzymes, carriers, structrual fibers, cell surface receptors, channels, porters, hormones, etc.

Carbohydrates

Molecules made from monosaccharides that serve as the primary source of cellular energy,. Carbohydrates can also act as cell surface markers (good thing to remember).

What happens to us when we workout? What effect does this have on the hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve?

More cellular respiration, more CO2 being made so higher pCO2, maybe even lactic acid build up (i.e. lower pH), and higher T, lower affinity for oxygen, curve shifts right and more oxygen is released to the tissues.

Bohr Effect Chart

More metabolically active muscles --> More CO₂ made --> More H⁺ made --> decrease O₂ binding --> O₂ Dissociation Curve shifts right Breathing too much (hyperventilating) --> blood becomes more basic (Hb is holding on to O₂ tighter) --> equilibrium shifts left

How do veins push blood up against the flow of gravity?

Most large veins are surrounded by skeletal muscle; squeezes blood up when contract; sitting for long periods of time may cause pulmonary embolism (blood clot).

Passive transport

Movement across the membrane of a cell that does not require energy input from the cell. Passive transport relies on concentration gradients to provie the driving force for movement, and includes both simple and facilitated diffusion.

Facilitated diffusion

Movement of a hydrophilic molecuel across the plasma membrane of a cell, down its concentration gradient, through a channel, pore, or carrier molecule in the membrane. Because the hydrophilic nature of the molecule, it requires a special path through the lipid bilayer.

Chemotaxis

Movement that is directed by chemical gradients, such as nutrients or toxins. (seen in some bacteria)

Dynamic Instability TIM MITCHISION

Mt long in interphase cells 5x than mitotic due to tubulin gtpase in mitotic + 5x catasrophe rate Look at Interphase and Mitotic Cytosol Reactions: EXPT: 1) Centrosomes (glass slide) 2) Fluorescent tubulin dimers (red) 3) GTP 4) Interphase cytosol VS Mitotic cytosol (frog egg extrcts) Film Depol Pol is same Catastrope 5x due to mitotic gtpase MT is 1/5 length

Replication bubbles

Multiple sites of replication found on large, linear eukaryotic linear eukaryotie chromosomes.

Smooth muscle

Muscle tissue found in the walls of hollow organs, e.g., blood vessels, the digestive tract, the uterus, etc. Smooth muscle is non-striated, uninucleate, and under involuntary control (controlled by the autonomic nervous system).

Skeletal muscle

Muscle tissue that is attached to the bones. SKeletal muscle is striated multinucleate, and under voluntary control.

Intercostal muscles

Muscles located in between the ribs that play a role in ventilation.

Ciliary muscles

Muscles that help focus light on teh retin by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye.

White matter

Myelinated axons

Myosins 3 types

Myosin 1 monomer for microvilli stability& endocyt Myosin 2 for contraction Myosin 6/7 for sterocili otherwise DEAF

Phophatidyl choline

N+(CH3)3

Phosphatidyl ethanolamine

NH3+

Phosphatidyl Serine

NH3+COO-

Cortical Actin (a network)

NOT IN LEADING EDGE supporting the PM/CELL CORTEX

Channels discriminate on size and charge

Na+= 1x K+= 2X (due to weight) Ca2+=4X (due to charge hydration shell)

P-Type Transport ATPase Family

NaK pump Ca2+ pump (pump out of cell 10-7) H+ Pump ALL use autophosphorylation

TEM Problems and Protocol

Need embedding, fixing, staining, and sectioning, 2D Fix->Embed in hardest plastic->Section with sharpest diamond knife(50-100nmsec)->Stain with heavy metal

Postsynaptic Terminal

Neuron receiving information through its dendrites

What does Nitrogen do in the blood system

Nitrogen is extremely stable due to its strong triple bond. Thus, nitrogen diffuses into the blood, but doesn't react with the chemicals in the blood.

Is erythroblastosis fetalis bad during the first child birth, why?

No because the mother has not made the proper antibodies yet; not until blood mixes at birth.

Is it a problem if the fetus and mother have different blood types, why?

No because those antibodies can't cross the barrier.

Controlling Cell Volume

Normally, Na+ is kept at low concentration inside the cell by the Na+K+ATPase Evidence for volume control: If Na+K+ATPase is blocked by ouabain, then Na+ quickly goes to high concentration. Cell burst

How do other organelles get lipids

Nuclear Membrane connected Vesicles Phosplipid exchange protein

Universal donor?

O

Two Mitochondrial Membrane

OMM:Porin under 5kDA okay IMM:SpecficPermease, ETC, ATPsynth, ATP-ADP anitport IMM function increase due to SA via cristae Potential energy in IMMS gradient will be harnessed for ATP production Electrochemical gradient

Linda Buck

Oflactory receptors in mamals 100s of GPRCs detect diff odor

Sebaceous gland

Oil-forming glands found all over the body, especially on the face and neck. The product (sebum) is released to the skin surface through hair follicles.

Olfaction

Olf receptor=Golf=Ac on=cAMP= cAMP gated Na Ca= Depol= fire to brain

Vitamin

One of several different nutrietns that must be consumed in the diet, and generally not synthesized in the body. Vitamins can be hdyrophobic (fat-solube) or hydrophilic (water-soluble).

Pulmonary vein

One of several vessels that carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.

Myosin

One of the contractie proteins in muscle tissue. In skeletal and cardiac muscles, myosin forms the thick filaments. Myosin has intrinsic ATPase activity and can exist in two conformation, either high energy or low energy.

Cytosine

One of the four aromatic bases found in DNA and RNA. Cytosine is a pyrimidine; it pairs with guanine.

Guanine

One of the four aromatic bases found in DNA and RNA. Guanine is a purine; it pairs with cytosine.

Adenine

One of the four aromatic bases found in DNA and RNA; also a component of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. Adenine is apurine; it pairs with thymine (in DNA) and with uracil (in RNA)

Thymine

One of the four aromatic bases found in DNA. Thymine is a pyrimidine; it pairs with adenine.

Uracil

One of the four aromatic bases found in RNA. Uracil is pyrimidine; it pairs with adnenine.

Connective tissue

One of the four basic tissue types in the body (epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous). Connective tissue is a supportive tissue consisting of a relatively few cells scattered among a great deal of extracellular material (matrix), and includes adipose tissue (fat), bone, cartilage, the dermis of teh skin, tendons, ligaments, and blood.

Epithelial tissue

One of the four basic tissue types in the body (epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous). Epithelial tissue is a lining and covering tissue (e.g. skin, the lining of the stomach and intestines, the lining of the urinary tract, etc. ) or a glandular tissue (e.g. the liver, the pancreas, the ovaries, etc.)

Chymotrypsin

One of the main pancreatic proteases; it is activated (from chymotrypsinogen) by trypsin.

Ectoderm

One of the three primary (embryonic) germ layers formed during gastrulation. Ectoderm ultimately forms external structures such as the skin, hair, nails, and inner linings of the mouth and anus, as well as the entire nervous system.

Endoderm

One of the three primary (embryonic) germ layers formed during gastrulation. Endoderm ultimately forms internal structures, such as the inner lining of the GI tract and glandular organs.

Mesoderm

One of the three primary (embryonic) germ layers formed during gastrulation. Mesoderm ultimately forms 'middle' structures such as bones, muscles, blood vessels, heart, kindeys, etc.

Epiphysis

One of the two ends of long bone (pl: eiphyses). The epiphyses have an outer shell made of compact bone and inner core of spongy bone. The spongy bone is filled with red bone marrow, the stie of blood cell formation.

Schwann cell

One of the two peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells. Schwann cells from he myelin sheath on axons of peripheral neurons.

Atrium

One of the two small chambers in the heart that receive blood and pass it on to the ventricles. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from teh body through the superior and inferiro vena cavae, adn the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from teh lungs through the pulmonary veins.

Ventricle

One of two large chambers in the heart. The ventricles receive blood from the atria and pump it out of the lungs of the heart. The right ventricle has thing walls and pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle has thick walls and pumps deoxygenated blood the body through the aorta.

Vena cava

One of two large vessels (superior and inferior) that return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.

Splicing

One type of eukaryotic mRNA processing in which introns are removed from the primary transcript and exons are ligated together. SPlicing of transcripts can be different in different tissues.

Ouabain: A poison nature uses

Ouabain and digoxin are examples of the class of drugs "cardiac glycosides" which target NaK-ATPases)

4 Major Phospholipids

PC(Choline) PE(Ethanolamine) PS(Serine) SM(Sphingomyelin) Minor: Phosphatidyl inositol (PI)

RBC death

PS- on outside and Ca disables backflipase /activate scrambles so macro eat

Nociceptors

Pain receptors. Nociceptors are found everywhere in the body except for the brain.

Seminal vesicles

Paired glands found on the posterior external wall of the bladder in males. Their secretions contain an alkaline mucus and fructose, among other things, and make up approximately 60% of the ejaculate volume.

Vestibular glands

Paired glands near the posterior side of the vaginal that secrete an alkaline mucus upon sexual arousal. The mucus helps to reduce the acidity of the vagina (which could be harmful to sperm) and lubricates the vagina to facilitate penetration.

Tonsils

Paired masses of lymphatic tissue near the back of the throat that help trap inhaled or swallowed pathogens.

Synapsis

Pairing of homologus chromosomes in a diploid cell, as occurs during prophase I of meiosis.

Chyme

Partially digested, semiliquid food mixed with digestive enzymes and acids in the stomach.

Simple diffusion

Passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration without the use of energy

Chief cells

Pepsinogen-secreting cells foudn at teh bottom of the gastric glands

P site

Peptidyl-tRNA site; the stie on a ribosome where the growing peptide (attached to a tRNA) is found during translation.

Main types of lipids

Phospholipid Cholesterol Glycolipids All Amphipathic

Rods

Photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to dim light and provide us with black and white vision.

Cones

Photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that responds to bright light and provide color vision.

Analogous structures

Physical structures in two different organism that have funcitonal similarity due to their evoluntion in a common environment, but have different underlying structure. Analogous structures arise from convergent evolution.

Homologous structures

Physical structures in two different organisms that have structural similarity due to a common ancestor, but may have different functions. Homologous structures arise from divergent evolution.

Serum

Plasma with the *clotting factors removed*. Serum is often used in diagnostic tests because it does not clot.

Plateletes: Function

Platelets protect the vascular system patching holes that occur in the vessels, clots minimizing blood loss.

Immunofluorescence helps determine

Presence or absence of protein in cell Location and pattern protein in cell Quantity of protein How these are altered in the cell cycle, development, and disease Reveal changes in cell cycle (interphase vs mitosis)

memory B cells

Produced during a B cell response, but are not involved in antibody producing during the initial infection; are held in reserve for the rest of your life in case you encounter that pathogen again.

Lactic acid

Produced in muscle cells from the reduction of pyruvate (under anaerobic conditions) to regenerate NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue. A rise in lactic acid usually accompanies an increase in physical activity.

Signal Reversal

Protein Phosphatase 1 turns off PKA! 1. Alpha GTP to Alpha GDP reforms the heteromeric abg 2. Receptor densensitizes by phos gprot loops 3. cAMP-> 5AMP (cafeiene inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase) 4. cAMP-> PKA -> other proteins

Enzymes

Protein catalysts that accelerate reactions by reducing the activation energy without being consumed or altered by the reaction. Note that these affect only the rate of reaction and not the amounts of products formed.

Single strand binding proteins

Proteins that bind to and stabilize the signle strands of DNA exposed when helicase unwinds the double helix in preparation for replication.

Oncogenes

Protooncogenes: Signaling PW growth Type 1: Mutant protein oncogene Type 2. Mutant promotor too much normal protein Tumor Suppessors= Brakes. Loose/off BOTH copies= cell divide even if dna damage

Pulmonary Circulation v. Systemic Circulation

Pulmonary circulation is R side pumping deoxygenated blood towards the lungs; Systemic Circulation is L side pumping oxygenated blood throughout the body.

right ventricle

Pumps blood to the lungs

ER/GOLGI vesicle transport protiens

Rabs = Vesicle-targeting GTPases SAR =COP II Coat recruitment GTPases (anterograde) ARF: COP I Coat Recuritment GTPase (retrograde) SAR-GEF (GTP-Exchange Factor) = causes SAR-GDP to exchange GDP for GTP v-SNAREs and t-SNARES = recognition between a vesicle and its target

Radioactive phospholipid

Radioactive I131 on CLR1404 kills tumor cells since les phosphlipase

Peripheral chemoreceptors

Receptors in the carotid arteries and the aorta that monitor blood pH to help regulate ventilation rate.

Central chemoreceptors

Receptors in the central nervous system that monitor the pH of cerebrospinal luid to help regulate ventilation rate.

Motility in Sperm Flagella

Remove cytoplasm, remove head, add atp and stail still spins due to ciliary dynein but remove spooks and nexin and mt fly away from eachother

rRNA

Ribosomal RNA; the type of RNA that associates with ribosomal proteins to make a functional ribosome. It is thought that the rRNA has the peptidyl transferase activity.

THERE ARE 2 KINDS OF ER:

Rough ER = "RER" = ER studded with ribosomes Smooth ER = "SER" = muscle cellsSER is the "sarcoplasmic reticulum" and provides the Ca++ for muscle contraction. liver cells, SER makes LDL particles and cholesterol/ enzymes for detoxifying lipid-soluble drugs.

What initiates the coordinated contraction of the heart?

S.A.B.P.

Gap Junction **

STRUCTURE: -Channel between cell, kindof long so it leaves an intercellular gap -6 Connexins make a connexON channel on each side -15A pore 1-1.5kDA protein (aa, nucleotides cAMP, ions, sugar) PURPOSE: SIGNALING COMMUNICATION a) Electrical Signaling: Cardiac b) Chemical signaling: Pancreatic acinar REGULATION: WHEN Ca2+ TOO HIGH= GAP CLOSES

Ptyalin

Salivary amylase

Will the volumes of blood passing through the two sides of the heart be the same or different?

Same

Scanning EM 3D Mag 20,000x

Sample on grid->Coat with platinum->Scanning EM machine 3d Example: Fly eye, bristle pollen, stereociliar ear cell, plant hair

How was the movement of flagella worked out -- and how was ciliary dynein discovered?

Sea urchin Sperm 1. Movie 2. In vitro divide and conquer 2. PM not needed 3. Head not needed 4. Spoke nexin removed with protease MT slide away from eachother

George Palade

Secretory pathway pancreatic ancinar cells

bacterial K+ channel- selectivity filter!!!!

Selectivity filter only removes hydration shell of K+ since large enough to bind to both sides Na+ not large enough so no binding to 2 selectivity filters so no energy available for loss of h20

p53 Tumor Suppressor (2 need damage)

Sense dna tamage tf-> p53-> cip mrna->cip protein/p21 -> STOP cdk2/cyclin E STOP S Phase (Cancerous only if BOTH alleles p53 damaged)

Hair cells

Sensory receptors found in the inner ear. Cochlear hair cells respond to vibration in the cochlea caused by sound waves and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration (used for balance).

Na+-K+ ATPase --- Controls Many Cell Activites

Sets up 10% echem grad pump 3Na out 2K in so more K inside and more Na outside more postivie charge outside Chemical gradient for Na to come in Electrical grad for Na to come in

Diffusion of Lipids

Sigmoidal curve at low temperature lipids not moving and gel like All the sudden in transition temperature lipids quickly convert to fluid phase

Membrane Transport

Simple Diffusion depends on size and solubuiolity in hydrophobic environemtn Co2/O2/N2 are good to go Bezene/Steroids/H20/Urea/Glycerol slower LargePolor(glu)+Charge Ions(H+ Na+ HCO3 K+ CA2+ CL- MG2+) need help

Integral membrane protein translation

Single Pass: ERss-Stop Transfer N is in lumen C is cytosolic Many Pass: ERss-Stop-Start-Stop-

High Resolution Scanning EM 3D Mag 100,000x

Single microtubule or single nuclear pore in 3D Rare and expensive

Impulse occurs at which node?

Sinoatria (SA) node

Lacunae

Small cavities in the bone or cartilage that hold individual bones or cartilage cells.

Seminiferous tubules

Small convoluted tubules in the testes where spermatogenesis takes place.

Okazaki fragments

Small fragments of DNa produced on the lagging strand during DNa replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.

Peroxisome

Small organelles that contain the hydrogen peroxide produced as a byproduct of lipid metabolism. Peroxisomes convert hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen by way of the enzyme catalase.

Bulbourethral galnds

Small paired gland found inferior to the prostate in males and at the posterior end of the penile urethra. They secrete an alkaline mucus on sexual arousal that helps toneutralize any traces of acidic urine the urethra that might be harmful to sperm.

Phospholipid Composition

Solid: Long sat Fluid: Short Unsat

Problem 3of Microscopy: Tissues are thick and light cant get through

Solution: Embed and section Example: Embed in something stronger than tissue ie paraffin wax and slice with microtome (1-10uthick slices) Makes ribbons of sections

Problem 1 of Microscopy: Cells are 70% H2O Not much to see

Solution: Stains and dyes for different components ie DNA, Proteins, Membranes Dyed material can better refract light

Problem 4 of Microscopy: Cells are killed by staining, fixing, and sectioning Might be an artificial fact

Solution: Would like to confirm results by looking at living cells Example: For living cells use PHASE CONTRAST Microscopy If two waves are inphase, the cell will show brightly If an object is in the way the two waves will become out of phase and will result in a wave of small amplitude that is dim and shows a dark line

Problem 2 of Microscopy: Cells are fragile They become distorted or broken via observation

Solution: Cells are fixed before observation Example: Methanol fixation/Formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde

Antagonist

Something that acts to oppose the action of something else. For example, muscles that move a join in oppoiste direction are said to be antagonists.

Catalyst

Something that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by reducing the activation energy for that reaction. The free energy of reaction remains unchanged.

Syngergist

Something that works together with another thing to augment the the second thing's activity. For example, a uscle that assists another muslce is said to be a syngergist. An enzyme that helps another enzyme is a synergist.

Lacteals

Specialized lymphatic capillaries in the intestines that take up lipids as well as lymph.

Erectile tissue

Specialized tissue with a lot of space that can fill with blood upon proper stimulation, causing teh tissue to become firm. Erectile tissue is found in the penis, the clitoris, the labia, and the nipples.

Humoral immunity

Specif ic defense of the body by antibodies, secreted into the blood by B-cells.

Spermatogenesis

Sperm production; occurs in human males on a daily basis from puberty until death. Spermatogenesis results in the production of four mature gametes (sperm) from a single precursor cell (spermatogonium). For maximum sperm viability, spermatogenesis requires cooler temperatures and adequate testosterone.

What 2 organs get rid of red blood cells after they have died?

Spleen and Liver

An Example of Kinesin/Dynein Regulation- Pigment Granules

Squirrel Fish Low cAmp=White= Dynein= Pigment move into centrosome High cAmp= Red= Kinesin= Pigment to the PM = Red coral cAMP will activate Kinesin and inhibit dynein on pigment vesicles

The balance of these opposing pressure in the capillaries is referred to as:

Starling forces

Corticosteroids

Steroid hormones secreted from the adrenal cortex. The two major classes are teh mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Aldosterone is the principal mineralocorticoid, and cortisol is the principal glucorcorticoid.

Desmosome

Stick side of side 1/2 a button on each side of cell

Collagen- 4 places fibril arrangement

Strength 25% of total stregnth Forms patterned fibril regulated by secreting cell (scattered or parallel or net) 1.Skin: Fibrils Scattered all direction strength 2.Tendons:1 direction so weak on sides but strong if pulled 3.Cornea: thick 90< layers (cataract is random assembly) 4.Bone: 90< plus Ca perciptate

Tendon

Strong bands of connective tissue that connect skeletal muscle to bone.

Labor contractions

Strong contractions of the uterus (stimulated by oxytoncin) that force a baby out of the mother's baby during childbirth. Labor contractions are part of a positive feedback cycle, during which the baby's head stretches the cervix, which stimulates stretch receptors that activate the hypothalamus, which stimulates the posterior pituitary to release oxytocin, which stimulates strong uterine contractions (labor contractions) that cause the baby's head to stretch the cervix. The cycle is broken once the baby is delivered.

Temporal summation

Summation by a postsynaptic cell of input (EPSPs or IPSPs) from a single source over time.

Edema

Swelling of tissues, sometimes caused by inflammation letting into many white blood cells (decreasing oncotic pressure at the end of the capillaries & not letting as much water back into capillaries & staying in tissues).

helper T cells

T cells that help the immune system by increasing the activity of killer cells and stimulating the suppressor T cells

T-Iyrnphocytes

T-Iymphocytes mature in the thymus. Similar to B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes have an antibody-like protein at their surface that recognizes antigens. However, T-lymphocytes never make free antibodies.

What lymphocytes are responsible for killing virally infected cells and activating other immune cells?

T-cells

Liz Blackburn and Carol Grieder

Telomerase and telomeres

Presynaptic Terminal

Terminal before the synapse

Optic disk

The 'blind spot' of the eye, this is where the axons of the ganglion cells exist the retinal to form the optic nerve. There are no photoreceptors in the optic disk.

Genetic code

The 'language' of a molecular biology that specifies which amino acid corresponds to which three-nucleotide group (codon).

Ovarian cycle

The 28 days of the menstrual cycle as they apply to events in the ovary. The ovarian cycle has three subphases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase.

Endometrial cycle

The 28 days of the menstrual cycle as they apply to the events in the uterus. The endometrial cycle is also known as the uterine cycle, and has the three subphases: menstruation, the proliferative phase, and the secretory phase.

Amino acid acceptor site

The 3' end of a tRNA molecule that binds an amino acid. The nucleotide sequence at this end is CCA

Active site

The 3D site of an enzyme where substrates (reactants) bind and a chemical reaction is facilitated.

AV node

The AV node is slower to contract, creating a delay which allows the atria to finish their contraction, and to squeeze their contents into the ventricles before the ventricles begin to contract.

Recombination frequency

The RF value, the percentage of recombinant offspring resulting from a given genetic cross. The recombination frequency is proportional to the physical distance between genes on a chromosome. If a recombination frequency is low, the genes under consideration may be linked.

Local autoregulation

The ability of tissues to regulate their own blood flow in the absence of neural stiulation. THis is generally accomplished via metabolic wastes (such as CO2) that act as vasodilators.

secondary response

The adaptive immune response provoked by a second exposure to an antigen. It differs from the primary response by starting sooner and building more quickly.

Recessive

The allele in a heterozygou genotype that is not expressed; the phenotype resulting from possession of two recessive alleles (homozygous recessive).

Dominant

The allele in a heterozygous genotype that is expressed; the phenotype resulting from either a heterozygous genotype or a homozygous dominant genotype.

Venous returns

The amount of blood returned to heart by the vena cavae.

Activation energy (Ea)

The amount of energy required to produce the transition state of a chemical reaction. If the activation energy for a reaction is very high, the reaction occurs very slowly. Enzymes (and other catalysts) increase reaction rates by reducing activation energy.

tRNA loading

The attachment of an amino acid to a tRNA (not that this a specific interaction). tRNa loading requires two high-energy phosphate bonds.

Glomerulus

The ball of capillaries at the beginning of the nephron where blood filtration takes place.

A band

The band of the sarcomere that extends the full length of the thick filament. The A band includes regions of thick and thin filament overlap, as well as a region of thick filament only. A bands alternate with I bands to give skeletal and cardiac muscle a striated apperance. The A band does not shorten during muscle contraction.

Neuron

The basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system. The neuron is a highly specialized cell, designed to transmit action potentials.

carbonic anhydrase

The bicarbonate ion formation is governed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the reversible reaction:

Vagina

The birth canal; the stretchy, muscular passageway through which a baby exits the uterus during childbirth.

Pulmonary artery

The blood vessel that carries deoxygenated from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs.

Coronary vessels

The blood vessels taht carry blood to and from cardiac muscle. The coronary arteries branch off teh aorta and carry oxygenated blood to the cardiac tissue. The coronary veins collect deoxygenated blood from teh cardiac tissue, merge to form teh coronary sinus, and drain into the right atrium.

Peptide bond

The bond formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Implantation

The burrowing of a blastocyst (a developing embryo) into the endometrium of the uterus, typically occuring about a week after fertilizaiton.

Vasa recta

The capillaries that surround the tubules of the nephron. The vasa recta reclaims reabsorbed substances, such as water and sodium ions.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron.

Juxtaglomerular cells.

The cells of the afferent artery at the juxtaglomerular apparatus. They are baroreceptors that secrete renin upon sensing a decrease in blood pressure.

Macula densa

The cells of the distal tubule at the juxtaglomerular apparatus. They are receptors that monitor filtrate osmolarity as a means of regulatin filtration rate. If a drop is osmolarity is sensed, the macula densa dilates the afferent arteriole (to increase the blood pressure in the glomerulus and thus increase filtration) and stimulates the juxtaglomerular cells to secrete renin (to raise systemic blood pressure).

Formed elements

The cellular elements of blood; erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

Thalamus

The central structure of the diencephalon of the brain. the thalamus acts as a relay station and major integrating area for sensory impulses.

Telencephalon

The cerebral hemispheres.

Amphipathic

The characteristics of amolecule that has both polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar hydrophobic) regions, e.g. phospholipids, bile, etc.

Cornea

The clear portion of the tough outer layer of teh eye ball, found over the iris and pupil

Pulmonary edema

The collection of fluid in the alveoli, particularly dangerous because it impedes gas exchange. Common causes of pulmonary edema are increased pulmonary blood pressure or infection of the respiratory system.

Genotype

The combination of alleles of an organism carries. In a homozygous genotype, both alleles are the same, whereas in a heterozygous gentorype the alleles are different.

Cross bridge

The connection of a mosin head group to an actin filament during muscle contraction (the sliding filament theory).

Vagal tone

The constant inhibition provided to the heart by the vagus nerve. Vagal tone reduces the intrinsic firing rate of teh SA node from 120 beats/minute to around 80 beats/minute.

Partial pressure

The contribution of an individual gas to the total ppressure of a mixture of gases. Partial pressures are used to describe the amounts of the various gases carried in the bloodstream.

Umbilical cord

The cord that connects the embryo of a developing mammal to the placenta in the uterus of the mother. The umbilical cord contains fetal arteries (carry blood toward the placenta) and veins (carry blood away from the placenta). The umbilical vessels derive from the allantois, a structure that develops from the embryonic gut.

oxidative phosphorylation

The coupling of the oxidation of NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 with the phosphorylation of ADP. The electron transport chain uses this to produce ATP.

Cochlea

The curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells that transduce sound waves into action potentials.

Microfilament

The cytoskeleton filaments with the smallest diameter. Microfilaments are composed of the contractile protein actin. They are dynamic filaments, constantly beig made and broken down as needed, and are responsible for events such as pseudopod formation and cytokenesis during mitosis.

Choroid

The darkly pigmented middle layer of the eyeball, found between teh sclera (outer layer) and the retina (inner layer).

Vaccination

The deliberate exposure of a person to an antigen in order to provoke the primary immune response and memory cell production. Typically the antigens are those normally associated with pathogens, thus if the live pathogen is encountered in the future, the seconday immune response can be initiated, preventing infection and symptoms.

Fast block to polyspermy

The depolarization of the egg plasma membrane upon fertilization, designed to prevent the entry of more than one sperm into the egg.

End plate potential

The depolarzation of the motor end plate on a muscle cell.

Activation Energy

The difference in potential energy between the initial state (reactants) and the transition state. Reactants must overcome this energy in order to undergo the reaction

Intercalcated discs

The division between neighboring cardiac muscle cells. Intercalcated discs include gap junctions, which allow the cells to function as a unit.

Sympathic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system known as the "fright or flight" system. It causes a genera increase in body activities such as heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure, and an increase in blood flow to skeleltal muscle. It causes a general decrease in digestive activity. Because al of its preganglionic neurons originate from the thoraci or lumbar regions of the spinal cord, it is also known as the thoracolumbar system.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system known as the 'resting and digesting' system. It causes a general decrease in body activities such as heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure, and an increase in blood flow to the GI tract and digestive function. Because the preganglionic neurons all originate from either the brain or the sacrum, it is also known as the craniosacral system.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The division of the periperal nervsous system that innervates and cotnrols the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also knowns as the involuntary nervous system and an be subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the skeletal muscles; also known as the voluntary nervous system.

Common bile duct

The duct that carries bile from the gallbladder and liver to the small intestine (duodenum).

Replication

The duplication of DNA

Excretion

The elimination of wastes from the body.

Z lines

The ends of a saromere.

Gibbs free energy

The energy in a system that can be used to drive chemical reactions. If the change in free energy of a reaction (Delta G, the free energy of the products minus the free energy of the energy of the reactants) is negative, the reaction will occur spontaneously.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The entropy (disorder) of the universe (or system) tends to increase.

Medium

The environment in which or upon which bacteria grow. It typically contains a sugar source and any other nutrients that bacteria may require. 'Minimal medium' contain nothing but glucose.

Transcription

The enzymatic process of reading a strand of DNA to produce a complemenetary strand of RNA

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

The enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft.

Phosphofructokinase

The enzyme that catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to form fructose-1-6-bisphosphate in the third step of glycolysis. This is the main regulatory step of glycolysis. PFK is feedback-inhibited by ATP.

Hexokinase

The enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis. This is one of the ain regulatory steps of this pathway. Hexokinase is feedback-inhibited by glucose-6-P.

Crossing over

The exchange of DNA between paired homologus chromosomes (tetrads) during *prophase I* of meiosis.

Nondisjunction

The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division. This could ocur during *anaphase I of meiosis (homologous chromosomes) [--> leaving 2 gametes w/ 2 copies and 2 gametes w/ no copies of chromosome], or during *anaphase II of meiosis or *anaphase of mitosis (sister chromatids).

Linkage

The failure of two separate genes to boey the Law of Independent Assortment, as might occur if the genes were found close together on the same chromosome.

Ovary

The female primary sex organ. The ovary produces female gametes (ova) and secretes estrogen and progesterone.

Polyspermy

The fertilization of an oocyte by more than one sperm. This occurs in some animals, but in humans, blocks to polyspermy exist (the fast block and the slow block) so that only a single sperm can penetrate the oocyte.

Large intestine

The final phase of the digestive tract, also called the colon. The primary funcion of the large intestine is to reabsorb water and to store the feces.

Rectum

The final portion of the large intestine.

Ileum

The final section (approximately 55%) of the small intestine.

Duodenum

The first (approximately 5%) of the small intestinte.

Primary bronchi

The first branches of the trachea. There are two primary bronchi, one for each lung.

Primary immune response

The first encounter with an antigen, resuling in activated B cells (antibody secretion) and T cells (cellular lysis and lymphocyte proliferation). The primary immune response takes approximately ten days, which long enough for symptoms of the infection to appear (because initial activation takes long time).

F1 generation

The first generation of offspring from a given genetic cross.

Cecum

The first part of the large intestine.

Prophase I

The first phase of meiosis I. During prophase I the replicated chromosomes condense, homologous chromsomes pair up, crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes, the spindle is formed, and the nuclear envelope breaks apart into vesicles. Prophase I is the longest phase of meiosis.

Prophase II

The first phase of meiosis II. Prophase II is identical to mitotic prophase, except that the number of chromosomes was reduced by half during meiosis I.

Prophase

The first phase of mitosis. During prophase the replicated chromosomes condense, the spindle is formed, and the nuclear envelope breaks apart into vessicles.

Follicular phase

The first phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a follicle (an oocyte and its surroudning cells) enlarges and matures. This phase is under the control of FSH from the anterior pituitary, and typically lasts from day 1 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. The follicle secretes estrogen during this time period.

Menstruation

The first phase of the uterine (endometrial) cycle, during which the endometrium from the previous cycle is shed off. Estrogen and progesterone levels are low during this time period. Menstruation typically lasts from day 1 to day 5 of the cycle.

Proximal convoluted tubuel

The first portion of the nephron tubuel after the glomerulus. THe PCT is the site of most reabsorption; all filtered nutrients are reabsorbed here as well as most of the filtered water.

Attachment

The first step in viral infection. Attachemen of a virus to its host is very specific and is also known as adsorption.

Acetyl-CoA

The first substrate in teh Krebs cycle, produced primarily from the oxidation of pyruvate by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, however acetyl-CoA is also produced during fatty acid oxidation and protein catabolism.

Basilar membrane

The flexible membrane in teh chochlea that supports the organ of Corti (structure which contains the hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval windown and long and fleaxible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure allows the basilar membrane to help trasnduce pitch.

Systemic circulation

The flow of blood from the heart, through the body (not including the lungs), and back to the heart.

Pulmonary circulation

The flow of blood from the heart, through the lungs, and back to the heart.

Perfusion

The flow of blood through a tissue; ischeia is when there is no blood flow, anoxia when there is no O2 available (ischemia is more dangerous b/c of waste build-up)

Labia

The folds of skin that enclose the vaginal and urethral openings of females.

Cristae

The folds of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion

Osmotic pressure

The force required to resist the movement of water by osmosis. Osmotic pressure is essentialy a measure of the concentration of a solution. A solution that is hyighly concnetrated has a strong tendency to draw water into itself, so the pressure required to resist that movement would be high. Thus, highly concentrated solutions are said to have high osmotic pressures.

oxyhemoglobin.

The form of hemoglobin with iron in a reduced state and bonded to oxygen is

Neuralation

The formatino of the nervous system during weeks 5-8 of gestation. Neuralation begins when a section of the ectoderm invaginates and pinches off to form the neural groove, which ultimately forms the neural tube, from which the brain and spinal cord develop.

Gametogenesis

The formation of haploid gametes (sperm or ova) via meiosis.

Telophase

The fourth (and final) phase of mitosis. During telophase the nuclear envelope reforms, chromosomes decondense, and the mitotic spindle is disassembled.

Telophase II

The fourth and final phase of meiosis II. Telophase II is identical to mitotic telophase, except that the number of chromosomes was reduced by half during meiosis. I.

Telophase I

The fourth of meiosis I. Telophase I is identical to mitotic telophase, except that the number of chromosoms is now reduced by half. After this phase the cell is considered to be haploid. Note however, that the chromosomes are still replicated, and the sister chromatids must still be separated during meiosis II.

Ejection fraction

The fraction of teh end-diastolic volume ejected from the ventricles in a single contraction of teh heart. THe ejection fraction is normally around 60% of the end diastolic volume.

Nephron

The function unit of the kidney. Each kidney has about a million nehprons; this is where blood filtration and subsequent modification of the filtrate occurs. The nephron empties into collecting ducts, which empty into the ureter.

Fertilization

The fusion of a sperm with an ovum during sexual reproduction. Fertilization typically occurs in the uterine tubes and requires capacitation of the sperm and relase of the acrosomal enzymes. Fertilization is a species-specific process, requiring binding of a sperm protein to an egg receptor.

systemic circulation

The general blood circulation of the body, not including the lungs.

Central canal

The hollow center of an osteon, also known as a Haversian canal. The central canal contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. Bone is laid down around the central canal in concentric rings called lamellae.

Endometrium

The inner epithelial lining of the uterus that thickens and develops during the menstrual cycle, into which a fertilized ovum can implant, and which sloughs off during menstration if a pregnancy does not occur.

Circular smooth muscles

The inner layer of smooth muscle in the wall of the digestive tract. When the circular muscle contracts, the tube diameter is reduced. Certain areas of the circular muscle are thickened to act as valves (sphincters).

Medulla

The inner region of an organ, e.g., the renal medulla, the ovarian medulla, and the adrenal medulla, etc.

Adrenal medulla

The inner region of the adrenal gland. The adrenal medulla is part of the sympathetic nervous systme, and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the blood when stimuated. These hormones augment and prolon the effects of sympathetic stimulation in the body.

Retina

The innermost layer of the eyeball. The retina is made up of a layer of photoreceptors, a layer of bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells.

Lumen

The inside of the a hollow organ (e.g., the somach, intestines, bladder, etc.) or a tube (e.g., blood vessels, ureters, etc.)

Matrix

The interior of a mitochondrion (the region bounded by the inner membrane)., The matrix is the site of action of pyruvate dehydroganse complex and the Krebs cycle.

Signal transduction

The intracellular process triggered by the binding of a ligand to its receptor on the cell surface. Typically this activates seond messenger pathways.

superior and inferior vena cava

The large veins that empty into the right atrium of the heart

Aorta

The largest artery in teh body; the aorta carries oxygenated blood away from the left ventricle of the heart.

Corpus callosum

The largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting th two cerebral hemispheres.

Microtubule

The largest of the cytoplasmic filaments. Microtubules are composed of two types of protein, alpha tubulin and beta tubulin. They are dynamic fibers, constantly being built up and broken down, according to cellular needs. Microtubules form the mitotic spindle during cell division, form the base of cilia and flagella, and are used for intracellular structure and transport.

Liver

The largest organ in the abdominal cavity. The liver has many roles, including procesing of carbohydrates and fats, synthesis of urea, production of blood proteins, production of bile, recycling heme, and storage of vitamins.

First law of Thermodynamics

The law of conservation of energy; the energy of the universe is constant, thus if the energy of a system increases, the energy of its surroundings must decrease, and vice versa.

Mucocilliary escalator

The layer of ciliated, mucus-covered cells in the respiratory tract.The cilia continually beat, sweeping contaminated mucus upward toward the pharynx.

Submucosa

The layer of connective tissue directly under the mucosa of an open body cavity.

Mucosa

The layer of epithelial tissue that lines body cavities in contact with the outside environment (respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts).

Corona radiata

The layer of granulosa cells taht surround an oocyte after is has been ovulated.

aorta.

The left ventricle pumps blood to the

Plasma

The liquid portion of blood; plasma contains water, ions, buffers, sugars, proteins, etc. Anything that dissolves in blood dissolves in the plasma portion.

Start site

The location on a chromosome where transcription begins.

Loop of Henle

The loop of the nephron that dips downward into the renal medulla. The loop of Henle sets up a concentration gradient in the kidney such that from the cortex to the renal pelvis osmolarity increases. The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water, but not to sodium whereas the ascending limb is permeable to sodium, but not to water (and in fact, actively transports sodium out of the filtrate).

open system.

The lymph system is an open system. In other words, fluid enters at one end and leaves at the other

Trachea

The main air tube leading into the respiratory system. The trachea is made of alternating rings of cartilage and connective tissue.

Pancreatic duct

The main duct of the pancreas. The pancreatic duct carries the exocrine secretions of the pancreas (enzymes and bicarbonate) to the small intestine (dueodenum).

Trypsin

The main protease secreted by the pancreas; trypsin is activated (from trypsinogen) by enterokinase, and subsequently activates other pancreatic enzymes.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions (such as temperature, pressure, ion balance, pH, etc.) regardless of external conditions.

Inner cell mass

The mass of cells in the blastocyst that ultimately give rise to the embryo and other embryonic structues (the amion, the umbilical vessels, etc.)

Total lung capacity

The maximal volume of air that the lungs can contain. Total lung capacity is the sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume, and is typically about 6000 mL (6L).

Vital capacity

The maximum amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled from the lungs after filling them to their maximum level, typically about 4500 mL

Natural selection

The mechanism described by Charles Darwin that drives evolution. Through mutation, some organisms possess genes that make them better adapted to their environment. These organisms survive and reproduce more than those that do not possess the beneficial genes, thus these genes are passed on to offspring, making the offspring better adapted. Over time, these genes (and the organisms that possess them) become more abundant, and the less beneficial genes (and the organisms that possess them) become less abundant.

Siding filament theory

The mechanism of contraction in skeletal and cardiac muscl cells. It is a series of four repeated steps: (1) myosin binds actin, (2) myosin pull actin toward the center of the sarcomere (3) myosin releases actin, and (4) myosin resets to its high-energy conformation.

Excitation-contraction coupling

The mechanism that ensures tehat skeletal muscle contraction does not occur without neural stimulation (excitation). A trest, cytosolic [Calcium] is low, and the troponin, tropomyosin complex covers the myosin-binding sites on actin. When the muscle is stimulated by a neuron, calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into teh cytosol of the muscle cell. Calcium binds to troponin, causing a conformation change in the troponin-tropomyosin complex that shifts it away from the myosin-binding sites. This allows mysoin and actin to interact according to the sliding filament theory.

Nuclear envelope

The membrane surrounding the DNA in eukaryotic cells made of two lipid bilayers.

Tympanic membrane

The membrane that separate the outer ear from the middle ear. The tympanic membrane is also known as the eardrum.

Oval window

The membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear.

Pleura

The membranes that line the surface of the lungs (visceral pleura) and the inside wall of the chest cavity (parietal pleura).

alveoli.

The microscopic air sacs clustered at the distal ends of the respiratory tubes are the_______.

Jejunum

The middle (approximtely 40%) of the small intestine.

Allosteric regulation

The modifaction of enzyme activity through interactino of molecules with specific sites on the enzyme other than the active site (called allosteric sites)

Monosaccharide

The monomer of a carbohydrate. Monosaccharides have the general chemical formula CnH2nOn, and common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, galactose, and ribose.

Amino Acid

The monomer of a protein; amino acids hae an amio group on one end fo the molecule and a carboxylic acid group on the other, and of the of 2 different side chains.

Long bone

The most common class of bone in the body, long bones have a well-defined shaft (the diaphysis) and two well-defined ends (the epiphyses).

Simple diffsuion

The movement of a hydrophobic molecule across the plasma membrane of cell, down its concentration gradient. Since the molecule can esialy interact with the lipid bilayer, no additional help (such as a channel or pore) is required.

Diffusion

The movement of a particle (the solute) in a solution from its region of high concentration to its region of low concentration ( or down it concentration gradient).

Filtration

The movement of a substance across a membane via pressure. In the kidney, filtration refers specifically to the movement of plasma across the capillary walls fo the glomerulus, into the capsule and tubule of the neprhon. Filtration at teh glomerulus is driven by flood pressure.

Renal absorption

The movement of a substance from the filtrate (in the renal tuble) bak into the bloodstream. Reabsorption reduces the amount of a substance in the urine.

Inspiration

The movement of air into the respiratory tract. Inspiration is an *active process*, requiring contraction of the diaphragm.

Expiration

The movement of air out of the respiratory tract. Expiration can be passive (caused by relaxation of the diaphragm and elastic recoil of the lungs) or active (caused by contraction of the abdominal muscles, which increases intraabdominal pressure and forces the diaphragm up past its normal relaxed position).

Chloride Shift

The movement of certain anions ions into red blood cells to balance the loss of hydrogencarbonate ions.

Active transport

The movement of molecules through the plasma membrane against their concentration gradients. Active transport requires input of cellular energy, often in the form of ATP. An example is the Na+/K+ ATPase in the plasma membrane of all cells.

Repolarization

The movement of positive charges out of the cell will result in restoration of the negative membrane potential.

Depolarization

The movement of teh membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more positive direction.

Hyperpolarization

The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.

Osmosis

The movement of water (the solvent) from its region of high concentration to its region of low concentration. NOte that the water concnetration gradient is opposite to the solute concentration gradient, since where solutes are concentrated, water is scarce.

Cardiac muscle

The muscle tissue of the heart Cardiac muscle is striated, uninucleate, and under involuntary control (controlled by teh autonomic nervous system). Note also that cardiac muscle is self-stimulatory, and autonomic control serves only to modify the intrinsic rate of contraction.

Myometrium

The muscuar layer of the uterus. The myometrium is made of smooth muscles that retains its ability to divide in order to accomodate the massive size increases that occur during pregnancy. The myometrium is stimulated to contract during labor by the hormone oxytocin.

Uterus

The muscular femal organ, in which a baby develops during pregnancy.

Optic nerve

The nerve extending from the back of teh eyeball to teh brain that carries visual information. The ptic nerve is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina.

Enteric nervous system

The nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract. It controls secretion and motility within teh Gi tract, and is linked to the central nervous system.

Norepinephrine

The neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the ANS at the postganglionic (organ-level ) synapse.

Acetylcholine (Ach)

The neurotransmitter used throughout the parasympathetic nervous system as well as the neuromuscular junction.

Leading strand

The newly forming daughter strand of DNA that is replicated in a continuous fasion; the daughter strand that is replicated in thes aem direction that parental DNA is unwinding.

Lagging strand

The newly forming daughter strand of DNA that is replicated in a discontinuous fashion, via Okazaki fragments that will ultimately be ligated together; the daugther strand that is replicated in the opposite direction that parallel DNA is unwinding

Pinocytosis

The non-specific uptake of liquid particles into a cell by invagination of the plasma membrane and subsequent 'pinching off' a small bit of the extracellular fluid.

Phagocytosis

The non-specific uptake of solid material by a cell accomplished by englufing the particle with plasma membrane and drawing it into the cell.

Antiparallel orientation

The normal configuration of double-stranded DNA in which the 5' end of oen strand is paired with the 3' end of the other

Cervix

The opening to the uterus The ervix is typically plugged with a sticky acidic mucus during non-fertile times (to form a barrier against the entry of pathogens), however during ovulation the mucus becomes more watery and alkaline to facilitate sperm entry.

Effector organ

The organ that carries out teh command sent along a particular motor neuron

Oncotic pressure

The osmotic pressure in the blood vessels due only to plasma proteins (primarily albumin) --> causes water to rush back into capillaries at end.

Cortex

The outer layer of an organ, e.g. the renal cortex, the ovarian cortex, the adrenal cortex, etc.

Longitudinal muscle

The outer layer of smooth muscle in the wall of the digestive tract. When the longitudinal muscle contracts the tube shortens.

Capsid

The outer protein coat of a virus (the whole coat)

Trophoblast

The outer ring of cells of a blastocyst. The trophoblast takes part in the formation of the placenta.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of teh skin. The epidermis is made of epithelial tissue that is constantly dividing at the bottom; teh cells migrate to teh surface (dying along the way) to be sloughed off at the suface.

Oxidative phosphorylation

The oxidation of high-energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) coupled to the phosphorylation of ADP, producing ATP. In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondira.

Penetrance

The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.

Hematocrit

The percentage of wholeblood made up of erythrocytes The typical hematocrit value is between 40-45%.

Menopause

The perio dof tim ein a woman's life when ovulation and menstruation cease. Menopause typically begins in the late 40s.

Diastole

The perio of time during which the ventricles of the heart are relaxed.

Log phase

The period of exponential growth of bacterial population.

Fetal stage

The period of human development beginning at 8 weeks of gestation and lasting until birth (38-42 weeks of gestation). During this stage the organs formed in the embryonic stage grow and mature. The developing baby is known as a fetus during this time period.

Embryonic stage

The period of human development from implantation through 8 weeks of gestation. Gastrulation, neurulation, and organogenesis occur during this time period. The developing baby is known as embryo during this time period.

Systole

The period of time during which the ventricles of the heart are contracted.

Relative refractory period

The period of time following an action potential when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential due to the fact that membrane is further from theshold potential (hyperpolarized).

Cytokinesis

The phase of mitosis during which the cell physically splits into two daugter cells. Cytokinesis begins near the end of anaphase, and is completed during telophase.

S phase

The phase of the cell cycle during which the genome is replicated.

Mitosis

The phase of the cell cycle during which the replicated genome is divided. Mitosis has four phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and includes cytokinesis (the physical splitting of the cell into two new cells).

Phenotype

The physical characterisitcs resulting from the genotype. Phenotypes are usually described as dominant or recessive.

Hypophysis

The pituitary gland.

Sarcolemma

The plasma membrane of a muscle cell.

Determination

The point during development at which a cell becomes committed to a particular fate (sensory, other, etc.). Note that the cell is not differentiated at this point; determination comes before differentiation. Determination can be due to cytoplasmic effects or to induction by neighboring cells.

Transmembrane domain

The portion of an integral membrane protein that passes through the lipid bilayer.

Midbrain

The portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes.

Internodal tract

The portion of the cardiac conduction system between the SA node and the AV node.

Motor end plate

The portion of the cell membrane at the neuromusclar junction; essentially the postsynaptic membrane at the synapse.

Hypothalamus

The portion of the diencephalon involved in maintaining body homeostasis. the hypothalamus also controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.

Stomach

The portion of the digestive tract that stores and grinds food. Limited digestion occurs in the somach, and it has the lowest pH in the body (1-2).

Outer ear

The portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal. The outer ear is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (the eardrum).

Medulla oblongata

The portion of the hindbrain that controls respiratory and blood pressure, and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing.

Renal tubule

The portion of the nephron after the glomerulus and apsule; the region of the nephron where the filtrate is modified along its path to becoming urine.

Distal convoluted tubule

The portion of the nephron tubule after the loop of Henle, but before teh collecting duct. Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably regulated reabsorption of water and sodium.

Collecting duct

The portion of the nephron where water reabsorption is regulated via antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Several nephrons empty into each collecting duct, and this is the final region through which urine must passon its way to the ureter.

Chorion

The portion of the placenta derived from the zygote.

Diencephalon

The portion of theforebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Pleural pressure

The pressure in the (theoretical) space between the lung surface and the inner wall of the chest cavity.

Systolic pressure

The pressure measured in the arteries during contraction of the ventricles (during systole).

Diastolic pressure

The pressure measured in the arteries while the ventricles are relaxed (during diastole).

Testosterone

The primary androgen (male sex steroid). Testosterone is a steroid hormone produced and secreted by the interstitial cells of the testes. It triggers the development of secondary male sex characteristics during puberty (including spermatogenesis) and maintains those characteristics during adulthood.

Catalase

The primary enzyme in peroxisomes; catalse catalyzes the hydrolysis of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into water and oxygen.

Estrogen

The primary female sex hormone. Estrogen stimulates the development of female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of a new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy.

Testes

The primary male sex organ. The testes are suspended outside the body cavity in the scrotum and have two functions (1) produce sperm, and (2) secrete testosterone.

Phospholipid

The primary membrane lipid. Phospholipids consist of a glycerol molecule esterified to two fatty acid chains and a phosphate molecule. Additional, highly hyrohpilic groups are attached to the phosphate, making this molecule extremely amphipathic.

Diaphragm

The primary muscle of inspiration. The diaphragm is stimulated to contract at regular intervals by the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata (via the phrenic nerve). Although it is made of skeletal muscle (and can therefore be voluntary controlled), these stimulations occur autonomously.

Cortisol

The principal glucocorticoid secreted from teh adrenal cortex. This steroid hormone is released ruing stress, causing increased blood glucose levels and reducing inflammation. The latter effect has led to a clinical use of cortisol as an anti-inflammatory agent.

Aldosterone

The principal mineralocorticoid secreted by teh adrenal cortex. This steroid hormone targets the kidney tubules and increases renal reabsorption of sodium [and excretion of potassium]. (this causes ADH to be secreted & increased water comes out, increasing blood pressure indirectly).

Induction

The process by which neighboring cells can influence the determination (and subsequent differentiation) of a cell.

Catabolism

The process of breaking down large molecules into smaller precursors, e.g. digesion of starch into glucose.

Anabolism

The process of bulidng complex structures out of simpler precursors, e.g. synthesizing protiens from amino acids.

Translation

The process of reading a strand of mRNA to synthesize protein. Protein translation takes place on a ribosome.

Pyruvic acid

The product of glycolysis; 2 pyruvic acid (pyruvate) molecules are produced from a single glucose molecule. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid undergoes fermentation and is reduced to either lactic acid or ethanol; in the presence of oxygen, pyruvi acid is oxidized to produce acetyl-CoA, which can enter the Krebs cycle.

Shine-Dalgarno sequence

The prokaryotic ribosome-binding site on mRNA, found 10 nucleotides 5' to the start codon.

Meninges

The protective, connective tissue wrapping of the central nervous system (the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater).

Cleavage

The rapid mitotic division of a zygot that being within 24-36 hours after fertilization

Substrate(s)

The reactants in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. Substrate binds at the active site of an enzyme.

NADH

The reduced form of NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). This is the most common electron carrier in cellular respiration.

FADH2

The reduced from (carries electrons) of FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide). this is the other main electron carrier in cellular respiration (NADH is the most common).

Fermentation

The reduction of pyruvate to either ethanol or lactate in order to regenerate NAD+ from NADH. Fermentation occurs in the absence of oxygen, and allow glycolysis to continue under those conditions.

Small intestine

The regino of the digestive tract where virtually al digestion and absorption occur. It is subdivided into three regions: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.

I band

The regino of the sarcomere made up only of thin filaments. The I band is bisected by a Z line. I bands alternate with A bands to give skeletal and cardiac muscle a striated appearance. I bands get shorter (and may disappear completely) during muscle contraction.

H zone

The region at the center of an A band of a sarcomere that is made up of myosin only. The H zone gets shorter (and may disappear) during muscle contraction.

Cerebellum

The region of teh brain that coordinates and smooth skeletal muscle activity.

Bowman's capsule

The region of the nephron that surrounds the glomerulus. The capsule ollects the plasma that is filtered from teh capillaries in the glomerulus.

Length-tension relationship

The relationship of muscle length to its ability to generate strong contractions. Maximum tension (contraction strength) is achieved at sarcomere lengths between 2.0 and 2.2 microns. Tension decreases outside of this range <-- remember.

Ovulation

The release of a secondary oocyte (along with some granulosa cells) from the ovary at the approximate midpoint of the menstrual cycle (typically around day 14). Ovulation is triggered by a surge in LH.

Milk letdown

The release of milk from the mammary glands via contraction of ducts within the glands. Contraction is stimulated by oxytocin, which is released from the posterior pituitary when the baby begins nursing.

Exclusion

The removal ( and usually the activation) of a viral genome from its host's genome.

Peripheral resistance

The resistance to blood flow in the systemic circulation. Peripheral resistance increases if arteries constrict (diameter decreases), and an increase in peripheral resistance leads t o an increase in blood pressure.

Repolarization

The return of membrane potential to normal resting values after a depolarization of hyperpolarization.

Metaphase

The secon phase of mitosis. During metaphase chromosomes align at the center of the ell (the metaphase plate).

Atrioventricular (AV) node

The second major node of the cardiac conduction system (after the SA node). The cardiac impulse is delayed slightly at teh AV node, allowing the ventricles to contract just after the atria contract.

Lymphocyte

The second most common of the five classes of leukocytes. Lymphocytes are involved in specific immunity and include two cell types, B-cells and T cells. B-cells produce and secrete antibodies and T-cells are invovled in cellular immunity.

Metaphase I

The second phase of meiosis I. During metaphase I the paired homologous chromsomes (tetrads) align at the center of the cell (the metaphase plate).

Metaphase II

The second phase of meiosis II. Metaphase II is identical to mitotic metaphase, except that the number of chromosomes was reduced by half during meiosis I.

Proliferative phase

The second phase of the uterine (endometrial) cycle, during which the endometrium (shed off during menstration is rebuilt). This phase of the cycle is under the control of estrogen, secreted from the follicle developing in the ovary during this time period. The proliferative phase typically lasts from day 6 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle.

Penetration

The second step in viral infection, the injection of the viral genome into the host cell.

Exocytosis

The secretion of a cellular product to the extracellular medium through a secretory vesicle.

Promoter

The sequence of nucleotides on a chromosome that activates RNA polymerase so that transcription can take place. The promoter is found upstream of the start site, the location where transcription actually takes place.

Secondary sex characteristics

The set of adult characteristics that develop during puberty under the control of the sex steroids. In males the secondary sex characteristics include enlargement and maturation of the genitalia, growth of facial, body, and pubic hair, increased muscle mass, and lowering of the voice. In females, the characteristics include the onset of menstruation and the menstrual cycle, enlargement of the breasts, widening of the pelvis, and growth of pubic hair.

Diaphysis

The shaft of a long bone. The diaphysis is hollow and is made entirely from compact bone.

Chloroplast

The site of photosynthesis in plants. This contains chlorophyll, is semiautonomous, and has two cell membranes

Relication fork(s)

The site(s) where the parental DNA double helix unwinds during replication.

Efferent arteriole

The small artery that carries blood away from the capillaries of the glomerulus.

Afferent arteriole

The small artery that carries blood toward the capillaries of the glomerulus.

Capilary

The smalles of all blodo vessles, typically having a diamtere just large neough for blood cells to pass through in single file. Capillaries have extremelyu thin walls to faciliate the exchange of material between the blood and the tissues.

Purkinje fibers

The smallest (and final) fibers in the cardiac conduction system. The Purkinje fibers transmit the cardiac impulse to the ventricular muscle.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

The smooth ER of a muscle cell, enlarged and specialized to act as a Ca2+ reservoir. The SR winds around each myofibril in the muscle cell.

Periplasmic space

The space between the inner and outer cell membranes in Gram-negative bactera. The peptidoglycan cell wall is found in the periplasmic space, and this space sometimes contains enzymes to degrade antibiotics.

Differentiation

The specialization of cell types, especially during the embryonic and fetal development.

Cardiac conduction system

The specialized cells of the heart that spontaneously initiate action potentials and transmit them to the cardiac muscle cells. The cells of the conduction system are essentially cardiac muscle cells, but lack the contractile fibers of the muscle cells, tus they are able to transmit impulses (action ptnetials) more quickly and efficiently that cardiac muscle tissue. The cardiac conduction system includes the SA node, the internodal tract, he Av node, the AV bundle, the right and left bundle branches, and the Purkinje fibers.

Origin of replication

The specific location on a DNa strand where replication begins.. Prokaryotes typically have a single origin of replication, while eukaryotes have several per chromosome.

Ligand

The specific molecule that binds to a receptor.

Epitope

The specific site on an antigenic molecule that binds to a T cell receptor or to an antibody.

Ileocecal valve

The sphincter that separates the final part of the small intestine (the ileum) from the fron part of the large intestine (the cecum). It is typically kept contracted (closed) so that chyme can remain in the small intestine as long as possible. The ileocecal valve is stimulated to relax by the presence of food in the stomach.

Organogenesis

The stage of human development during which the organs are formed. Organogenesis begins after gastrulation and is completed by the eight week of gestation.

Power stroke

The step in the sliding filament theory during which yosin undergoes a conformaitonal change to its low energy state, in the process dragging the thin filaments (and the attached Z lines) toward the center fo the sarcomere. NOte that power stroke requires ATP only indirectly: to se the myosin molecule in its high-energy conformation during a different step of the sliding filament thoery.

Hemostasis

The stoppage of bleeding; blood clotting.

Linker DNA

The string between beads of DNA on histones. They are also wrapped around a single histone, called linker histone - may not really have to know..

Organ of Corti

The structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane. The Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials.

Central Nervous System

The subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Gene pool

The sum of all genetic material in a population.

Neuromuscular junction

The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle cell. At the NMJ, the muscle cel lmembrane is invaginated and the axon terminus is elongated so that a greater area of membrane can be depolarized at one time.

Hematopoiesis

The synthesis of blood cells (occurs in the red bone marrow)

Bohr effect

The tendency of certain factors to stablize the hemoglobin in the tense conformation, thus reducing its affinity for oxygen and enhancing the relase of oxygen to the tissues. The factors include increased PCO2, increase temperature, increased bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), and decreased pH. Note that the Bohr effect shifts the oxy-hemolobin saturation curve to the right.

Anaphase I

The third phase of meiosis I. During anaphase I the rplicated homologous chromosomes are separated (the tetrad is split) and pulled to opposite sides of the cell.

Anaphase II

The third phase of meiosis II. During anaphase II the sister chromatids are finally spearated at their centromeres and puled to opposite sides of teh cell. Note that anaphase II is identical to mitotic anaphase, excep the number of chromosmes was reduced by half during meiosis I.

Anaphase

The third phase of mitosis. During anaphase, replicated chromosmes are split apart at their centromeres (the sister chromatids are separated from each other) and moved to opposite sides of the cell.

Luteal phase

The third phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a corpus luteum is formed from the remnants of the follicle that has ovulated its oocyte. The corpus luteum secretes progestrone and estrogen during this time period, which typically lasts from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle. Formation of the corpul luteum is triggered by the same LH surge that triggers ovulation, however in the absence of LH (levels quickly decline after the surge) the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.

Secretory phase

The third phase of the uterin (endometrial) cycle, during which the rebuilt endometrium is enhanced with glycogen and lipid stores. The secretory phase is primarily under the controll of progestone and estrogen (secreted from the copus luteum during this time period), adn typically lasts from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle.

Krebs cycle

The third stage of cellular respiration, in which acetyl-CoA is combined with oxaloacetate to form citric acid. The citric acid is then decarboxylated twice and isomerized to recreate oxaloacetate. In the process, 3 molecules of NADH, 1 molecule of FADH2, and 1 molecule of GTP are formed (per acetyl-CoA)

Accessory glands

The three glands in the male reproductive system that reproduce semen: the seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the

Ossicles

The three small bones found in the middle ear (the malleus, the incus, and the stapes) that help to amplify the vibrations from sound waves. The malleus is atached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea.

Transduction

The transfre by a lysogenic virus of a portion of a host cell genome to a new host.

Urethra

The tube that carries urine from the bladder to the to outside of the body. In males it also carries semen and sperm during ejaculation.

Auditory tube

The tube that connects the middle ear acity with the pharynx; also known as the Eustachian tube. Its fucntion is to equalize midle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on boths sides of the tympanic membrane is the same.

Ureters

The tubes that carry urine from the kindeys to the bladder.

Osteon

The unit of combact bone, also called a Haversian system. Osteons are essentially long cylinders of bone; the hollow center is called the central canal, and is where blood vessels, nervs, and lymphatic vessels are found. Compact bone is laid down around the central canal in rings (lamellae).

Sarcomere

The unit of muscle contraction. Sarcomeres are bounded by Z lins, to which thin filaments attach. Thick filaments are found in the center of the sarcomere, overlapped by thin filaments over one another during contraction reduces the distance between Z lines, shortening the sarcomere.

Endocytosis

The uptake of material into a cell, usually by invagination. See also 'phagocytosis', pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis..

Anal sphincter

The valve that controls the release of feces from the recturm. It has an internal part made of smooth muscle (thus involuntary) and an external part made of skeletal muscle (thus voluntary).

Urinary sphincter

The valve that controls the release of urine from the bladder. It has an internal part made of smooth muscle (thus involuntary) and an external part made of skeletal muscle (thus voluntary).

Pyloric sphincter

The valve that regulates the passage of chyme from the stomach into the small intestine.

Sphincter of Oddi

The valvecontrolling release of bile and pancreatic juice into the bloodstream.

Semilunar valves

The valves in the heart that separate the ventricles from the arteries. The pulmonary semilunar valve separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery, and the aortic semilunar valve separates left ventricle from the aorta. These valves close at the end of systole, preventing the backflow of blood from arteries to ventricles, and producing the second heart sound.

Atrioventricular valves

The valves in the heart that separte the atria from teh ventricles. The tricuspid valve separates teh right atrium from the right ventricel, and the bicuspid (mitral) valves separates the left atrium from the left ventricle. These valves close at the beginning of systole, preventing the backflow of bloo dfrom ventricles to atria, and producing the first heart sound (lub).

Tidal volume

The volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a normla, resting breath, typically about 500 mL.

Residual volume

The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal forced exhalation, typically about 1200 mL.

Cardiac output

The volume of blood pumped out of the heart in one minute (vol/min); the product of the stroke volume (vol/beat) and the heart rate (beat/min). Cardiac output is directly proportional to blood pressure**.

Stroke volume

The volume of blood pumped out the heart in a single contraction.

Sclera

The white portion of teh tough outer layer of the eyeball

Relative Refractory Period

There must be a greater than normal stimulation to cause an action potential, because the membrane is starting from a potential more negative than the resting value.

Semicircular canals

Three loop-like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance.

Oxidation

To attach oxygen, to remove hydrogen, or to remove electrons from a molecule.

Why do red blood cells lack mitochondria?

To avoid utilizing the oxygen that they are carrying. It will also take up space.

Reduction

To remove oxygen, to add hydrogen, or to add electrons to a molecule.

Downstream

Toward the 3' end of an RNA transcript (the 3' end of the DNA coding strand). Stop codons and (in eukaryotes) the pol-A tail are found 'downstream.'

Upsteam

Toward the 5' end of an Rna transcript (the 5' end of the DNA coding strand). The promoter and start sites are upstream.

tRNA

Transfer RNA; the type of RNA that carries an amino acid from the cytoplasm to the ribosome for incorporation into a growing protein.

bundle of His.

Transfers the impulse from the AV node to the right & left bundle branches.

Experiment 1

Treat Mice with Lewis lung carcinoma, fibrosarcoma, and melanoma with endostatin after tumor grows to a certain size each time tumor regrow to same size and treatment was just as effectivee as first tumor dormancy observed no resistance since even after mult rounds no loss of efficacy+ dormancy

Bidirectional Transport in Amoeba

Two ways stop is no atp, slowly begin to continue again may be on SAME TRACK

Blood Types and Alleles

Type A - IAIA or IAi Type B - IBIB or IBi Type AB - IAIB Type O - ii

Lamellipodia (a different network)

USES FILAMIN TO BRACHN 70< Arp2/3 nucleates actin polymeriz to form leading edge

Filopodia (non-contractile bundles)

USES FIMBRIN PARALELL Arp2/3 nucleates actin polymeriz to form leading edge

Uncoating vesicle after endocytosis

Uncoating ATPase is hsC70 via Atp hydrolysis right after pinchoff

Understanding O2 and CO2 exchange

Understand the connection between rate of breathing and carbon dioxide. pH. and oxygen levels in the blood. For instance in the case of acidosis (too much acid in the blood), the body compensates by increasing the breathing rate there by expelling carbon dioxide and raising the pH of the blood.

Goblet cells

Unicellular exocrine glands found along the respiratory and digestive tracts taht secrete mucus.

Gray matter

Unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short unmyelinated axons.

Retrieval of escaped resident ER enzymes & cargo receptors and SNARE

Use ARF COP I Coat recruitment gtpase Recyle: 1.ER v SNARES 2.Cargo Receptors 3.Membrane 4. ER enzymes via KDEL receptors

George Palade's "pulse-chase" experiment

Use acinar since polarized/specialized secretory so must have reg secretion Signal: Food 1. 3s Pulse H3 leucine 2. Wash 3. Unlabeled leucine 4.look and fix 3s:ER 20s:Golgi 37s:Sec vesic 117s:Zymogengranules

Mike Bishopand Harold Varmus

V(Viral)-src is just a normal gene mutated into a oncogene

Harold Varmus and Mike Bishop

V-src(oncogene) extra gene just mutated copy of normal sarcoma-causing gene(protooncogene 100s)

larynx

VOICE BOX

Bronchioles

Very small air tubes int eh respiratory system (diameter 0.5 - 1.0 mm). The walls of the bronchioles are made of smooth muscle (thus involunatry) to help regulate air flow.

Canaliculus

Very small tube or channel, such as is found between lacunae (connecting them together) in compact bone.

carbon dioxide pressure

What controls ventilation by changing bronchiolar diameter?

Experiment 1: Behavioral Assay

What is the goal? Do mice have a reaction to predators smell? What is the neural pathway used to relay this information to the brain? What was the assay? Use odors from predators and measure the response of the mouse Risk assessment, avoidance, and stress (ACTH levels) were measured WT mice and TrpC2 -/- mice were tested

connective tissue.

What type of tissue is blood?

Cat Mup Assay

What was the goal? To see if recombinant Cat Feld4 could induce the same behaviors and results seen in rat Mup13 What was the assay? Purify recombinant Feld4 and perform the same behavioral and cellular assays Avoidance and risk assessment behaviors induced by cat is because of recombinant Mup (rMup-Feld4) Conclusion rFeld4 can induce the same results in all the assays Therefore a family of genetically related Mup proteins in predators can induce fear related specific responses in prey Mice can sense Mup13 and Feld4, which are kairomones These purified Mups are sufficient to elicit the fear response in WT mice VNO subsets are required to detect specific Mups from different species Therefore, kairomones have a functional role in mammals

Dorsal root ganglia

Where cell bodies of sensory neurons are found.

helper T cell,

Which cell's function is necessary in order for cytotoxic T cells to recognize an antigen? Helper T Cell, Suppressor T cell, Killer T cell

ECM

Why? If all cells too tight no nutrients/o2/immune cells Cell Sheet/Area seperated by ECM CELLS IN ECM: Fibroblasts (secrete ECM) Lymphocytes (macrophage/denritic)

trachea

Windpipe

Placental villi

Zygot-derived projections that extend into the endometrium of the uterus during pregnancy. Fetal capillaries grow into the placental villi, which are surrounded by a pool of maternal blood. THis facilitates nutrient and gas exchange between the mother and the fetus, without actually allowing the blood to mix.

Energy Carriers

[NAD+, NADP+, FAD] molecules involved in cell respiration that serve as energy stores releasing energy when oxidized to NAD+, NADP+, and FAD.

Endostatin

a 20kDa C term fragment of collagen XVII used and as an antiangiogenesis agent. It has no effect on resting endothelial cells, only on proliferating cells. Treatment with endostatin lead to remission and dormancy of tumors.

TrpC2:

a calcium channel that is required for correct VNO function

enterogastrone

a hormone that slows motility thru digestive tract

lacteal

a lymphatic channel that takes up fats for transport into lymphatic system

5' cap

a methylated guanine nucleotide added to the 5' end of eukaryotic mRNA. The cap is necessary to initiate translation of mRNA

regulator

a molecule, other than the substrate, that can bind to the allosteric site of an enzyme and either increase its activity (allosteric activator) or decrease its activity (allosteric inhibitor)

cardiac sphincter

a muscular ring that relaxes and opens to allow passage of food (bolus)

atrioventricular node

a node of specialized heart muscle located in the septal wall of the right atrium aka AV node

Trypsinogen

a pancreatic protease to trypsin

Secretin

a peptide hormone that causes pancreatic enzymes to be released into the duodenum. regulates pH of digestive tract by reducing HCL secretion from parietal cells and increasing bicarbonate secretion from pancreas

oxygen dissociation curve is shifted

a plot of the relationship between the amount of oxygen in the surrounding environment (measured in terms of the partial pressure of molecular oxygen) and the percent saturation of hemoglobin.

depolarization

a process that occurs when the voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to rush into the cell and depolarize it

immunoglobulins

a protein antibody produced in response to a specific foreign substance that recognizes and binds to that specific antigen and triggers and immune response

inducible system

a system in which a repressor bound to an operator prevents transcription addition of inducers can activate an inactive system by preventing the repressor from binding to the operator

repressible system

a system that is normally "turned on" but can be inactivated by the addition of a repressor or a corepressor

Bacteriophage

a virus that can only infect bacteria

The Heart: Valve Types

a) atrioventricular valves (bi and tricuspid) b) semilunar valves

Types of Leukocytes

a) granular leukocytes b) lymphocytes c) monocytes (b and c are agranulocytes)

Mups (major urinary proteins);

abundantly excreted and act as pheromones, allergens for humans

antidiuretic hormone

acts on the collecting duct to increase water reabsorption produced by the hypothalamus and stored in posterior pituitary

purines

adenine and guanine double ringed nitrogenous bases

sister chromatids

after replication each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids held together at a central region called the centromere after mitotic spindle pulls these apart, each chromatid is referred to as a chromosome

saliva

aids in mechanical digestion by moistening and lubricating food

passage of air during inhalation

air travels through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and the alveoli (site of gas exchange)

interstitial cells

aka: cells of leydig located in the testes secrete testosterone and other androgens

osteons

aka: haversian system structural unit of compact bone consists of a central canal (haversian canal) surrounded by a number of concentric rings of bony matrix called lamellae

somatic cells

all cells excluding the germ (reproductive) cells

peripheral nervous system

all neurons that are not part of the central nervous system includes sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system can be further divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous system

mendel's law of independent assortment

alleles of different genes assort independently during meiosis this is only true for unlinked genes

holoenzyme

an active enzyme containing all necessary cofactors

bile

an alkaline fluid synthesized in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and released into the duodenum aids in the emulsification, digestion, and absorption of fats

wild type

an allele that is normal to the population

What happens when the impulse reaches the purkinje fibers?

an electrical signal is sent through ventricular muscle causing ventricular contraction

helicase

an enzyme that unwinds the double helix of a DNA molecule allowing replication to take place

Allosteric Enzyme

an enzyme with two or more active sites that can exist in more than one conformation, usually an active form or an inactive form

dendrite

an extension of the neuron that transmits impulses toward the cell body

hyperventilation

an increase in the rate of inhalation lack of oxygen or an increase in blood pH promotes this

facultative anaerobe

an organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but that can switch to fermentation when oxygen is not available

intrinsic factor

another thing parietal cells secrete, a glycoprotein involved in proper absorption of vitamin B12

Adenohypophis

anterior pituitary gland

If a person has blood type A that means it makes antibodies to?

antibodies to B; will attack B antigen.

What is the general trend for P drops? Where is the largest pressure drop occur at?

aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, or vena cava? why? gradually drops from arterial to venous circulation; in arterioles bc necessary for circulation in veins (thin).

What is the left semilunar valved termed?

aortic valve

Vitamins

are absorbed in small intestine

Arteries are

are elastic, and stretch as they fill with blood. When the ventricles finish their contraction, the stretched arteries recoil, keeping the blood moving more smoothly. Arteries are wrapped in smooth muscle that is typically innervated by the sympathetic nervous system

brush-border enzymes

are present on luminal surface of cells lining the duodenum and break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules

3 types of blood vessels____________, __________ and ___________.

arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries branch into ________ which eventually branch into smaller things called ________.

arterioles; capillaries

thoracic duct

at base of neck, allows lacteals to enter through her in venous circulation

Coarse hair

at the front of the cavity, traps large dust particles

The heart is composed of 4 chambers, two _______ and two ________.

atria; ventricles

An impulse results in what type of contraction?

atrial contraction; two atria contract same time more blood dumped into ventricles (5-30% of output).

The signal may be delayed where to allow for the filling of the ventricles?

atriaventricular (AV) node

What type of valve prevents back flow into the atria when the ventricles are contracting (systole)?

atrioventricular AV valve close

What valve is located between the atrium and ventricles?

atrioventricular AV valves

pyloric sphincter

band of smooth muscle at the junction between the pylorus of the stomach and the duodenum of the small intestine. It plays an important role in digestion

The 3 granular leukocytes are?

basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils

The left AV valve is called two different names, which are?

bicuspid or mitral valve

venules,

blood leaving the capillaries returns to the heart through what and which flow into larger veins,

capillaries

blood vessels composed of a single layer of endothelial cells facilitate the exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid

coronary arteries

blood vessels that supply the heart with oxygenated blood

coronary veins

blood vessels that transport deoxygenated blood from the heart toward the right atrium

Nervous Tissue

body tissue that carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body. Composed of specialized tissues called neurons.

red blood cells mature where?

bone marrow

appendicular skeleton

bones of the pelvis, pectoral girdles, and limbs

axial skeleton

bones of the skull, vertebral column, and bones of the chest (ribcage)

peptidases

break down proteins

mechanical digestion

breakdown of food particles into smaller particles through such activities as biting, chewing, and churning

Pancreatic amylase

breaks down large polysaccharides into small disaccharides, therefore responsible for CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION

Nerves

bundles of many axons

cAMP and PKA

cAMP turns on a kinase = PROTEIN KINASE A PKA phosphorylates some of the same, but also some different proteins in different cell types Why Have a G-protein and 2nd Messenger? 10k amplification PKA

Experiment 2: Transient Calcium detection and cFOS imaging (cellular assays)

cFOS: a transcription factor that is upregulated when neurons are exposed to new stimuli. Its expression is very rapid and can be detected using immunohistochemistry What is the goal? To detect cellular changes in the VNO in response to fear inducing predator signals. To determine which neurons and other parts of the sensory system detect the kairomones What was the assay? Calcium Transient Detection Ex vivo, use calcium transients to determine if kairomone directly activate the VNO Found that odorants from all species analyzed directly activated VNs cFOS expression Allowed animals to live freely with the odor, then checked the brain to see cFOS expression In the VNO, cFOS expression was greatly increased with exposure to predator scents Therefore VNs directly detect odors from a variety of different species in mammals TrpC2 -/- mice did not increase cFOS expression levels Therefore, TrpC2 is required for cFOS induction in pAOB Therefore, VNO VNs project strongly onto pAOB, which processes Kairomone detection Figure A and B show increase in calcium transients and c-Fos induction in response to kairomone odors Blue is a nuclear stain for cells, yellow is c-Fos stain Mice with the TrpC2 knocked out do not show c-Fos induction when exposed to kairomone odors Therefore, TrpC2 function is necessary for c-Fos induction in the posterior AOB

prothrombin is converted into thrombin with the help of _________ and _________.

calcium and vitamin K (cofactors)

salivary amylase

capable of hydrolyzing starch into smaller sugars

What is the most important buffer of the blood?

carbonic acid-bicarbonate ion pair

Since we breath out CO2 and not H+ and HCO3- what happens at the lungs?

carbonic anhydrase converts H+ and HCO3- back to H2CO3 which breaks back into H2O and CO2

What is the enzyme that coverts CO2 to H2CO3?

carbonic anhydrase in RBC

Which type of muscles is the heart composed of?

cardiac muscle

The total blood volume pumped by the ventricle in a minute is known as?

cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume units = (vlm/min) = (beats/min) x (Vlm/ beat)

veins,

carries blood back to the heart

hepatic portal vein

carries nutrients (monosaccharides, amino acids, and small fatty acids) absorbed in the small intestine to the liver, where they are modified to enter circulation

arteries,

carry blood away from the heart

pulmonary arteries

carry deoxygenated blood out of the right ventricle and into the lungs

lipase

catalyzes hydrolysis of lipids

mitosis

cell division and/or nuclear division in somatic cells results in the daughter nucleus receiving a full complement of the organism's genome

neural crest cells

cells at the tip of the neural fold gives rise to components of peripheral nervous system

osteoclasts

cells in bone matrix that are involved in bone degradation

osteoblasts

cells in bone tissue that secrete organic constituents of the bone matrix develop into osteocytes

haploid

cells that have only one copy of each chromosome germ cells in humans

diploid

cells that have two copies of each chromosome usually one from the mother and one from the father eukaryotic somatic cells are diploid

schwann cells

cells that produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system

Brain stem

cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata

electron transport chain

chain of cytochromes and other proteins in the inner membrane of the mitochondria that transfers electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. The energy released from the series of oxidations is used to create a proton gradient, which ATP synthase then uses to synthesize ATP

resting potential

charge difference (maintained by Na+/K+ pump) across the cell membrane of a neuron or a muscle cell while at rest

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released from synaptic clefts of a neuron can bind to and stimulate a postsynaptic cell

homologous chromosomes

chromosomes in a diploid cell that contain different alleles for the same trait at corresponding loci

chromatin

chromosomes in their uncoiled active state not visible under a light microscope

portal systems

circulatory routes in which blood travels through two capillary beds before returning to the heart examples: hepatic, renal, and hypophyseal

tRNA

class of RNA bearing an anticodon (complementary to the codon) and the amino acid for the corresponding codon vital in translation as it brings the amino acid to the ribosome and ensures that each codon matches up with the proper amino acid

rRNA

class of RNA that is a structural component of ribosomes synthesized in the nucleolus

mRNA

class of RNA that is created from the transcription of DNA and serves as the template for protein synthesis during translation

determinate cleavage

cleavage whose future differentiation pathways are determined

dipeptidases

cleave peptide bonds of dipeptides to release free amino acids

Hemophilia is a disease that leads to lack of _______.

clotting; recessive disorder.

Nuclei

clusters of cell bodies in the CNS

Ganglia

clusters of cell bodies in the PNS

Clathrin Barbara Pearse

coated vesicle triskelion with binding sites for adaptins (Ex: Insulin Receptor binds ligand (insulin)and dimerizes pre coated pit)

What signals the platelets to release their contents?

collagen; underlying connective tissue when exposed senses as injury

chyme

combination of partially digested food and acid that forms in the stomach

bile

complex fluid composed of bile salts, pigments and cholesterol. these bible suits emulsify fats and cholesterol into micelles

leukocytes

component of blood involved in cell defense and immunity different types: neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes

bile ducts

connect liver with both gallbladder and small intestine

Interneurons

connect the efferent and afferent pathways.

Corpus Collosum

connection in which the two hemispheres communicate.

corpus callosum

connects the brain's left hemisphere with its right hemisphere and correlates their activities

umbilical cord

connects the vasculature of the fetus to the placenta

large intestine home to bacterial flora

consists of lots of bacteria, ex. bacteria in gut produce vitamin K essential for clotting etc.

central nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord

small intestine

contains 3 segments; duodenum, jejunum and ileum

Retina

contains the photoreceptors that transduce the light into electrical information the brain can process.

negative pressure breathing

contraction of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, reducing the pressure in the intrapleural space this decrease in pressure creates a vacuum that causes the lungs to suck in air

3 Major arteries branch from the aorta, what are they?

coronary, common carotid and renal arteries

Epithelial Tissue

covers the body and lines cavaties, organs and glands; cells are closely packed; avascular (no blood supply of their own); function: protection, absorption, secretion, sensation.

test cross

cross between an organism of undetermined genotype and another that is homozygous recessive for the trait of interest

monohybrid cross

cross between two organisms where only one trait is being studied

dihybrid cross

cross between two organisms where two distinct traits are being studied

Citric acid cycle

cycle begins when two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citric acid. this product then proceeds through a series of reactions that result in the regeneration of oxaloacetate and the production of three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP

pyrimidines

cytosine and thymine single ringed nitrogenous bases

expressivity

degree to which an organism expresses its genotype

The right pump accepts _____________ blood from the body and moves it to the lungs by way of the _____________.

deoxygenated; pulmonary arteries

incomplete dominance

describes a situation in which an organism heterozygous for a trait will have a phenotype that is intermediate to both alleles neither allele is dominant or recessive

Liver functions

detoxifies exogenous and endogenous compounds. responsible for modifying ammonia (a toxic waste product from amino acid metabolism) to urea which is then secreted by kidneys

parthenogenesis

development of an unfertilized egg into an adult organism with haploid cells

disacharidases

digest disaccharides

chyme

digestion of solid food in stomach results in this semifluid mixture

isomaltase

digets isomaltose

maltase

digets maltose

pepsin

digets proteins by cleaving peptide bonds near aromatic amino acids, resulting in short peptide fragments

sucrase

digets sucrose

primary spermatocytes

diploid cells that undergo meiosis I forms two haploid secondary spermatocytes

small intestine

divided into three sections: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum most digestion takes place in the duodenum most absorption takes place in the jejunum and ileum

somatic nervous system

division of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for voluntary movement

microvilli

each villus has many of these, drastically increasing surface area available for absorption

allantois

embryonic membrane that contains the growing embryo's waste products

synaptic terminals

ends of axons that form one side of the synaptic cleft location where neurotransmitters are stored

chemical digestion

enzymatic breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules

entereopeptidase

enzyme critical for activating trypsinogen

reverse transcriptase

enzyme in retroviruses that uses RNA strands as templates to synthesizing cDNA molecules

carbonic anhydrase

enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of carbonic acid to carbon dioxide and water also catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid from CO2 and water

DNA ligase

enzyme that covalently links the Okazaki fragments together

zymogen

enzyme that must undergo processing before it can catalyze reactions

DNA polymerase

enzyme that polymerizes a complementary DNA strand in the 5' to 3' direction using a template DNA strand a primer is necessary for DNA polymerase to initiate polymerization

crossing over

exchange of genetic material between chromosomes )usually homologous chromosomes) occurs during prophase I of meiosis I aids in evolution and genetic diversity by unlinking linked genes

nondisjunction

failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during meiosis I and meiosis II respectively usually results in gametes that lack certain genes or have multiple copies of those genes

White fibers

fast-twitch muscle fibers. primarily anaerobic and fatigue more easily than the other type

Adipocyte

fat cell

fatty acid activation

fats must be activated using two ATP molecules before they can be converted into acetyl CoA and enter the citric acid cycle

zygote

fertilized egg

Purkinje fibers

fibers in the ventricles that transmit impulses to the right and left ventricles, causing them to contract

fibrin produces tiny ________.

fibers; aggregate in woven structure to make net which capture RBCsand other platelets forming a clot (plug)

After the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, thrombin converts fibrinogen into ________.

fibrin (active form); a protein.

Large Intestine

final part of GI tract. primarily involved in water absorption

villi

fingerlike projections that extend out of the small intestine in order to increase surface area for maximum absorption

cartilage

firm, elastic, translucent connective tissue consisting of collagenous fibers embedded in chondrin produced by cells called chondrocytes principle component of embryonic skeletons can harden and calcify into bone

pyruvate decarboxylation

first stage of cellular respiration. pyruvate is oxidized to acetate, which then combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coA in the mitochondrial matrix. process results in the formation of one NADH per pyruvate molecule or two NADH per glucose

epiglottis

flap of cartilage that covers the opening to the larynx when swallowing food in order to prevent food particles from entering

capillaries are leaky by design so ______ will be forced out of the bloodstream into the interstitial space of the tissues.

fluid

semen

fluid discharged during ejaculation consists of sperm cells and seminal fluid (fluid from the prostate and bulbourethral glands)

Cells want

fluidityPermeabilityBarrierconstant conditions to work

inversion

form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of a chromosome breaks off and rejoins the same chromosome in the reverse position

translocation

form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of one chromosome adds on to a nonhomologous chromosome

bolus

forms ball of food, forced back to the pharynx and swallowed

nephron

functional unit of the kidney subdivided into: Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, descending limb of the loop of Henle, ascending limb of the loop of Henle, distal convulated tubule, and collecting duct

CCK release leads to...

gallbladder contraction and pushing out of bile

nodes of ranvier

gaps between segments of myelin sheath where action potentials can take place allows saltatory conduction to occur

Alleles

genes coding for alternative forms of a given trait

linked genes

genes that are located on the same chromosomes

genotype

genetic makeup of an individual

mesoderm

gives rise to: musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, excretory system, gonads, connective tissue throughout the body, and portions of the digestive and respiratory organs

Effector Cell

gland or muscle receiving the neuron signal

pyloric glands

glands located in the walls of the stomach that secrete the hormone gastrin in response to certain substances in food

Leukocytes are divided into two categories?

granulocytes and agranulocytes

inner cell mass

group of cells in a blastocyst (mammalian blastula) that develops into the embryo

ganglia

group of neural cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

Angiogenesis

growth of new capillary blood vessels in the body, important for healing

gastric glands

have three different cell types; mucous cells, chief cells and parietal cells

All blood cells and most immune cells are formed from __________ cells.

hematopoietic stem cells (in bone marrow).

Each erythrocytes contains molecules known as _________ that carry oxygen.

hemoglobin

Muscle Tissue

highly cellular, well-vascularized tissues that are responsible for most types of body movement -3 types: skeletal, smooth (line hollow organs) and cardiac muscle tissue

stomach

highly muscular organ with capacity of approximately 2 liters.

progesterone

hormone made and released by the ovaries, corpus luteum, and placenta during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, the corpus luteum secretes this-which stimulates the development and maintenance of the endometrial walls for implantation of the embryo

estrogen

hormone made and released by the ovaries, ovarian follicles, corpus luteum, and placenta stimulates development of female reproductive tract and secondary sexual characteristics partly responsible for the LH spike that causes ovulation

testosterone

hormone secreted by the interstitial cells of the testes responsible for embryonic sexual differentiation, male sexual development, and the maintenance of masculine secondary sexual characteristics

prolactin

hormone synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary stimulates milk production and secretion in the female mammary glands

calcitonin

hormone synthesized and released by the thyroid gland that decreases plasma Ca2+ concentration, promotes bone formation

cholecystokinin

hormone that is secrete by the duodenum in response to the presence of chyme stimulates the release of bile and pancreatic enzymes into the small intestine

As fluid moves out of the capillaries ________ drops significantly.

hydrostatic pressure

What are the two pressure gradients that are set up in the blood?

hydrostatic(blood) and oncotic(osmotic) pressures

active immunity

immunity resulting from the production of antibodies during a previous infection or a vaccination

Proprioceptors

important for position and sense -help brain grasp relative position of body

Lymphocytes

important in specific immune response (body's fight against viruses and bacteria); some immediate response, others are long-term memory bank of previously encountered pathogens;

post-transcriptional RNA processing

in eukaryotes, once an RNA molecule is transcribed, it is spliced and a 5' cap and 3' poly-adenine tail are added RNA in prokaryotes does not undergo such processing

The biconcave shape of the red blood cell serves two purposes, what are they?

increase surface area (for gas exchange) and for travel through tiny capillaries.

bohr effect

increasing the concentration of H+ and CO2 reduces hemoglobins affinity for oxygen allows for the transfer of oxygen to cells that require it most

gastrin

induces parietal cells in stomach to secrete more HCL, and signals stomach to contract, mixing contents

induction

influence of a group of cells sometimes called the organizer on the development of other cells achieved by chemical substances known as inducers

primary response

initial response to a specific antigen T and B lymphocytes are activated and specific antibodies and memory cells to the antigen are produced

Antigens and Antibodies

initiate an immune response; there are antigens that are recognized as self and those that are recognized as foreign; we make antibodies to foreign antigens.

zona pellucida

inner layer of cells surrounding the oocyte secreted by follicle cells penetration of this layer by sperm forces the secondary oocyte to undergo meiosis II

amnion

innermost extraembryonic membrane that contains the fluid in which the growing fetus is suspended

endoderm

innermost of the three primary germ layers gives rise to linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts, parts of the liver, pancreas, thyroid, and bladder

vagus nerve

innervates, Stimulate to action, the SA node, slowing the contractions of the heart

myelin sheath

insulating substance that surrounds axons action potentials cannot take place in areas of the axon that are myelinated

When red blood cells mature what do they loose? Why?

internal organelles; allows more space for hemoglobin and don't want mitochondria to consume the oxygen ( mito use in aerobic respiration)

peristalsis

involuntary muscular contractions of the esophagus that push food down the digestive tract

Oncotic pressure exerts an ________ force and draws fluid, nutrients and wastes out of the tissues.

inward

arterioles,

is a small diameter blood vessel in the microcirculation that extends and branches out from an artery and leads to capillaries

serum.

is essentially plasma minus all of its fibrinogen and most of the other clotting factors

most absorption in small intestine happens in...

jejunum and ileum

superior vena cava

large vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the head and neck region to the right atrium of the heart

inferior vena cava

large vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body and the extremities to the right atrium of the heart

How do veins prevent back flow since they lack a lot of smooth muscle tissue?

large veins have one-way valves that open if blood forward and close if blood goes backwards; - failure of venous valves cause blood to pool leading to varicous veins; common in pregnant woman due to increased blood volume and venous pressure.

hypodermis

layer of loose connective tissue below the dermis that binds the dermis to the body

dermis

layer of skin beneath the epidermis divided into two layers 1. papillary layer 2. reticular layer contains sweat glands, sense organs, blood vessels, and bulbs of hair follicles derived from the mesoderm

Which side of the heart will be more muscular?

left

Starting from the left atrium give the path of the blood?

left atrium--(bicuspid or mitral valve) --left ventricle--(aortic valve)--aorta-arteries-arterioles-capillaries-venules-veins-IVC and SVC-right atrium-- (tricuspid valve)--right ventricle--(pulmonary valve)--pulmonary artery-lungs-pulmonary veins-left atrium

Path of the circulatory system

left ventricle-->aorta-->smaller arteries-->smaller arterioles-->smaller capillaries-->venules-->larger veins-->superior and inferior vena cava-->right atrium of the heart. right atrium-->right ventricle-->pulmonary arteries-->arterioles-->capillaries of the lungs-->venules-->veins-->pulmonary veins-->left atrium-->left ventricle.

Does fetal hemoglobin have a right or left shift hemoglobin curve?

left; needs higher affinity for oxygen so it can get it from placenta (lungs are not developed yet; moms blood delivers).

photoreceptors

light-sensitive protein receptors

spongy bone

lighter and less dense than compact bone consists of an interconnecting lattice of bony spicules (trabeculae) cavities between spicules contain bone marrow

surfactant

liquid substance produced by the lung that reduces surface tissue in the alveoli prevents lung collapse, and decreases the effort needed to expand the lungs (inhale)

gallbladder

located beneath liver and both stores & concentrates bile

gastric glands

located in the stomach secrete HCl and various enzymes (pepsin) when stimulated by gastrin

seminiferous tubules

located in the testes site of sperm production

Semilunar Valves

location: a) between the left ventricle and the aorta (the aortic valve) b) between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery (the pulmonic valve) - has three cups

memory T cells

long-lived antigen-specific T cells that are activated in secondary and subsequent immune responses to an antigen.

what are three things that will shift the curve to the right decreasing hemoglobins affinity for oxygen releasing more oxygen than it normally would? What is this effect known as?

low pH (i.e. high [H+]) which really signifies high CO2 blood content, high temp and high concentration of CO2; known as the Bohr Effect: looking at some partial pressure of oxygen we would see a lower % of hemoglobin saturated with oxygen

The two agranulocytes are?

lymphocytes and monocytes

Monocistronic mRNA

mRNA that codes forsingle type of protein, such as is found in eukaryotic cells.

Poycistronic mRNA

mRna that codes for several different proteins by utliizing different reading frames, nested genets, etc. Polycistronic mRNa is a characteristic of prokaryotes.

glucocorticoids

made and released by the adrenal cortex raise blood glucose levels while decreasing protein synthesis

growth hormone

made and released by the anterior pituitary stimulates bone and muscle growth as well as glucose conservation is inhibited by somatostatin and stimulated by growth hormone-releasing hormone (secreted by the hypothalamus)

luteinizing hormone

made and released by the anterior pituitary stimulates ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum regulated by estrogen, progesterone, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

thyroid stimulating hormone

made and released by the anterior pituitary stimulates the thyroid gland to absorb iodine (to produce hormones) regulated by TRH (released by the hypothalamus)

follicle stimulating hormone

made and released by the anterior pituitary gland stimulates the maturation of the ovarian follicles in females and maturation of seminiferous tubules and sperm production in males regulated by estrogen and gonadotropin-releasing hormone

parathyroid hormone

made and released by the parathyroid gland increases blood Ca2+ concentration by increasing Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidneys stimulates calcium release from bone

thyroid hormones

made and released by the thyroid gland thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine stimulate cellular respiration as well as protein and fatty acid synthesis and degradation

insulin

made and secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas decreases blood glucose concentrations by facilitating the uptake up glucose by muscle and adipose cells facilitates the conversion of glucose to glycogen in muscle and liver cells

Platelets are cell fragments derived from the breakup of cells known as ________. What function do platelets serve?

magakaryocytes (in marrow); platelets function is to clot blood.

colon

main function to absorb water and salts (such as NaCl) from undigested material left over from small intestine

Veins Transport

mainly deoxygenated blood to the heart, thin-walled, inelastic (stretch out easily, do not recoil); pump blood from lower body via large pressures, can exceed systolic P.

thermoregulation

maintenance of a constant internal body temperature

osmoregulation

maintenance of water and solute concentrations

albumin,

major plasmaprotein responsible for much of plasma collide osmotic pressure and serving an transport protein for large organic anions and for some hormone when their specific binding globulins are saturated

filtrate

material that passes from the blood vessels into Bowman's capsule

spermatozoa

mature sperm specialized for transporting genetic info from male to the ovum

vital capacity

maximum volume of air that can be inhaled or exhaled by the lungs with each breath

mastication

mechanical digestion in the mouth, involves breaking up large food particles into smaller particles by teeth, tongue and lips

Lysosome

membrane bound vesicle that contains hydrolytic enzymes used for intracellular digestion

mendel's law of segregation

mendel's postulation that there are alternate versions of genes that account for genetic variation each individual has two alleles for each gene: one maternal and one paternal in origin during meiosis these two alleles separate into two different gametes

macrophages in the brain are referred to as __________.

microglia

How many hemoglobin proteins are w/in1 RBC? How many oxygen molecules can 1 hemoglobin bind?

millions; 4.

threshold value

minimal value that must be reached in order for the system to respond muscle fibers and neurons exhibit an all-or-none response the system initiates an action potential only if this is reached

sarcoplasmic reticulum

modified form of endoplasmic reticulum stores calcium that is used to trigger contraction when the muscle is stimulated

noncompetitive inhibitor

molecule that inhibits the activity of an enzyme by binding to a regulatory site on the enzyme, thereby changing the conformation of the enzyme. These inhibitors do not directly compete with the substrate so increasing substrate concentration has little effect on catalytic rate

Interoceptors

monitor internal environment parameters -blood volume -blood pH -partial pressure of CO2 in the blood

After the first binding of oxygen to the heme group does the hemoglobin become more or less attractive to oxygen and what is that referred to as?

more; cooperative binding; first one induces a conformational shift in the other units from taut to relaxed , easier for subsequent oxygens to bind at the heme groups

Active transport

movement of particles from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration utilizing energy

Dynamic instability involves Catastrophe and Rescue Taxol prevents cancer by stabilizing mt GTP end and preventing cancer cell mitosis

mt length vs time catastrope when gtp fall off is fast/vert resu when gtp add on is slow/horiz mtoc stabilize - end

compact bone

much more dense than spongy bone consists of haversian systems (osteons)

endometrium

mucosal lining of the uterus where the embryo implants progesterone is necessary for the maintenance of this layer during pregnancy

follicle

multilayered sac of cells that protects and nourishes the developing ovum

ventricles

muscular lower chambers of heart right: pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery left: pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body

ciliary muscles

muscular tissue in the eye that attaches to the lens used to control the shape of the lens

iris

muscular tissue that controls the amount of light allowed in through the pupil

esophagus

muscular tube that connects pharynx to stomach

frame shift mutation

mutation in which a number of nucleotides (except multiples of three) are either deleted or inserted mutations of this type result in the translation of nonfunctional proteins

point mutation

mutation in which one nucleotide base is substituted by another protein products are usually fully functional

Cardiac muscle, like smooth muscle demonstrates which type of control?

myogenic activity; nervous system may change the rate but will function w/o input from NS.

Cardio Questions

myoglobin (in muscles) has to have a higher affinity to steal oxygen from hemoglobin

glomerulus

network of capillaries within Bowman's capsule that serves as the site of filtration blood cells and proteins are too large to be filtered but ions, glucose, and amino acids readily pass into the filtrate

efferent neurons

neurons that carry info from the CNS to other parts of the body

afferent neurons

neurons that carry info to the central nervous system

Afferent neurons

neurons that carry information from the PNS to the CNS

Absolute Refractory Period

no amount of stimulation will cause another action potential to occur

Can red blood cells divide?

no; do not have nuclei; live for 120 days.

codon

nonoverlapping group of three bases that code for a particular amino acid

steroid hormones

nonpolar hormones that permeate the cell membrane act by binding intracellular receptors

As the blood reaches the venule end of capillaries the hydrostatic pressure drops below the _______ pressure.

oncotic

anus

opening thru which wastes are eliminated

placenta

organ formed by uterus and extraembryonic membranes of the fetus contains a network of capillaries through which exchange between the fetal circulation and maternal circulation takes place

heterozygous

organisms that contain two different alleles for the same gene on corresponding chromosomes

homozygous

organisms that contain two identical copies of the same gene on corresponding chromosomes

Obligate intracellular parasites

organisms that require a host cell to express their genes and reproduce (virus)

corona radiata

outer layer of cells surrounding the oocyte secreted by follicle cells

chorion

outermost extraembryonic membrane contributes to the formation of the placenta

epidermis

outermost layer of skin composed of following sublayers 1. stratum basalis 2. stratum spinosum 3. stratum granulosum 4. stratum lucidum 5. stratum corneum serves as a protective barrier against microbial attack derived from the ectoderm

ectoderm

outermost of the three primary germ layers gives rise the integument tissue and nervous system

cecum

outpocketing that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine

erythrocytes

oxygen carrying component of blood anaerobic cells, lack organelles, packed with hemoglobin have a characteristic biconcave, disklike shape that facilitates gas exchange and mobility within blood vessels

The left pump receives _____________ blood from the lungs by way of the _______________ and forces it to the body through the ___________.

oxygenated; pulmonary vein; aorta

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system that control the heart?

parasympathetic (active, neurotransmitters decreases HR via vagus nerve) and sympathetic (when active increases HR)

medulla oblongata

part of the brain that controls functions such as breathing and heartbeat

facilitated diffusion

passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration using carrier molecules. Does not require energy

Osmosis

passive movement of water from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration; diffusion of water

penetrance

percentage of people in a population with a certain genotype who express the associated phenotype

Monocytes

phagocytize foreign matter (i.e. bacteria); aka macrophages upon leaving marrow, travel blood stream and move into tissue.

lytic cycle

phase in viral replication in which the host cell is lysed and releases new virions

interphase

phase of cell cycle in which cell division does not take place includes G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase cells in this phase may or may not be growing

lysogenic cycle

phase of viral replication in which the DNA of the bacteriophage becomes integrated into the host's genome and replicates as the bacteria replicates

phenotype

physical manifestation of an individual's genotype

Blood Composition

plasma, white blood cells & platelets, RBCs

episomes

plasmids that have the ability to integrate into the host genome

oral cavity

plays role in both mechanical and chemical digestion of food

peptide hormones

polar hormones incapable of permeating the cell membrane bind to surface receptors and act via second messengers

Sometimes blood passes through two capillary beds, which are connected by venules, before being returned to the heart, this is referred to as a _______ _______.

portal system

centrosome

portion of the cell containing the centrioles

ascending limb of the loop of henle

portion of the nephron not permeable to water as filtrate flows up the ascending limb through decreasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, Na+ is actively pumped out of the filtrate which decreases filtrate concentration

descending limb of the loop of henle

portion of the nephron permeable only to water filtrate becomes more concentrated as it travels through this portion due to increasing concentration of the interstitial fluid

collecting duct

portion of the nephron permeable to water and ions filtrate flows down here through increasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, the filtrate is concentrated further degree of water reabsorption here is controlled by the action of the hormones ADH and aldosterone

axon hillock

portion of the neuron that connects the cell body (soma) to the axon the impulses that the neuron receives from all the dendrites are summed up here to determine whether an action potential will be initiated

blastulation

process by which a morula develops into a cell with a fluid-filled cavity

gastrulation

process by which a single-layer blastula becomes becomes a three-layered cell

fermentation

process by which the cell is able to replenish the NAD+ used during glycolysis by oxidizing NADH. in this process pyruvate (the product of glycolysis) is reduced by NADH to form ethanol (in yeast) or lactic acid (in humans)

gluconeogenesis

process in the liver by which glucose is produced using by-products of glycolysis, lipids, or fats

repolarization

process that occurs when the voltage-gated Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open allows K+ to rush out of the cell and repolarize it

mucous cells

produce bicarbonate rich mucus that protects muscular wall from harsh acidic and proteolytic environment of stomach

glucagon

produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas increases blood glucose concentration by promoting gluconeogenesis and the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver

somatostatin

produced and secreted by the delta cells of the pancreas inhibits the release of glucagon and insulin

Ogliodentrocytes

produces myelin in the CNS

hemoglobin

protein found in erythrocytes composed of four polypeptide chains each containing a heme group responsible for transporting oxygen from the alveoli to cells

fibrin

protein responsible for blood clotting

Na+/K+ pump

protein that hydrolyzes one ATP to transport three Na+ out of the cell for every two K+ into the cell (both against concentration gradients)

blood antigens

proteins found on erythrocyte cell surface three cell surface proteins are used to differentiate blood groups (A,B, and Rh) if a host organism is transfused with erythrocytes containing these proteins that the host does not have, an immune response will be triggered such as in the case of erythroblastosis fetalis

Most arteries carry oxygen, but what are the two types of arteries that don't carry oxygen?

pulmonary and (fetal) umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood.

Which two veins actually carry oxygen?

pulmonary and umbilical veins

Which artery takes the blood from the right ventricle and pumps it to the lungs?

pulmonary arteries

What is the right semilunar valve termed?

pulmonary valve

indeterminate cleavage

rapid mitotic divisions that results in cells maintaining their totipotency, or ability to develop into a complete organism

Reuptake Carriers

recycle neurotransmitters back into the presynaptic neuron

The binding or releasing of oxygen to or from the iron atom in the heme group is what type of reaction?

reduction

monosynaptic reflex

reflex pathway that has only one synapse between the sensory neuron and motor neuron (knee-jerk reflex)

semiconservative replication

replicated molecule of DNA contains one strand from the original DNA molecule (used as template) and a newly synthesized DNA strand

duodenum

responsible for majority of chemical digestion and has some minor involvement in absorption

What happens after hemoglobin is full and releases one oxygen?

results in conformational shift in the reverse from relaxed to taut, decreasing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen (cooperative release); these two effects result in the sigmoidal shape for hemoglobin's binding curve

monozygotic twins

results when a zygote splits into two embryos both embryos contain identical alleles

dizygotic twins

results when two ova are fertilized by two different sperm two resulting embryos develop from distinct zygotes do not have identical alleles

peristalsis

rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle that propels food towards stomach

SA node location

right atrium

parietal cells

secrete hydrogen ions in stomach, such as HCL, it cleaves pepsinogen to pepsin (making it active)

chief cells

secrete pepsinogen, the inactive zymogen form of pepsin (a proteolytic enzyme)

aminopeptidase

secreted by glands in duodenum, remove N-terimanl amino acid from peptide

Mucus

secreted by goblet cells traps smaller dust particles and moistens the air.

pancreatic lipase

secreted from pancreases and breaks down fats into free FAs and glycerol

cholecystokinin (CCK)

secreted in response to entry of chyme into duodenum

pancreas in digestion

secretes amylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and lipase into the small intestine

intestinal glands

secretes maltase, sucrase, lactase, aminopeptidase, dipeptidase, and enterokinase into the small intestine

large intestine

section of the GI tract that consists of the cecum, colon, and rectum major function is to absorb salts and water

exons

segments of coding eukaryotic mRNA that are spliced together and translated

introns

segments of noncoding eukaryotic mRNA that are spliced out and not translated

There are also valves that protect backflow into the ventricles, what are these called?

semilunar valve

disjunction

separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I of meiosis I

action potential

sharp change in the membrane potential of neurons or muscle cells caused by a change in the selective permeability to K+ and Na+ using ion-gated channels all-or-none events

refractory period

short period of time immediately following an action potential neurons/ muscle cells are unresponsive to a stimulus in some cases: a stimulus that is much larger than the threshold causes an action potential in a cell (relative)

interkinesis

short rest period between meiosis I and meiosis II DNA is not replicated ovum remains in this stage until it is fertilized by sperm

Kinesin 13

short tail destrabilize mictrotubles for depol in metaphase shortens spingle mt to seperate chromosomes towards spindle poles This time no motor on heats they bind to MT

passive immunity

short-lived immunity resulting from the transfer of antibodies into an individual who does not produce those antibodies

Pigment Granules

shrink repending on Dynein(black spot) or Kinesin(more pigment/ high cAMP/ high PKA)

foramen ovale

shunt that connects right atrium to the left atrium in order to bypass the fetal lung

ductus arteriosus

shunt that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta in order to bypass the fetal lung

ductus venosus

shunt that connects the umbilical vein to inferior vena cava in order to bypass the fetal liver

Kairomones:

signaling molecules where one species signals another, normally to the benefit of only one of them

analogous structures

similar structures that share a common function but not similar origins

homologous structures

similar structures that share a common origin

ribonucleic acid

similar to DNA, but sugar is ribose, and adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine

Types of Passive Transport no energy needeed Carriers/Transporters

simple diffusion Ion channel Carrier

What is the pathway of electrical impulses in the heart?

sinoatrial (SA) node --> atriaventricular (AV) node --> bundle of His (AV bundle) --> Purkinje fibers

Mitochondria

site of aerobic respiration that provides the cell with a majority of its energy in the form of ATP. Is a semiautonomous organelle enclosed by two membranes, with an intermembrane space between the two membranes and a mitochondrial matrix enclosed by the inner membrane.

proximal convoluted tubule

site where glucose, amino acids, and other important organic molecules are reabsorbed lies in the cortex of the kidney

red fibers

slow-twitch muscle fibers primarily aerobic contain many mitochondria and myoglobin

villi

small fingerlike projections from epithelial lining

Okazaki framents

small fragments of DNA that form the lagging strand

polar body

small, short-lived haploid cell created during oogenesis receives very little cytoplasm, organelles, and nutrients

Arteries have much more _________ muscles than veins.

smooth; allows arteries to contract keeping blood flow moving forward.

synapse

space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron location of neurotransmitter release

humoral

specific immunity produced by B cells that produce antibodies that circulate in body fluids

systole

stage of heart cycle in which the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood

diastole

stage of heart cycle in which the heart muscle relaxes and collects blood into its four chambers

aldosterone

steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex responsible for reabsorption of sodium and water and the excretion of potassium

posterior pituitary

stores and releases hormones (oxytocin and ADH) synthesized by the hypothalamus the release of these hormones is triggered by an action potential that originates in the hypothalamus

leading strand

strand of DNA that is continuously synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction template strand is read in the 3' to 5' direction

lagging strand

strand of DNA that is synthesized in small fragments called Okazaki fragments then ligated together fragments are synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction

frequency summation

strengthening of contraction that results when stimuli are so frequent that muscle cannot full relax stronger contraction is due to the incorporation of more muscle fibers

sarcomere

structural unit of striated muscle composed of thin (mostly actin) and thick (mostly myosin) filaments

secondary response

subsequent infections by antigens trigger a more immediate response by the memory cells produced during the primary response

Blood Flow - Heart into Circulation (Deoxygenated blood from body to heart)

superior & inferior vena cavae --> right atrium --> right ventricle --> pulmonary artery --> lungs --> pulmonary veins --> left atrium --> left ventricle --> aorta (delivery to body; circulation)

Which two veins carry blood from the body to the right atria?

superior and inferior vena cava

upper esophageal sphincter

swallowing initiated of oropharynx

lymph nodes

swellings along the lymph vessels where lymph is filtered by leukocytes to remove antigens

beta blockers block which type of neural input?

sympathetic; administered after heart attack; reduces HR and bp

humoral immunity

synthesis of specific antibodies by activated B-cells in response to an antigen antibodies bind to the antigen and either clump together to become insoluble or attract other cells that engulf them

endocrine glands

synthesize and secrete hormones into the circulatory system examples: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thymus, pancreas, testes, ovaries, adrenal glands, thyroid gland, and parathyroid gland

exocrine glands

synthesize and secrete substances through ducts example: gall bladder

endorphins

synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary inhibit the perception of pain

adrenocorticotropic hormone

synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, stimulates the adrenal cortex to synthesize and secrete glucocorticoids regulated by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRF) (which is released by the hypothalamus)

adrenal cortex

synthesizes and releases corticosteroids (glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids) stimulated by ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

adrenal medulla

synthesizes and releases epinephrine and norepinephrine these hormones stimulate an increase in the metabolic rate and blood glucose levels

anterior pituitary

synthesizes and releases many vital hormones FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, and growth hormone under the hormonal control of the hypothalamus

transverse tubules

system of tubules that provides channels for ion flow throughout muscle fibers to facilitate the propagation of an action potential

lymphatic system

system of vessels and lymph nodes that collect interstitial fluids and return them to the circulatory system maintain a plasma protein and fluid balance also involved in lipid absorption and lymphocyte production

expiratory reserve volume

the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

residual volume

the amount of air that must remain in the lung at all times in order to prevent lung collapse

Fluid mosaic model

the current understanding of membrane structure, in which teh membrane iscomposed of a mix o lipids and proteins (a mosaic) that are free to move fluidly among themselves.

free energy change

the difference in potential energy between the initial state (reactants) and the final state (products). a negative value indicates a spontaneous reaction, a positive indicates nonspontaneous

Gastrulation

the division of the inner cell mass of a blastocyst (developing embryo) into the three primary germ layers. Gastrulation occurs during weeks 2-4 of gestation.

path of electrical impulse

the electrical impulse originates in the sinoatrial node (SA) located in the right atrium impulse then travels through the atrioventricular node (AV) then through the bundle of His and the purkinje fibers

glycogen

the form in which carbohydrates are primarily stored in the liver. this is easily converted to glucose-6-phosphate when the body needs it

What happens during diastole?

the heart is relaxed, semilunar valves are closed and blood from atria fills ventricles; low pressure.

left ventricle

the left ventricle, blood is pumped through the aorta.

Cells are below

the limit of resolution of the human eye, While the human eye can see up to 100um, a typical cell is only 10 to 20um

Granulosa cells

the majority of the cells surrouding an oocyte in a follicle. Granulosa cells secrete estrogen during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle (before ovulation).

total lung capacity

the maximum volume of air that the lung can hold includes the vital capacity and the residual volume

saltatory conduction

the means by which an action potential jumps from node to node along an axon

recombination frequency

the proportion of gametes that receive recombinant chromosomes if this is high between two particular traits, it can be inferred that they lie far apart on the same chromosome

intrapleural space

the space between the two membranes that cover the longs

Endosymbitoic theory

the theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as independent unicellular organsims living in symbiosis with larger cells

cardiac output

the total volume of blood the left ventricle pumps into circulation per minute this can be increased by increasing heart rate or stroke volume

tidal volume

the volume of air that is normally inhaled or exhaled with each breath

sclera

the white covering of the eye made up of connective tissue

lock and key theory

theory of enzyme catalysis stating that the active site's structure is complementary to the structure of the substrate

induced fit theory

theory of enzyme catalysis which states that the partial binding of a substrate to an enzyme alters the structure of the enzyme so that its active site becomes complementary to the structure of the substrate, enabling binding

retina

thin layer of cells containing photoreceptors at the back of the eye that convert light signals into neural impulses

Cytoskeleton

this gives the cell mechanical support, maintains shape, and functions in motility. It is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

Fats are absorbed through lacteals and enter the systemic circulation via the ___________.

thoracic duct

Thromboplastin converts prothrombin into ________.

thrombin

What is the most important content that the platelets release?

thromboplastin, clotting factor released

glycolysis

through a series of enzymatic reactions in the cytoplasm, glucose is converted into two molecules of pyruvate. The energy released in this process is used to produce a net yield of two ATP and two NADH molecules.

How do red blood cells make ATP if there internal organelles are gone?

through lactic acid fermentation

How do carbs and amino acids enter the blood?

through the small intestine capillaries via hepatic portal system

corpus luteum

tissue that forms from the collapsed ovarian follicle produces and secretes progesterone and estrogen

If the CO2 concentration is high in the blood which way will the hemoglobin curve shift?

to the right

TRANSCYTOSIS

transcellular transport - Endocytosis on one side and exocytosis on the other side

substrate level phosphorylation

transfer of a phosphate group from an organic compound to ADP glycolysis and the CAC utilize this to produce ATP

translation

transfer of information from an RNA molecule to a polypeptide three stages of polypeptide synthesis (initiation, elongation, and termination) require energy and is mediated by various enzymes mRNA is read in the 5' to 3' direction

cornea

transparent covering in front of the eye that refracts light and helps keep the eye in focus

The right AV valve is called what?

tricuspid valve

chylomicrons

triglycerides and esterified cholesterol molecules packaged into these

Pancreatic Peptidases

trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and carboxypeptidases A and B

bronchi.

two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carry air into the lungs. a right or left side

atria

two thin-walled upper chambers of the heart right side: receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava left side: receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein

meiosis

two-phase cell division in germ cells results in the formation of four haploid cells from one diploid cell

primase

type of RNA polymerase that adds short segments of RNA during replication to which DNA polymerase can add nucleotides without this DNA replication cannot be initiated

binary fission

type of asexual reproduction by which prokaryotes divide circular DNA molecule replicates and then moves to opposite sides of the cell cell divides into two daughter cells of equal size

amino acid derived hormones

type of hormone that is made by protein components some act via second messengers, others act similar to steroid hormones

disruptive selection

type of natural selection where both phenotypic extremes are favored over the normal phenotype

directional selection

type of natural selection where one extreme phenotype is favored over the normal phenotype and other extreme phenotypes

stabilizing selection

type of natural selection where the normal phenotype is favored while those outside the norm are eliminated

interoceptors

type of sensory receptor that monitors blood pressure, the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood, and the pH of blood within the body

exteroceptor

type of sensory receptor that monitors external signals such as light, sound, and temperature

proprioceptor

type of sensory receptor that monitors the bodys position in space

internal anal sphincter

under involuntary control (autonomic)

external anal sphincter

under voluntary control (somatic)

White Matter

unmyelinated axons

Gray matter

unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites

cardiac sphincter

valve between the esophagus and the stomach that prevents the content of the stomach from going back up through the esophagus

pyloric sphincter

valve between the stomach and small intestine that regulates the flow of chyme into the small intestine

mitral valve

valve located between the left atrium and left ventricle consists of two cusps and prevents backflow of blood from ventricles to atria

tricuspid valve

valve located between the right atria and right ventricle has three cusps and prevents backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atria

atrioventricular valves

valves located between the atria and ventricles tricuspid valve and mitral valve

semilunar valves

valves that prevent backflow of blood from the arteries back into the ventricles (aortic and pulmonary)

Which contains more blood in our body arteries or veins?

veins (3/4 blood volume)

Which part of the heart actually does the pumping?

ventricles

What happens during systole?

ventricular contraction (blood out) and closure of the AV valves; high pressure.

On the venous side of a capillary network, the capillaries join into __________ that join into ________ .

venules; veins

arteries

vessels that carry blood away from the heart vessels are muscular and do not have valves

veins

vessels that carry blood toward the heart thin-walled have valves to prevent backflow

two membranes the cover the lungs

visceral pleura and parietal pleura

epiglottis,

which is the cartilaginous member that prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing.

T-cell immunity

which type of immunity can provide a secondary response after a second exposure to a pathogen aka ceIl-mediated immunity

If a mom is Rh- and the baby is Rh+ is this bad?

yes; if this is her second child her body already began producing antigens to RH factor that can cross the placenta (one way; antibodies travel from mother to child).