MCAT Psych and Soc

Skeptical view (for globalization)

"global economy" is still regionalized and businesses are still tied to their country of origin --> says that the economy isn't globalist enough

out group

"them" the group we are not associated with

Dependency ratio

# people under 14 or over 65 / # people between 15 and 64 • Numerator is considered cohort of "dependent" people who can't contribute to workforce

person-situation controversy

(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)

Cluster C personality disorders

(anxious, fearful, "worried"): avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

reporting bias

(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info by subjects, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences

Replacement fertility rate

- # of children a couple must have to replace themselves and keep the population stable/in zero growth phase (2.1 in developed, 2.7 in developing)

Race vs. ethnicity

- *Race*: socially defined - based on physical differences between groups of people - *Ethnicity*: socially defined - based on shared language, history, nationality, or some other cultural groups

The sick role

- A pattern of behavior expected of people defined as ill. People are not expected to carry out routine, day to day duties and responsibilities - People bring you food and care for you, etc

Kinship (what are the 3 forms?)

- A relation that links individuals through blood ties, marriage, or adoption - Major role in socialization and maintains group solidarity

What is the social significance of aging?

- Age is socially constructed because notions of age vary around the world - Different cultures fix age with different meanings and different values - Eastern cultures tend to highly value age and wisdom, while Western cultures tend to highly value youth. EX: getting senior discounts - society has predetermined who is socially able to obtain those discounts based on their age range. Senior citizens are considered old in most cases by the rest of the population in the United States

As suburban and urban populations have become more alike, what has happened?

- An increase amount of people have moved to rural areas

Demographic of the suburbs

- At the beginning, it was mainly wealthy people moving out to the suburbs but now the environment is diverse and mixed (as diverse as urbanites)

Secularization

- Decline in influence in religion - Mostly due to modernization of religion and people moving away from the expectations of religion - Part of religious social change

Examples of relative deprivation

- Depends on how the person perceives their situation - EX: person who is just scraping by each month, but happy because they finally achieved their life dream of owning their own restaurant - EX: a wealthy businessman who is unhappy because he doesn't feel respected by his coworkers

Mass Society Theory

- Early theory that people join social movements not because of the movements' ideals, but because they feel marginalized by the rest of society and want to belong to something bigger than themselves - This theory was skeptival of the motivations of those involved in social movements - they were seen as dysfunctional, irrational, and dangerous - Viewpoint was strong in 20th century - time of Nazism - Theory did not persist through the 60's - Ended with Civil Rights Movement - people did not simply join for a psychological need of involvement, so this theory was moved away from

Age cohort

- Group of people who all share similar experiences and are the same age (came from the same generation) - A generation needs three common aspects: a sociocultural location or common experiences, a temporal location (20 to 25 years in length per generation), and a historical location or commonality of era EX: the baby boomers

Industrialization

- Growth in manufacturing, increased embrace of mechanical production, expanding of natural-resource forms of energy, spread of the wage-labor system, and the emergence of the factory - Key factor in the increase in immigration of people into cities from rural areas

What impact did industrialization have on families?

- Less children (in agriculutral culture, children were needed for work. In industrial, they're not as valuable) - Decline in closeness of extended family because of the geographic mobility required to visit, etc

Racial formation theory

- Looks at the social, economic, and political forces that result in socially constructed social identity - Sometimes real, sometimes unfounded

Malthusian theory

- Malthus hypothesized that unchecked population growth would quickly exceed carrying capacity, leading to overpopulation and social problems - As a solution, Malthus urged moral restraint: people must practice abstinence, sterilization, and have criminal punishments for those who have more children than they can support - Malthusian catastrophes refer to naturally ocurring checks on population growth such as famine, disease, or war - These Malthusian catastrophes have not taken place on a global scale due to progress in agricultural technology. However, many argue that future pressures on food production, combined with threats such as global warming, make overpopulation a still more serious threat in the future

Which rate is affected first, mortality or fertility?

- Mortality --> means that the population grows at first then plateau's when the birth rate begins to decrease

Fundamentalism

- Reaction to secularization - Anti-modernist Protest movement started in the early twentieth century that proclaimed the literal truth of the Bible, the name came from the Fundamentals, published by conservative leaders - Part of religious social change - Can create social problems when people become too extreme

Demographic transition theory

- States that the population will eventually stop growing when the country transitions from high birth and high death rates to low birth rates and death rates, stabilizing the population - Usually occurs in industrialized countries (less developed countries tend to rely on and follow more developed countries for their advancements)

Subculture vs. counterculture

- Subculture: group of people within a culture who distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong - Counterculture: cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society - Symbolic attachment to things such as clothing or music can be different - Can be formed based on race, gender, sexuality, etc

Hidden curriculum

- The nonacademic socialization and training that take place in the schooling system - can include norms, values, and beliefs - Often unintended, but has negative connotations; reinforces existing social inequalities by educating students according to their class and social status - EX: learn how to stand in line

Illness experience

- The process of being ill and how people cope with it - Can lead to a change in identity if the dz begins affecting decisions - Stigma's also associated with certain dz's

Overall, how are mortality and fertility rates affected by demographic transition?

- They both decrease

Why are social institutions important?

- They guide how people behave

Organization of social movements

- Type of group action - large informal groupings of indivduals or organizations that focus on specific political or social issues - They carry out, resist, or undo social change

Aging as a social construction

- While aging is a biological process, what it means to be "young" or "old" is socially constructed according to culture - There's no universal age that establishes someone as old

What is the strongest predictor in fertility rate?

- Women's educational attainment - More educated = lower fertility rate

pain intensified from:

-Anxiety, fear, sense of helplessness -Depression and sadness -Negative mood -Social and situational factors

Thought broadcasting Thought Insertion

-Belief that one's thoughts are broadcasted to the outside world -Belief that thoughts are being placed in ones head.

pain reduced from:

-Sense of control -Positive mood -Endorphins and enkephalins -Social and situational factors

loss of olfactory function

-due to : air pollution & smoking -due to : Parkinson's, Schizophrenia, Multiple Sclerosis. Alzheimer's

nociceptors

-free nerve endings -small sensory fibers in skin, muscles, and organs

basic tastes

-salty -sweet -bitter -sour -umami

skin sensations

-temperature (WARM & cold) -pain (including HOT) -pressure

Anal stage ages

1 to 3

Managing Stress

1) Aerobic exercise -increases production of NE, serotonin, endorphins 2) Biofeedback and relaxation -recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses in an attempt to train the individual to control those involuntary response 3) Social Support -spirituality

3 ways an individual's behavior may be motivated by social influences

1) Compliance: seek reward/avoid punishment 2) Identification: desire to belong 3) Internalization: integration of values that drives behavior

Three Components of Emotion

1) Physiological -physiological arousal (excitation of the body's internal state) 2) Behavioural 3) Cognitive -involves an appraisal or interpretation of the situation

Physiological Response to Stressors

1) Sympathetic Nervous System -acute stress response -releases epinephrine and norepinephrine from adrenal glands 2) Cortisol -long-term stress CRH (hypothalamus) -> ACTH (pituitary gland) -> Cortisol (adrenal cortex)

general adaption syndrome

1) alarm phase, 2) resistance (fleeing or adaption), 3) exhaustion

Influence of Language on Cognition

1)Social speech 2)Egocentric speech/private speech -children begin talking to themselves 3)Inner speech -child's understanding of grammar & relationship between words and objects; think without mouthing them Linguistic relativity hypothesis -cognition and perception are determined by the language one speaks

4 tenets of medical ethics

1. Beneficence (act in best interests of patient) 2. Justice (give healthcare fairly don't favor some patients over others) 3. Non-maleficence (do no harm) 4. Respect for autonomy (respect wishes of patient as long as they don't have disorder that obscures rational thinking)

5 forms of sexual identity

1. Biological sex 2. Gender identity (how the person identifies internally) 3. Gender expression 4. Attraction (whom the person is attracted to) 5. Fornication (who you actually have sex with)

Country population dynamics (3 metrics)

1. Birth rate 2. Death rate 3. Migration rate (immigration and emigration) All measured in terms of units per 1000 people in the country

Pathway of light

1. Conjuctiva: 1-cell layer thick that protects/moisturizes the eye 2. Cornea: transparent, thick, fibrous layer (anterior 1/6) that allows light through, bends, and protects eye 3. Anterior chamber: filled with aqueous humor that provides internal chamber to maintain shape; also carries nutrients for eye cells 4. Pupil - allows light though 5. Lens - bends and focuses light, mostly on fovea. Adjusts focus by suspensory ligaments (attached to ciliary muscles) 6. Posterior chamber: space behind iris/ciliary muscle, filled with aqueous humor 7. Vitreous chamber: filled with vitreous humor; jelly-like substance that supplies pressure to the back of the eyeball 8. Retina: converts ray of light to EM stimulus. Photoreceptors create electric impulse 9. Macula: part of retina rich in cones 10. Fovea: dip in macula almost completely covered in cones 11. Choroid: dark-pigmented cells that nourish the retina. All light that hits the choroid is absorbed 12. Sclera: thick, fibrous tissue coat that covers posterior 5/6 of eye. Serves as attachment point for muscles. Provides extra protection/structure for eye.

Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

1. Division of labor 2. Hierarchy of organization 3. Written rules and regulations 4. Impersonality 5. Employment based on technical qualifications

What are the 5 main social institutions?

1. Education 2. Family 3. Religion 4. Government and economy 5. Health and medicine

Weber's 6 characteristics of bureaucracy

1. Formal hierarchy 2. Managed by defined rules and regulations 3. Organized by functional specialty; different workers perform different tasks 4. Unified mission (ex: serving shareholders or serving itself by maximizing profit or market share) 5. Purposefully impersonal 6. Employment is based on technical qualifications

5 stages of demographic transition model

1. High birth and death rates (most countries were like this until 18th century) --> very young population 2. Population rises as food availability and healthcare improve; get a high birth rate and lower death rate 3. Death rates continue to drop but birth rate also starts dropping --> trend to smaller families, kids stop working and start going to school --> fewer young people (think South America and Middle East) 4. Stably low birth and death rates, but population is still big thanks to inertia from first 3 stages (think US, EU, Australia) 5. Hypothetical stage where Earth's population stabilizes because we have exhausted our natural resources

Four properties that sensory receptors communicate to the central nervous system

1. Modality - type of stimulus 2. Location - where stimulus is coming from 3. Intensity - frequency of action potentials produced by the stimulus 4. Duration - how long the stimulus lasts

What factors impact the fertility rate of a population?

1. Physical health and nutrition 2. Sexual behavior and human fertility 3. Political issues regarding childbirth and childrearing

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (from bottom to top)

1. Physiological (breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion) 2. Safety (physical safety, employment, resources, morality, family, health, property) 3. Love/belonging (friendship, family, sexual intimacy) 4. Esteem (self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect for and by others) 5. Self-actualization (morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts)

3 motivators for sexual activity

1. Physiological (hormones make you horny) 2. Cognitive (images can turn you on or off) 3. Cultural (motivated by what we think is socially acceptable)

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to age 2. object permanence 2. Preoperational stage: age 2 to 7, symbolic thinking, centration, inability to comprehend conservation 3. Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11; conservation, can think logically about concrete events and objects, but still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought 4. Formal Operational Stage: 12 to adulthood; develop abilities of abstract and moral reasoning, can comprehend abstract ideas.

Needs for a social movement

1. Strong organizational base 2. Political capital/ exposure 3. Money 4. Good charismatic leader(s)

Thompson-Hickey model of social stratification (USA)

1. Upper class (1% of people, celebrities and other rich folks, typically w/ annual salary above $500k) 2. Upper middle class (15% of people, mostly educated professionals and managers, salaries 75k-500k) 3. Lower middle class (32% of people, semi-professionals and craftsmen with some college education, salaries 35k-75k 4. Working class (also 32% of people, mostly blue-collar workers w/ little to no college education, salaries 16-35 k) 5. Lower class (14% to 20% of people, really poor people mostly on welfare)

Three general ways that individuals interact with their environments

1. people can choose the environment they live in and then the environment shapes them in a particular way 2. a person's distinct personality shapes show he or she interacts with his or her environment 3. a person's distinct personality affects a certain situation which that person in turn must react to

genital stage ages

12+

Stereotype content model

4 categories based on competence and warmth 1. High competence and high warmth --> admiration (in-group, close allies); high status but not competitive with in-group 2. Low competence, high warmth --> paternalistic stereotype (housewives, elderly and disabled people); low social status and not competitive with in-group 3. High competence, low warmth --> envious stereotype (rich people, feminists); high social status and competitive with in-group 4. Low competence and warmth --> contemptuous stereotype (welfare recipients, poor people); low social status and not competitive with in-group

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)

latency stage ages

6 to 12

conflict theory

A Macro theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. According to conflict theory, society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like money, land, power, and leisure

Population pyramids

A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex

punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Dependent Personality Disorder

A continuous need for reassurance. They tend to become dependent on one specific person, such as a parent or significant other.

Denomination

A denomination is a non-state sponsored, large, mainstream religious organization

Cochlear Implant

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

counterbalancing

A method of controlling for the order of effects in an experiment by having groups receive treatments in different order

five-factor model

A model developed to explain personality using five overarching personality traits which include extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreableness, and concentiousness, this was developed by Costa and McCrae

episodic buffer

A part of Baddeley's model of working memory, short term episodic memory

Body dysmorphic disorder

A person has an unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directly toward a certain body part. Sufferers often seek extreme behaviors such as plastic surgeries.

Fascism (Nautism? Solonism?)

A political system headed by a dictator that calls for extreme nationalism and racism and no tolerance of opposition

Rational Choice Theory Assumptions

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives. Assummes that people are fully informed, sensitive to subtle differences, and are fully rational.

GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)

A psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks.

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Hypomania

A slightly less extreme form of mania that does not impair functioning and does not have psychotic features. The individual is more energetic and optimisitic

Networks

A social network is a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected through others.

Dissociative fugue

A sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily activities. Linked with Dissociative amnesia.

feature detection theory

A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc.

Gestalt psychology

A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, especially for visual information, the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of serially processing all of the individual parts.

Modernization Theory

A version of market-oriented development theory that argues that low-income societies develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern economic institutions, technologies, and cultural values that emphasize savings and productive investment.

auditory tube

AKA the Eustachian tube, the auditory tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. It functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal

anterior pituitary gland

AKA the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus

Emotion and the ANS

ANS controls arousal -hypothalamus

prejudice

ATTITUDES, usually negative and not based on facts

Neural plasticity

Ability of the brain to change their experience, both structurally and chemically

Self-disclosure

Ability one has to disclose deepest fears, dreams, thoughts, and goals to one's partner

Empathy

Ability to personally identify with another person's emotions

perceptual organization

Ability to use bottom up and top down processing, in tandem with all of the other sensory clues about an object, to create a complete picture or an idea.

Parasomnias

Abnormal behaviours that occur during sleep

Dyssomnia

Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep

Identification

Acceptance of other people's ideas without thinking critically about them

Social behavior: Altruism

Act of caring about the welfare of other people and helping them. Altruistic behavior has proven to increase life satisfaction and decrease risk for depression and anxiety. More altruistic to close kin compared to far kin.

Discrimination

Active form of prejudice; acting in irrational way toward a particular group of people --> racism = discrimination based on race

Movement strategies and tactics

Activist: try to make change in society Regressive/reactionary movements: try to resist change

The Nature of Stress

Acute: physical symptoms Prolonged: immunosuppression, infertility, hypertension

Formal operational stage

Ages 12-->adulthood People learn abstract reasoning (eg hypothesizing) and moral reasoning

Preoperational stage

Ages 2-->7 Learn that things can be represented through symbols such as words and images, still lack logical reasoning, and are *egocentric* (do not understand that others have different perspectives)

Concrete operational stage

Ages 7-->11 Learn to think logically about concrete event, learn the principle of conservation (quantity remains the same despite changes in shape). Grasp mathematical concepts during this time.

Hyperglobalist theory

All countries are interdependent and part of a global society

relaxed state

Alpha waves

Conservative strategy (signal detection theory)

Always say no unless 100% sure signal is present. Can lead to some misses

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Am I able to live and work in a way such a way such that my life matters? Care Age 40-65

intimacy vs isolation

Am I able to love another person and to commit to myself to commit myself to people and things? Love Ages 20 - 40

Cone of confusion

Ambiguity in the sound information that reaches the ear. All of the points on the cone of confusion have the same interaural level difference and interaural time difference.

Expectancy-value theory

Amount of motivation required to reach a goal is affected by your expectations and how much you value the goal

How is loudness distinguished in the ear?

Amplitude of vibration; caused by more frequent action potentials of auditory neurons

Role of the Limbic System in Emotion

Amydala -emotional experiences -fear and aggression Hypothalamus -controls physiological aspects of emotion Prefrontal cortex -behavioural aspects of emotion -temperament -executive functions: decision making -Phineas Gage

Sigmund Freud

An Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory

Agoraphobia

An anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places of in situations where it may be hard to escape. Often onset by people with Panic disorder

Ecclesia

An ecclesia is religious group that includes most members of a society and is closely affiliated with or holds state or secular power

James-Lange Theory

An emotional experience is the result of behavioral and physiological actions, meaning that the physiological and behavioral responses to a stimulus will lead to the cognitive, subjective element of emotion

Depersonalization

An out-of-body experience. detached from their mind

Animal Signals and Communication

Animals need to communicate within their social groups about food, territory, mating, dominance hierarchies and predators in order to guarantee survival and social harmony. Warning colors employed by animals mimicry secretion of pheromones to attract mates. auditory communication (alarm calls when they see a predator)

Crude birth rate

Annual # births per 1000 people

General fertility rate

Annual # births per 1000 women of childbearing age

Mortality rate

Annual # deaths per 1000 people

Role-playing

Another way behavior shapes attitudes and how our roles in society shape behavior (Zimbardo's prisoner experiment at Stanford is a good example)

Social anxiety disorder

Anxiety caused by specific social situations (parties, public spaces, classrooms, etc.)

anxiety disorder

Anxiety is an emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. In a person with an anxiety disorder, the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning

Specific Phobia

Anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation. Ex. arachnophobia.. claustrophobia..

Cohort

Any group of people for a particular study

Rural area

Any settlement with less than 1000 people

Deviance

Any violation of a societal norm; can also be a positive act (the sit-ins of the 50's and 60's where black people sat at white-only restaurants)

Biomedical Approach

Appraoch to disorders rallying around the reduction of symptoms. Assumes any disorder has roots in biomedical arenas. Too narrow of a veiw

Ghetto

Area w/ high concentration of specific racial or ethnic group; function of socioeconomic inequality

Cultural/ethnic enclaves

Areas w/ high concentration of people w/ distinct culture or ethnicity (ex: Chinatown)

Food desert

Areas where fresh food is hard to find (usually in low-income neighborhoods)

Continuity theory

Assumes that people try to maintain the same basic structure of their lives throughout their lives

Rational choice theory

Assumes that people/movements look at all possible courses of action rationally before deciding what to do.

Biopsychoscocial approach

Assumes there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's disorder

Disengagement theory

Assumption that old people remove themselves from society when they retire and take more time to reflect on life

Urban area

At least 1000 people per square mile

Information processing models

Attention, perception, storage to memory

Principle of aggregation

Attitudes affect the aggregate of a person's behavior, but not every single action

functional attitudes theory

Attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense.

Situational attribution

Attributing behaviors to external causes (ex: thinking a bad driver is just late for work)

Dispositional attribution

Attributing behaviors to internal causes (ex: thinking a bad driver is a jerk)

Pathway of Sound

Auricle External Auditory canal Tympanic membrane Malleus Incus Stapes Oval Window Perilymph Endolymph Basilar Membrane Auditory hair cells Tectorial membrane Neurotransmitters stimulate bipolar auditory neurons Brain Perception

Consciousness

Awareness that we have of ourselves

Primary drives

Basic drives that alert the body to the fact that it is out of homeostasis (ex: hunger, thirst)

Psychological disorder

Behavioral pattern that impairs person's ability to function in social settings, personal life, or workplace

Postive symptoms

Behaviors, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior. Includes delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, and disorganized or catatonic behavior

Role

Behaviors, values, and beliefs expected of a person holding a certain status

Transformationalists

Believe that the world order is changing but not necessarily for better or worse

Freud

Believed most personality developed by age 5.

Just world phenomenon

Believing that the world is naturally fair and that everyone gets what they deserve

Circadian rhythm

Biological clock Pineal gland -production of melatonin(hormone that induces sleep)

Assertive strategies for impression management

Bragging, talking yourself up, wearing flashy clothes

Donald Broadbent

Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention

Game theory

Can be used to study social behavior in animals; centers on players, their actions, info available to them, and rewards associated with their actions

Government and Economy: Comparative economic and political systems

Capitalism: economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for a profit. Driving force=personal profit. Socialism: economic system where resources and production are collectively owned. Production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (for direct use instead of profit). Welfare Capitalism: system where most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society. State Capitalism: system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations.

Disorganized attachment

Caregiver behaves erratically --> child has no pattern of behavior in response to caregiver's absence or presence

Different types of stressors

Catastrophes -natural disasters, wartime events -anxiety, depression, PTSD Significant life changes Daily hassles -hypertension, immunosuppression

The culture industry includes

Celebrities, television, film, magazines and books.

Baddley's model, the four components of working memory

Central executive, episodic buffer, phonological loop, visuospatial sketch pad.

The role of culture in the expression and detection of emotion

Certain emotions are interpreted differently in different cultures. Gestures vary widely between cultures. Middle finger extension expresses anger in America, whereas it's a neutral symbol in several other cultures. Some facial expressions are universal, but the degree to which emotion is expressed is influenced by culture.

Catatonia

Certain strange change in motor abilities of someone with schizophrenia. The patient's movement may be greatly reduced or they may freeze, refusing to move.

Compliance

Changing behavior in response to a direct response, typically from somebody who doesn't have the authority to enforce that change

Obedience

Changing behavior in response to a request from somebody who actually has the authority to enforce it

Internalization

Changing your attitudes or behavior to fit in with a group

Dissociative Amnesia

Characterized by an inability to recall past experience. The amnesia is not due to a neurological disorder. Often linked to trauma.

Parkison's disease

Characterized by bradykinesia (slow movements), resting tremors, pill rolling tremors, mask like facies, cogweheel rigidity, and a shuffling gait with a stooped position.

Disorganized-type schizophrenia

Characterized by disorganized speech and behavior (ex: laughing for no reason), negative symptom of flat affectation or expression

Catatonic-type schizophrenia

Characterized by either diminished or heightened motor activity (catatonia). Heightened activities: Repeating words (echolalia) or actions (echopraxia), hyperactivity without a purpose, taking on bizarre postures, and weird mannerisms Diminished activities of catatonia: Catalepsy (loss of sensation and consciousness, stop in voluntary speech or motion (stupor)

Mood disorders

Characterized by elevation or lowering of mood beyond normal levels; includes Bipolar, major depressive, dysthymic, cyclothymic, and SAD disorders

Bipolar disorder

Characterized by extreme mood swings between depression and mania. Type 1: Marked by manic episodes (either irritable or abnormally euphoric mood) with or without depressive episodes; person tends to make bad judgement, talks more than usual, has too much energy and a delusional sense of self-esteem Type 2: Manic episodes are lest extreme but has major depressive episodes, characterized by feeling worse than usual for at least 2 weeks

Paranoid-type schizophrenia

Characterized by hallucinations and delusions

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Characterized by obsessions (repeated uncontrollable thoughts that cause anxiety) and compulsions (repeated behaviors that result from obsessions)

Anxiety disorders (generalized, social, phobias, panic, OCD)

Characterized by state of excessive apprehension about imminent event or thing --> increased physical arousal that can inhibit regular functioning

Global systems theory

Characterizes global inequalities in terms of *core nations* (more economically developed with strong governments and institutions) and *periphery nations* (less economically developed with weak governments and institutions) - Periphery nations usually rely on core nations - *Periphery countries* have a weak central government with little industrialization, while *semi-periphery countries* often have a stable government and an expanding middle class

Secure attachment

Child has a constant caregiver and can explore the world safely

Avoidant attachment

Child's caregiver barely responds to child's needs, so children have no preference for caregiver over total strangers

Ambivalent attachment

Child's caregiver is inconsistent in responding to child's needs --> child gets distressed when separated from caregiver but ambivalent about his/her return

Instinct theory

Claims that humans and animals are driven to act in certain ways because of programmed instincts

Caste system

Closed stratification; people can't change the class they are born into

Megalopolis

Cluster of metropolises (ex: Boston, NYC, Philly, Baltimore, DC)

Schizoaffective disorder

Co-mingling of mood symptoms with psychotic symptoms

Social capital

Collective/economic benefits derived from preferential treatment and cooperation between groups

Informational influence

Common ideas emerging out of a group decision are most in line with the dominant viewpoint

counter conditioning

Common treatment for fears and phobias.

Gemeinschaft

Communities built around shared values, ancestry, and geographical location

State capitalism

Companies are privately run, but the government runs some institutions like schools and the military (like the US)

Welfare capitalism

Companies run privately, but government has many social welfare programs (like US, more so in EU)

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Compilation of many known psychological disorders based on symptoms

fovea

Completely covered in cones, no rod. Image is very sharp because there are no axons in the way

Limbic System

Complex set of structures that play a role in motivation and emotion. Made up of amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, septa nuclei, and parts of the cerebral cortex.

Synthesis

Compromise between the thesis and antithesis

Relative poverty

Condition where a person lacks the minimum income or resources to maintain the average standard of living for a community or society

Barriers to effective problem solving

Confirmation bias Fixation(mental set-tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past though they may not apply to current situation) Functional fixedness

Behavioural Response to Stressors

Confront Avoidance PTSD -avoidance -hyperarousal (hypersensitivity, hypervigilance) -re-experiencing

Histrionic personality disorder

Constant seeking of attention, using dramatic means to express a shallow and temporary emotion

Alertness and arousal

Controlled by reticular formation(or RAS)

The looking glass self

Cooley's theory that our sense of self grows out of our social interactions and perceptions of others view of us

Display rules

Cultural expectations about emotions and how they should be expressed

Counterculture

Culture that strongly disagrees with the values of the dominant society Examples: Amish,

Microculture

Cultures of smaller communities (frats/sororities, schools, girl scouts, etc.); usually covers a limited period of an individual's life

Cognitive changes in late adulthood

Decline in recall Time-based tasks Slower information processing abilities (reaction time and speech)

Biological Basis of Parkison's

Decreased dopamine production in the sub-stantia nigra, a layer of cells in the brain that function to produce dopamine to permit proper functioning of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are critical to initiating and terminating movements

Avolition

Decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions often seen in schizophrenics

Consciousness-altering drugs

Depressants Stimulants Hallucinogenics All work by altering actions at neural synapses (enhancing,dampening,mimicking activity of brain NTs)

Absolute poverty

Deprivation of basic needs like food, drinkable water, shelter, and healthcare

The cinderella effect

Describes the direct relationship between step-relationships and abuse

Social behavior: Aggression

Destructive force to social relations. Defined as behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. Intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group.

Schizoid personality disorder

Detachment from people and limited range of emotional expression

Derealization

Detachment from surroundings. The world becomes a dreamlike state

Family group

Determined by birth, adoption, marriage; united by blood and legal ties

Differential association theory

Deviance and patterns of deviance can be learned thru interactions with others

Integrity vs. Despair

Did I live a good life? Wisdom Ages 65 to Death

Interaural level difference

Difference in sound pressure level between the ears

How is pitch distinguished in the ear?

Different frequencies stimulate different areas of the basilar membrane. High pitch: closer to base of cochlea (oval window); thick and sturdy for higher frequency Low pitch: closer to apex of cochlea; thin and floppy for low frequency (longer wavelength)

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep

Role strain

Difficulty in fulfilling multiple expectations of the same role

Role conflict

Difficulty in fulfilling the expectations of two or more roles at once (ex: dad coaching his kid's team... does he play his kid over a better player?)

Biological markers of Alzheimer's disease

Diffuse atrophy of the brain Flattened sulci in cerebral cortex Enlarged cerebral ventricles Deficient blood flow in parietal lobes Reduction in Acetylcholine Reduced metabolism in temporal and pareital lobes Senile plaques of beta-amyloi, a misfolded protein Neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphrlyalted tau protein

Somatic symptom disorder

Displaying a symptom of physical illness that can't be explained entirely by general medical condition One or more somatic symptoms that are distressing or result in significant disruption in daily life

Self-presentation

Displaying yourself to society thru culturally acceptable behaviors

Dissociative disorders

Disruption of perception, identity, memory, or awareness as a tool for avoiding significant stress

Disturbance of affect

Disturbances in the expression of emotion

Divided Attention

Divided Attention concerns when and if we are able to perform multiple tasks at the same time. This depends of the characteristics of the activities one is trying to multitask.

L-Dopa

Dopamine precursor used to treat Parkinson's disease

The theory of multiple intelligences

Dr. Gardner proposes seven different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are: Linguistic intelligence ("word smart") Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart") Spatial intelligence ("picture smart") Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart") Musical intelligence ("music smart") Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart") Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart") Possibly an eighth is Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Front Stage vs. Back stage self

Dramaturgical perspective: suggests that our identities are not stable, but dependent on our interactions with others; in this way, we constantly remake who we are, depending on the situations we are in. Front stage: how we present ourselves to others Back stage: when we "let our guard down" and be ourselves.

Motivation

Driving force/reason behind doing things

Brain study methods

EEG, neuro-imaging (PET, fMRI), effects of brain damage (strokes)

Religion: Organizations

Ecclesia: A dominant religious organization that includes most members of the society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions. It is often integrated into political institutions, and people do not choose to participate; they are born into it. Church: a type of religious organization that is integrated into the larger society. Church memberships tends to occur by birth, but most churches allow people to join. Sect: a religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society. Formed by breaking away from larger religious institutions. Over time some sects may develop into churches. Membership by birth or conversion. Cult/new religious movement: far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle. Have a bad reputation and quickly judged by the society to be "crazy".

Law of proximity

Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit. Ten dots in shape of triangle viewed as triangle not 10 dots

Directions in auditory space

Elevation - relative height of the sound above or below a plane extending outward from between the ears Azimuth: angle left or right from a symmetry line equidistant from the ears

Emotional Response to Stressors

Emotional stresses can be correlated with worse medical outcomes

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotional-inducing stimulus -> Physiological Response + Conscious Cognitive Interpretation -> Behavioural Response -> Labeling of Emotion • Emotional expression is hypothalamic • Emotional feeling is in the dorsal thalamus • Physiology and subjective feeling are independent • Physiological arousal doesn't have to precede subjective feeling of emotion

Adjustment disorder

Emotional/behavioral symptoms when a person is unable to cope with a specific stressor and has impaired social, occupational, and persional function

Expressing and detecting emotion

Emotions are vital in explaining how we react to situations and others. They arise based on our appraisals of situations. Some involve no conscious thought (likes, dislikes, and fears) whereas other complex emotions (love, guilt, hatred) can have important influences on our memories, expectations and interpretations. We detect emotions in others using clues: body language, tone and pitch in their voices, and expression in their faces.

Language

Empiricist -behaviorists; conditioned behaviour Nativists -rationalists; human ability prewired into the brain Materialist -language and cognition; thoughts and words

Episodic buffer

Episodic memory

Ethnocentrism

Evaluation of other cultures based on preconceptions and ideas that come from standards and customs of one's own culture

Applying game theory

Evolutionary game theory: used to try and predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behavior of a population. Used to explain how altruistic behaviors work in the context of natural selection.

Cognitive dissonance theory

Explains why justification is a potent influence on attitudes; people try to look for consistency between their opinions and make changes when they find inconsistencies

Stigma

Extreme disapproval of certain person or group based on perceived deviations from social norms

Slum

Extremely populated area w/ makeshift housing and poor/non-existent sanitation systems

Delusions

False beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others.

Agents of socialization

Family, school, ethnic/religious background, peers/social groups, government, work, media

Mary Ainsworth

Famous for her "strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants

Culture shock

Feelings encountered when people are exposed to unfamiliar cultures

response to stress

First response: physiological flight or fight response. Adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine. Increased heart rate and respiration characteristic of stressful encounters. Blood flow directed away from digestive system and to the skeletal-muscular system, as well as dulling pain Second response: cognitive response, hypothalamus resleases corticotropin-releasing hormone which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone, which in turn stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal glands. Cortisol helps the body to maintain the continuous supply of blood sugar needed to sustain a stress response by shifting the body from using glucose as an energy source to using fat, thus making more glucose available

stages of social behaviorism

First stage: preparatory stage: children do not yet undcerstand that different people see the world differently, and therefore merely imitate their parents, siblings, and other children Second stage: Play stage, children are now able to take on the roles of others when playing, therefore begin to learn different perspectives and theory of mind Third stage: Game stage: children learn and play multiple roles at once

System for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)

Focuses on 3 fundamental dimensions of interaction 1. Instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive 2. Dominance vs. submission 3. Friendliness vs. unfriendliness

Conflict perspective of media

Focuses on how media portrays or perpetuates divisions within society (gender, race, ethnicity, etc.) • Shows how some views dominate while others are suppressed

Hippocampus

Forming memories Often associated w/ emotions

Genital stage

Freud's stage of psychosexual development when adult sexuality is prominent

Manifest content

Freud: Plot lines of dreams Symbolic versions of underlying latent content

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (5)

From bottom: physiological, safety, love/belongingness, esteem, self-actualization

Example of macrosociological perspective

Functionalism and conflict theory

Religion and social changes

Fundamentalists: adhere strictly to religious beliefs. Some may adhere more to the beliefs of the religion without the rituals or to the rituals without the beliefs. Others may define themselves as part of a religion but do no practice their religion actively or attend any formal religious events.

Resocialization

Getting rid of old behaviors to take on new ones (ex: training soldiers to obey orders strictly)

Persistant Depressive Disorder

Given to individuals who suffer from dysthymia, a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode, but is long lasting for at least two years for diagnosis

Rational legal authority

Government based legal rationality, legitimacy, and bureaucracy

Theocracy

Government by religious principles, run by religious figures

Government and Economy: Power and authority.

Governments across the world derive their power from different places. Rational-legal authority: the constitution. Traditional authority: power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice. Charismatic Authority: power of persuasion.

Blunting

Great reduction in intensity of emotional reduction seen in schizophrenia

Reference group

Group against which individuals can evaluate themselves

Society

Group of people that lives together in a specific geographic area shares a common culture and provides organization for people Phone analogy: hardware

Peer group

Group of people with similar ages, statuses, interests... self-selecting as opposed to family

Minority

Group that makes up less than 1/2 of the population and is treated differently because of this

Gesellschaft

Groups build around mutual self-interest (corporations, countries, etc.)

Group polarization

Groups make decisions that are more extreme than the initial individual opinions of its members

Physiological markers of emotion

HR, BP, respiratory rate, sweating(skin conductance), release of stress hormone

Universal emotions

Happiness Sadness Surprise Fear Disgust Anger

Transnational Corporation (TNC)

Has branches and stages of commerce in many countries Examples: McDonald's, Ford, GE, Coca Cola

Primary group

Has direct interaction between members with close relationships that tend to last a while (families, friend groups, etc.)

Polygyny

Having multiple wives to one husband

Semicircular canals

Head rotation

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.

Conduction Hearing Loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Heinz dilemma

Heinz's dilemma is a frequently used example in many ethics and morality classes. One well-known version of the dilemma, used in Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development, is stated as follows: A woman was near death. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's laboratory to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?[1]

Spotlight Model

Helps explain "Visual Attention" - In this model, the spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within ones visuals field. Moving our focus from on object to another (basically moving the spotlight)

Selective Priming

Helps explain the Cocktail part effect, and this concepts states that one can be selectively primed to observed something, either by encountering it frequently or by having the expectation. (one is more likely to notice something when it occurs)

Cerebrum

Highest part of brain; includes cortex (frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes) and subcortical structures (hippocampus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb)

Biological basis: Schizophrenia

Highly associated with an excess of dopamine in the brain; many medications used to treat schizophrenia block dopamine receptors.

Biological Basis Depression

Hippocampus atrophy after a long duration of illness High levels of cortisol Decreased levels of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin

Binding problem

How different aspects of an object are assembled together and related to a single object

Appraisal

How the situation is interpreted by the individual

Attribution theory: covariation model

How we explain the behaviors of others. 3 cues are consistency, distinctiveness (of the situation) and consensus (of the behavior of others in the group)

Role performance

How well does a person carry out a certain role?

Genetic capability

How well the genes of two mating animals work together to create viable offspring

Cognitive component of attitude

How you think about something

Bipolar II disorder

Hypomania with at least one major depressive episode

Cultural relativism

Idea that a person's activities should be viewed and understood through the context of their own culture

Exchange theory

Idea that an individual's behavior can be predicted by the rewards and punishments for certain actions • Guided by self interest and dependence on others • People use their rationality to minimize punishment and maximize reward

Weak social constructionism

Idea that most knowledge is not socially constructed but based in cold, hard scientific fact

Non-material/symbolic culture

Ideas, beliefs, values

Echopraxia

Imitating one's actions in schizophrenia

latency stage

In Freud's Psychosexual Stages when you have dormant sexual feelings ( 5 - puberty)

Frequency Theory

In Hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

Cerebellum

In charge of balance, timing of movements (gait, posture, complex tasks like typing)

Place Theory

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.

response threshold

In order to activate a node the electrical signal must pass this threshold

Disorganized behavior

Inability to carry out ADLs

Biopsychosocial approach to disorders

Incorporates cultural and psychological influences into account as well as biomedical phenomena

Biological Basis of Bipolar disorder

Increased serotonin and norepinephrine. Higher risk if others in family have it so partially genetic related.

Role of culture in cognitive development

Individual learns social relationships and converts these into metal capabilities E.g languages result in different ways of thinking

Why people move to cities

Industrial revolution took away farming jobs and a allowed for easier construction of buildings --> more jobs and public services in cities

Reactive attachment disorder

Infant or child can't establish healthy attachment to parents or caregivers --> withdrawal, sadness, no interests in playing games, watching others be social but not engaging with them, not seeking comfort Can't be diagnosed with this if you're on the spectrum for autism

Mores

Informal norms that carry major importance for society that can result in severe social sanctions if broken

Folkways

Informal norms that have less significance attached to them, but would make people think you're weird if you violate them (ex: eating a fancy steak with your hands)

Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention

Inputs from the environment first enter a sensory buffer, then one of these inputs is selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input (e.g. sensory modularity). This filter causes us not to become overloaded with information, then the selected material will go an be stored in short term memory. model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect

Individual vs. institutional discrimination

Institutional - unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives. Members of the minority group are much more likely to encounter institutional discrimination than members of majorities. Individual - when one acts in a certain different way towards a group.

Intergenerational vs. intragenerational mobility

Inter -- being higher or lower than your parents Intra -- being higher or lower than your siblings

Sleep apnea

Intermittently stop breathing during sleep,which results in awakening after a minute or so without air

Delusions of grandeur

Involve the belief that the person is remarkable in some significant, albeit unrealistic way

bottom-up processing

Involves processing information by starting with the individual elements of a visual stimulus and gradually building up a final representation and interpretation (Grivas, et al, 2006). Focuses on gestalt, depth and constancy principles.

Phobias

Irrational fear and avoidance of specific things. Examples: Acrophobia (heights), agoraphobia (fear of situations that are hard to escape), claustrophobia (enclosed spaces), arachnophobia (spiders)

Prejudice

Irrational preconceived notions about a person, group or thing before having any experience with that entity. Most significant social factors in prejudice are class, socioeconomic status, power, ability to achieve goals, and prestige

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory Schachter-Singer Theory

Bilateral descent

Kin groups derive equally from both parents

Family: forms of kinship

Kin is considered a cultural group rather than biological. Nuclear family - direct blood relations Extended family- grandparents, aunts, uncles Three types of authority patterns based on gender: - Matriarchy: women have authority over men - Patriarchy: men have authority over women - Egalitarian: equal authority; more negotiation

Labeling theory

Labels given to people can affect how others see them and how they see themselves

Antisocial personality disorder

Lack of regard for the rights of others, shows pattern of violating these rights (getting into fights, doing illegal things, and not feeling about it); much more common in men A pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. Often manifests itself into illegal actions. Many serial killers have this and 20-40% of the prison population does. 3x more common in males than females

Organizations

Larger and less personal than groups; can continue to function when individual members leave entity that comes together with a specific culture and structure, set on achieving specific goals

nonassociative learning

Learning involving exposure usually to a single event, and that is presumed not to reflect learning of a relationship between multiple events

Primary socialization

Learning of acceptable actions and attitudes during childhood (usually from parents, siblings, friends, teachers)

Secondary socialization

Learning what is acceptable in a smaller section of society (how to behave at school or in the workplace)

Periphery Nations

Less economically developed with weak governments and institutions

Peripheral countries

Less industrialized, usually rely on one or a few type of raw material (Russia, most of Africa and Latin America). Features small upper class and large, weak lower class

Acute Stress Disorder (ASD)

Less intense version of PTSD. Has brief intrusive recollections within 4 weeks of traumatic event. Lasts between 3 days to a month

Class system

Less rigid classes made up of people w/ similar wealth and education; people can move up and down through work habits and luck

Dysthymic disorder

Less severe than major depressive disorder, but has persistent depressive mood

Cyclothymic disorder

Less severe version of bipolar II disorder, frequent cycle of hypomanic and depressive episodes

Reciprocal liking

Liking somebody more because you know they like you back

Resource model of attention

Limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks -task similarity -task difficulty -task practice

Noam Chomsky

Linguist Language acquisition device (LAD) -innate feature unique to human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood -"universal grammar"

Personality disorders

Long-lasting, inflexible, maladaptive patterns of behavior that impair cognition, emotions, and interpersonal behavior. Tend to by ego-syntonic (patient thinks his behavior is normal)

Charles Cooley

Looking glass self: that a person's sense of self develops through interactions with others

cross-sectional study

Looks at a group of different people at one moment in time

World systems theory

Looks at the world as a unit rather than individual countries, divides the world into core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral countries. Criticized for focusing too much on economies and not enough on social class or culture

Disorganized thought

Loosening of associations often seen in speech where ideas shift from one subject to another in such a way that a listener would be unable to follow the train of thought

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

Major depressive disorder with seasonal onset (usually winter); correlated with abnormal metabolism of melatonin, low serotonin levels, both of which can be reduced by exposure to sunlight --> bright light therapy helps

Iron law of oligarchy

Majority of bureaucratic organizations are ruled by a small group of elites

Parkinson's law

Management and professional staff of bureaucracies grow at steady, predictable rates, regardless of what the bureaucracy is actually doing

Bipolar I disorder

Manic episodes with out without major depressive episodes

Basic model of emotional expression

Many forms of expression are consistent with the theory of evolution. Expressions are similar across cultures (ex: everyone smiles when happy and cries when said)

Cluster A Personality Disorders

Marked by behavior that is labeled as odd or eccentric to others.

Cluster B Personality Disorders

Marked by behaviors that are labelled as dramatic, emotional, or erratic to others. antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic

Paranoid Personality Disorder

Marked by pervasive mistrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives. In some cases these patients may be in the prodromal phase of schizophrenia

Conformity

Matching your own attitudes and behaviors to social norms

Blumer's third tenet of symbolic interactions

Meanings can change over time based on experience or other factors • Ex: you won't rest under trees anymore because you got bit by an ant once

Utilitarian organizations

Members are paid for their efforts (businesses)

Coercive organizations

Members don't have a choice of joining (ex: prison)

Normative organizations

Members join based on shared, moral goals (ex: American Red Cross volunteer division)

Connection between social expectations and altruism?

Members of society internalize the idea that it is a good thing to help others

Threshold

Minimum amount of stimulus required to deliver a difference in perception

Absolute threshold for sensation

Minimum stim intensity to detect stimulus 50% of the time

filter model

Model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through (Broadbent)

Family: marriage and divorce

Monogamy: 2 individuals married only to each other Polygamy: an individual married to more than one person - Polygyny: man married to multiple women - Polyandry: woman married to more than one man. Endogamy: marrying within a particular group exogamy: marrying outside a particular group Divorce: rate has increased. Growing social and religious acceptance of divorce. Financial and legal barriers to divorce have lessened over time as it has become more common.

Major Depressive Disorder

Mood disorder characterized by at least one major depressive epsisode, a period of at least two weeks with at least two symptoms one of them being depressed mood or anhedonia (loss of interest in all enjoyable activities) Decreased energy, sleep disruption, change in appetite, huge weight change, feelings of guilt, loss of interest in activities you used to like, thoughts of suicide

Kohlberg's theory

Moral reasoning, the difference between right and wrong. 3 stages with 2 levels each.

Patrilineal descent

More kin derived from father's side

Matrilineal descent

More kin derived from mother's side

Situational couple violence

Most common form of intimate partner violence. It is violence that erupts when a disagreement turns angry

Effects of Stress on Psychological Functions

Motivation Learned Helplessness PTSD

Urbanization

Movement of people from rural areas to urban areas

Activist Movements

Movement trying to change aspect of society

Transformationalist

National governments are changing, world orders are changing, but unclear as to how. New world order design is developing, outcome of globalization is unknown

Core Nations

Nations, usually European, that enjoyed profit from world economy; controlled international banking and commercial services such as shipping; exported manufactured goods for raw materials.

Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development

Nature and nurture E.g Amount and quality of schooling and genetics

Fast adapting

Neuron fires as soon as the stimulus starts, then stops firing. Then starts again when the stimulus stops

Slow adapting

Neuron fires in the beginning of a stimulus but then calms down after a while. One example is pain

Social construction model of emotional expression

No biological basis for emotions or their expression --> says that they are based entirely on experiences and social context

Stage 1 of sleep cycle

Non-REM sleep EEG:Theta waves -low to moderate intensity; low frequency Slow REM; EMG moderate activity

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Non-verbal - all methods of communication that we use that do not include words. (gestures, touch, body language, eye contact, facial expressions). Act of verbal communication also employs nonverbal cues (pitch, volume, rate, rhythm.

Secondary drives

Not based in biological need and stem from learning/experiences (ex: love, aggression)

Crude death rate

Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year

age specific death rate

Number of deaths within a certain age group/Total number of persons in that age group

Sensorimotor stage

Object permanence

Law of similarity

Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together. Big hallow dots distinct from black dots, forming a triangle against background of black dots

Actor-observer bias

Observer will have tendency to blame their behavior on external/situational factors and tends to blame the actor's behavior on internal stable traits

Interaction process analysis

Old way of observing and classifying interactions between people in small groups

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

One has a grandiose sense of self-importance and is constntly preoccupied with fantasies of success. Often has low self esteem and is constantly concerned with how others view them.

Borderline personality disorder

Ongoing deficiency in one's ability to control one's own mood and self image --> mood wings, reckless behavior, and fear of abandonment, seeing people as 100% good or 100% bad much more common in women

Antithesis

Opposing view to the thesis

Institutions

Organizations that fulfill some kind of social need for individuals (police, schools, hospitals, religions, businesses, governments, even families, etc.)

Avoidant personality disorder

Overwhelming shyness and fear of rejection

Brainstem

Part of CNS connecting spinal cord to brain • Contains medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain • Regulates CNS • Controls sleep cycle, heart rate, breathing, eating, etc.

Dissociative identity disorder

Patient has 2 or more personalities that alternate back and forth

Brief psychotic disorder

Patient has a psychotic symptom for at least a month

Ego-dystonic

Patient recognizes that the illness is troubling and intrusive

Shizoid Personality Disorder

Pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression. People with this disorder show little desire for social interaction and have poor social skills. NOT SCHIZOPHRENIA

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

Pattern of odd or eccentric thinking. Have ideas of reference, similar to delusions of reference albeit not as intense. Additionally, they may have magical thinking, such as superstitions. NOT SCHIZOPHRENIA Unusual patterns of thinking that inhibit interpersonal functioning and communication --> paranoid thinking, weird behaviors, and weird speech patterns

Blumer's first tenet of symbolic interactionism

People act based on the meanings they give to things • Ex: person will lie under tree to rest because it provides shade

Optimism bias

People believe bad things only to happen to other people and not to them

Bystander effect/apthy

People don't help victims if there are other bystanders present

Cosmopolites

People drawn to the city for cultural reasons (students, artists, intellectuals, etc.)

Educational segregation

People go to school where they lived, segregating schools in a different manner

Goffman's dramaturgical perspective of impression management

People imagine themselves playing certain roles in a theater, so our identities depend upon our situations and people we are with... we have front stage and back stage behaviors

Social facilitation

People perform tasks better in the presence of other people; happens because presence of other people stimulates arousal

Mere exposure effect

People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli over new stimuli

Social loafing

People put in less effort when in a group setting, especially if the group is being evaluated as a whole and not on an individual basis

Attribution theory

People try to understand behaviors of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them Covariation model: How we explain the behaviors of others. 3 cues are consistency, distinctiveness (of the situation) and consensus (of the behavior of others in the group)

How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination

People with more power, prestige and class can account for prejudice towards those on the lower level of society. Any unequal status sets the stage for prejudice. People at the top are motivated to try to justify and maintain the differences within the levels of society by using prejudice as a tool.

Subjective Contours

Perceiving shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus

Hallucinations

Perceptions that are not due to eternal stimuli, but have a compelling sense of reality. Most common form is auditory. Visual and tactile are less common

law of pragnanz

Perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible

Yerkes-Dodson law

Performance is least efficient at high and low levels of arousal --> optimal place is somewhere in the middle. Too little arousal --> no interest in task Too much arousal --> efforts impaired by anxiety

Narcolepsy

Periodic,overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 mins

Generalized anxiety disorder

Persistent worry about different things for at least 6 months

Depersonalization/derealization disorder

Person feels detached from own body and mind (depersonalization) or from surroundings (derealization)

Role partner

Person you're interacting with when playing a certain role

Eysenck's three factor model

Personality model based on reticular formation & limbic system (3 parts) 1) Extraversion 2) Neuroticism 3) Psychoticism

Alan Baddeley's model of working memory

Phonological loop Visuospatial sketchpad Episodic buffer Central executive

proximal stimulus

Physical stimulation that is available to be measured by sensory apparatus of the observer. For example, light waves or sound waves

Drive reduction theory

Physiological need will create a chemical state in the body that drives a person to engage in a behavior that will fulfill that need. Ex: body needs glucose --> person feels hungry -> eats

formal operation stage

Piaget's 4th stage of his developmental theory, from age 12-adulthood. During this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning

preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage in his developmental theory from ages 2-7;during this stage, children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can represent something else, they remain egocentric in this stage. When assimilation happens.

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical concepts

affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions; these policies have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination

Wernicke's area

Posterior section of the temporal lobe in dominant hemisphere (left for most people) Comprehension of speech and written language

Group conformity

Power a group holds over individual members

Traditional authority

Power that is passed down through tradition

Kohlberg's six stages of moral development

Preconventional Morality Phase 1 Obedience 2 Self-intrest Conventional Morality Phase 3 Conformity 4 Law and order Postconventional Morality Phase 5 Social Contract 6 Universal moral principles

Prodromal phase

Precursor to fully symptomatic schizophrenia; characterized by social withdrawal, unusual behavior, or psychological deterioration

Sensory bias

Preference for a trait that has nothing to do with mating that can be exploited by an animal to attract a mate.

The relationship between prejudice and discrimination

Prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another, are called racism.

Illness anxiety disorder

Preoccupation with and fear of developing serious medical condition --> impaired social, occupational, and personal function Being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition. Quick to become alarmed about their health and either excessively check themselves for illness or avoid medical appointments out of fear

Primary and Secondary Groups

Primary: smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways. More important role in an individual's life. Secondary: Larger and more impersonal, and my interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time.

two general kinds of strategies for dealing with stress

Problem-focused strategies that people use to help them overcome a stressor emotionally focused strategies that help people change their feelings about particular stressors

Socialization

Process by which people inherit, develop, and spread social norms

Anticipatory socialization

Process by which we prepare for future changes (ex: if you're getting a shift change at work, you'll change your sleep schedule accordingly)

Impression management

Process by which we try to shape how people perceive us

ego-defensive attitude

Protect our self-esteem or justify out actions that we know are wrong

Direct benefits in mating

Protection, emotional support, material gain

Schizophrenia

Psychotic disorder characterized by delusions, disorganized thoughts/behavior, hallucinations, catatonia, and negative symptoms

Sanctions

Punishments or rewards for enforcing certain norms

Push and pull factors in migration

Push factors encourage people to move from the region they live in; pull factors attract them to a new region EX: Push factors: cold climate; loss of job; break up with boyfriend EX: Pull factors: new exciting job opportunity; better pay, more single guys

Dreaming

REM rebound -missing REM sleep for one night results in an increase in REM sleep later to make up for it

Word salad

Random words thrown together symptom of disorganized thought

Bureaucracy

Rational system of administration, control, and discipline

Sensation

Raw signals are detected and information is communicated through stimuli entering the nervous system through receptors.

Dependency theory

Reaction to modernization theory. States that peripheral countries stay that way because the core countries reinforce the poor country's role as the supplier of raw materials. Says that poor countries will remain poor and dependent on wealthier countries.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Recurring and troubling memories of original traumatic event (typically warfare, rape, serious injury), nightmares, flashbacks --> leads to avoidance of people, places, or things associated with the traumatic event. Also leads to negative effects of cognition and mood (memory loss for parts of the event, consistently negative mood). Also has altered arousal symptoms (difficulty sleeping, lack of concentration, irritability, etc.) All of these symptoms should last

Religion: Religiosity

Refers to the extent of influence religion has in a person's life. Organized religion is a social institution involving belief and practices. Practices based on objects and ideas that are recognized as sacred, or extraordinary and worthy of reverence.

Consensus cues (influencing whether attribution is dispositional or situational)

Related to how common a person's behavior is or how much it deviates from standard behavior --> more abnormal = more likely to lead to dispositional attribution

Distinctiveness cues

Related to how comparably a person behaves in different scenario --> more variability in behavior = more likely to makes situational attribution

Consistency cues

Related to how consistent a person's behavior has been over time; more consistent with past behavior --> more likely to make dispositional attribution

State religion

Religion that includes most members of society, officially recognized, and sometimes not tolerant of other religions

Church

Religious organization integrated into society that is interested in the daily and mundane, not just in the holy stuff

Sect

Religious organization not integrated into society; often formed after a split from a larger organization

Panic disorder

Repeated panic attacks (sudden feelings of disabling anxiety, which includes shortness of breath, increased heartbeat, sweating, trembling, etc.)

Echolalia

Repeating one's words back to them seen in schizophrenia

Harlow, Harry, and Margaret

Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food, also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social defecits

Social Sanctions

Responses people employ to behavior to let the individual know their behavior is unacceptable

Cones

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

Rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

Urban renewal

Revamping old/shitty parts of the city

macula

Rich in cones, some rods

Phototransduction Cascade

Rod cells are normally turned on in the dark. They normally release glutamate onto bipolar cells, which have an inhibitory effect. Light hits rhodopsin, causing a conformation change to all trans retinal. When rhodopsin changes shape, the alpha subunit of transducin binds to and activates phosphodiesterase (PDE). Phosphodiesterase turns cGMP to regular GMP, which closes Na+ channels, thus hyperpolarizing rod cells and turning rod cells off. Lack of glutamate allows bipolar cells to depolarize, and an AP gets carried on to ganglion cells from optic nerve to brain.

Role: Role conflict and role strain

Role conflict: occurs when there is a conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person (eg. gay priest). Role strain: when a single status results in conflicting expectations. (eg. a homosexual man may feel pressured to be not "too gay" and also "not gay enough".

Plutocracy

Rule by and mostly for the upper classes

Culture

Rules/guidelines/human ideas by which a society lives Phone analogy: software It's transmitted learned and is constantly being updated

Self-determination theory

Says that a person has 3 needs for good relationships with other people, self, and environment 1. Autonomy (need to be in control of your own actions and destiny) 2. Competence (need to complete tasks) 3. Relatedness (need to feel accepted by people)

Incentive theory

Says that actions are driven by a desire for rewards and avoiding punishment (external forces)

Arousal theory

Says that people act in certain ways to maintain a level of optimal arousal

Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

Says that people with schizophrenia have hyperactive dopamine pathways in their brains --> sort of works because meds that limit dopamine production and receptors help treat symptoms

Stress-diathesis theory of schizophrenia

Says that schizophrenia is rooted in biology and genetics but also triggered by environmental stressors

Catecholamine theory of depression

Says that too much serotonin and norepinephrine in the synapses leads to mania while too little of both leads to depression

Life course theory

Says that you age continuously from birth to death due to biological, social, and psychological factors

Age stratification theory

Says that you can look at age as a way to regulate the behavior of a generation

Jean Piaget

Schemas Either assimilate or accommodate (adjusting our schemas) Stages of cognitive development

Undifferentiated-type schizophrenia

Schizophrenia that meets general requirements but none for disorganized, paranoid, or catatonic

Inappropriate affect

Schizophrenic shows emotion, but is inappropriate for context. Ex. laughing hysterically while describing death of a relative.

Educational stratification

Schools are stratifying institutions, sort people into different categories based on social class, gender, race, social worth; worse in other countries

Education: Hidden Curriculum

Schools transmit aspects of the dominant culture. School plays a role in teaching the dominant language and literature, holidays and traditions, historical figures and events, and expose people to existing beliefs. Trains students on discipline expected in institutions like the workplace, training for particular vocations, and redirecting students to fit norms.

Halo effect

Seeing others in simple terms as good or bad. Ex: stereotyping attractive people as good people

Social interactionism

Seeks the various ways symbols impact interpretation language develops from the relationship between biological and social phenomena

Defensive strategies for impression management

Self-handicapping (making up excuses or saying you weren't ready)

Phonological loop

Semantic verbal memory

Visuospatial sketchpad

Semantic visual memory

Biological factors that affect cognition

Sensory information To parietal, temporal and occipital lobes of the brain Frontal lobes- executive functions Amygdala- emotional arousal to provide motivation and alertness

Broadbent's early selection theory

Sensory register-> selective filter -> perceptual process -> conscious

deutch and deutch's late selection theory

Sensory register->perceptual process->selective filter-> conscious

Cultural syndrome

Set of attitudes, behaviors, norms, and values organized around some central theme and shared almost unanimously among members of same culture

City

Settlement with at least 50,000 people

Metropolis

Settlement with at least 500,000 people

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex is biological; gender is socially constructed and learned.

Globalization theory

Sharing of money, culture and products through international trade and travel

Indicator traits

Show overall good quality of a potential mate (health, strength, well-being)

Public declaration

Shows that behavior can shape our attitude; you might believe in something the more you talk about it (very noticeable in politics)

Gentrification

Side effect of urban renewal; property values go up so that rich people move in while poor people are forced out since they can't afford rent

Sensory Pathway

Signal travels from the receptor cells along this pathway to sensory processing areas in the brain

Gestalt principles of grouping

Similarity, praganz, proximity, continuity, closure, symmetry, law of common fate, law of past experiences

Violence resistance

Situation where a intimate partner victim fights backk

Intimate terrorism

Situation where the batterer takes control of his partner.

Behaviourist model of language acquisition

Skinner Operant conditioning

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking SWS(stage 3)

Stage 4 of sleep cycle

Slow wave sleep delta waves (high amp, low frequency) no eye movement moderate muscular and skeletal activity

Stage 3 of sleep cycle

Slow wave sleep (SWS) EEG:Delta waves -high amplitude, low frequency Deepest level of sleep Slow wave sleep delta waves (high amp, low frequency) mixed with higher frequency waves which phase out

Gatekeeping

Small # of people and corporations determine what is being present

Cult

Small religious organization with beliefs and practices that are usually way outside what is socially acceptable

Subculture

Smaller than a nation, but large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan; ideas of a medium-sized community; must be different in some ways from the culture of a society as a whole

Out-group

Social group where a person doesn't feel sense of belonging

In-group

Social group where a person has sense of belonging

Social reproduction

Social inequality can be passed from one generation to the next (rich or poor)

Race

Socially defined, based on physical differences between groups of people. U.S> census categories: white, black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander

Ethnicity

Socially defined, defined by shared religion, language, history, etc.

Kinship is:

Socially recognized system of associations among people who are biologoically related, adopted, married, or bound by other rituals. -The relationships include both rights and responsibilities.

Health and Medicine

Society plays a large role in defining health/illness and acceptable healthcare practices. High-income nations: focus on treating physical illness such as obesity, hearth disease and cancer. Low-income nations: focus on treating acute illnesses because the threat is more immediate since vaccinations and antibiotics are minimal.

Social stratification

Society ranking categories of people into a hierarchy (status, power and wealth)

The role of gender in the expression and detection of emotion

Some studies suggests that women are better than men at reading emotional cues. Women's greater sensitivity to nonverbal cues may explain their greater emotional literacy, or ability to describe their emotions. Women tend to experience emotional events more deeply, with greater brain activation in the areas that process emotion, and are better able to remember emotional events later. Empathy is equal between both sexes.

Activist

Somebody actively trying to change society

Regressive/reactionary

Somebody actively trying to resist change

Determines the intensity of a stimulus

Speed of firing of neurons

Social norms

Spoken and unspoken rules that a group has for behavior, beliefs, attitudes, and values

Night terrors

Stage 3 (unlike nightmares which occur in REM sleep toward morning)

Normal sleep

Stages 1,2,3,4 -> 4,3,2,1-> REM sleep = one sleep cycle ~90 mins Multiple sleep cycles: each sleep cycle the amount of time in deep sleep (3,4) decreases, REM sleep increases

Status: Types of status

Status: a broad term that refers to all the socially defined positions within a society (eg. president, parent, republican). One person can hold multiple statuses at the same time. Master Status: dominates the other statuses and determines that individual's general position in society. (eg. Kobe Bryant is a pro bball player) Ascribed Statuses: those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts. (eg. gender and race). Achieved Statuses: due largely to the individual's efforts. (eg. doctor, parent)

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Stereotypes and perceptions of them lead to behaviors that reinforce those stereotypes

secondary reinforcers

Stimuli that become reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer

Distal stimulus

Stimulus in the outside world. For example, a shoe or telephone ringing

Conditional reinforcement

Stimulus that organism learns to desire due to its pairing with another reinforcer (ex: money or a clicker noise in dog training)

Indirect benefits in mating

Stronger, more capable offspring

Social epidemiology

Study of how health and illnesses are distributed across populations and the social factors influencing this distribution

Conversion disorder

Sufferers develop neurological symptoms such as numbness, blindness, tremors, and paralysis without any biochemical cause; usually happens after traumatic event or high levels of stress

Secondary group

Superficial interaction between members with weak relationships that don't last long (school/work project groups)

Sleep

Survival mechanism Heal restoring tissues Growth

Example of microscoiological perspective

Symbolic interactionism

Somatic symptom

Symptoms of mood disorders that are related to basic physiological or bodily functions, including fatigue, aches and pains, and serious changes in appetite and sleep patterns.

Schizophreniform disorder

Symptoms of schizophrenia between 1 and 6 months

Positive symptom

Symptoms that adds something to the mix (hallucinations, catatonia, etc.)

Negative symptom

Takes something away (ex: reduced motivation to do things, reduced fluency of speech, impaired emotional expression, etc.)

Old age prevention

Taking care of old people and preventing age-related disease

Deindividuation

Tendency people have to lose their sense of self-awareness in a large group setting --> high arousal and low sense of responsibility (explains mob mentality); happens thanks to anonymity and group size

Self-serving bias

Tendency to credit your own success to yourself and your failures to others or bad situations

Belief bias

Tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic

Representativeness heuristic

Tendency to judge the livelihoods of an event occurring based on our typical mental representations of those events

Fundamental attribution error

Tendency to place less importance on a situation or context of behavior --> leads us to be more judgmental

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Auditory space

The area extending around the head in all directions that is used to perceive sound

Delusions of persecution

The belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

Middle Ear

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

Demographic transition model

The changes in growth rate as a country becomes more developed

Interaural time difference

The difference in time it takes a sound to reach the left vs. the right ear

What is relative deprivation

The feeling of discrepancy between legitimate expectations and reality of the present People must feel like they deserve better and can't be helped by conventional means

genital stage

The fifth of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers

genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism

adrenal medulla

The inner region of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla is part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epinephrine and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body

Inner ear

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Stress

The levels of stress that an individual experiences can cause development of disorders. The social environment may provide additional stressors

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

belief perseverance

The maintance of a belief with the tendency to ignore or rationalize disconfirming facts

Optic Nerve

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Total fertility rate

The number of children born to an average woman in a population during her entire reproductive life

age specific fertility rate

The number of live births per 1,000 women in a specific age group

Personality Disorders: Ego-Syntonic

The person perceives his or her behavior as being correct

social facilitation effect

The phenomenon that describes how the presence of others improves our performance, tends to occur with simple tasks

Blind Spot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.

fecundity

The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population

Transduction

The process by which physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other kinds of information from the environment are converted into electrical signals within the human nervous system.

Globalization

The process of the world becoming more economically interconnected and interdependent. The tendency of investment funds and businesses to move beyond domestic and national markets to other markets around the globe, thereby increasing the interconnectedness of different markets.

Perception

The processing of raw signals. process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Normative influence

The pull we feel of being socially desired/liked --> might lead you to take a stronger stance on an issue than you did at first

dishabituation

The recovery of responsiveness to a stimulus that has undergone habituation training due to the recent occurrence of an extraneous stimulus

The resource model of attention

The resource model of attention says that we have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks, both modality-specific resources and general resources. The factors associations with being able to multi-task are: task similarity, task difficulty, and task practice.

Audition

The sense or act of hearing.

Thesis

The status quo, the current norms of a society

La Belle Indifference

The tendency of those with conversion disorders to be surprisingly unconcerned about their affliction.

Opponent-process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes ( red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue- which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

Resource Mobilization Approach

The ways in which a social movement utilizes such resources as money, political influence, access to the media, and personnel. A situation in which a core group of sophisticated strategists works to harness a disaffected group's energies, attract money and supporters, capture the news media's attention, forge alliances with those in power, and develop an organizational structure.

Monoamine/Catecholamine theory of depression

Theory holds that too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression.

periphery nation

These countries lack a strong central government and may be controlled by other states. These countries export raw materials to the core countries, and they are dependent on core countries for capital and have underdeveloped industry

Stage 2 of sleep cycle

Theta waves K-complexes (single high amp, low frequency) sleep spindles ( bursts of multiple high-frequency, moderate amp) EEG:Theta waves K-complex -large and slow Sleep spindles -bursts of waves No-REM; EMG moderate activity Decrease HR,respiration, temperature

Motion parallax

Things farther away move slower

exogenous cues

Things in our environment that we don't have to tell ourselves to try to find, things like bright colors, loud noises

Illusory correlation

Thinking that an individual represents an entire group of people

Social behavior: Attraction

Three characteristics that foster attraction: Proximity, attractiveness, and similarity. Attraction is a primary component of love, and explains much about friendship, romantic relationships, and other close social relationship.

Strain theory

Tool used to study how anomie can lead to social deviance and crime, which reinforces social stratification

Fisherian selection

Trait that has no effect on survival or viability becomes more pronounced over time --> members of opposite sex fin dit more attractive Classic example: male peacock's plumage

Direct phenotypic benefits

Traits that can be outwardly observed and make a potential mate more attractive

Diffusion

Transfer of ideas and culture; sped up by new technology

Types of problem solving and problem solving approaches

Trial and error Algorithm Heuristics Insight

Latent content

Unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express

Informal norms

Understood but not written down, and don't typically have specific penalties for violations

Somatic disorders (somatic symptom, illness anxiety, conversion)

Unified by somatic symptoms that cause stress and impairment

Latent functions

Unintended consequences of institutions • Examples: schools and businesses form social connections between people

Institutional facts

Universally accepted truths based on an assigned description: (example: the arbitrary value of money)

Treisman's Attenuation Model

Updated version of Broadbent Model of Selective Attention. Takes cocktail party effect into account brain has an attenuator which can turn down the intensity of an unattended-to stimulus. The brain is not attending to the stimulus, but it can turn up the intensity as needed.

Drive

Urge to reach a goal or satisfy a need

Foot-in-door technique

Use a small request ("Can I have a minute of your time?") to gain compliance (you stop on the street) and make a larger request ("Will you donate to this cause?")

Attribute substitution

Using a simple solution or heuristic instead of an actual soultion to complex problem

operant conditioning

Using both punishment and and reinforcement to shape behavior

Feminist perspective on media

Usually criticizes media for under-representing, stereotyping, and objectifying women

Otolithic organs

Utricle and saccule. Detect linear acceleration and head positioning

3 semicircular canals and function

Utricle, Saccule, and Ampullae Canals are filled with endolymph and contain hair cells that detect rotational acceleration of the head for vestibular (balance) function

Core countries

Very industrialized w/ strong central government, strong middle class, and diverse economy (US, EU, Japan, Australia). Usually rely on skilled production of material goods rather than raw material

social cognitive perspective on personality

Views behaviour as influenced by the interaction between people and their social acts; Emphasize the importance of cognition before, during, and after an event or situation.

Flat affect

Virtually no signs of emotion in schizophrenia

Gestalt principles

Ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete

Frustration aggression principle

We are more aggressive when blocked from reaching a goal

Cognitive association model

We are more likely to respond to stimuli aggressively when we experience negative emotions or physiological feelings (anger, hunger, fatigue, pain) This also works at the group level (riots happen more often on really hot days)

Blumer's second tenet of symbolic interactions

We give meaning to things based on our social interactions • Somebody might tell you not to rest under the tree because there are a lot of bugs there

Groupthink

When a group of people desires harmony and conformity so much that it makes irrational decisions

Law of clousre

When a space is enclosed by a contour it appears to be perceived as a complete figure

Outsourcing

When corporations move production centers to (usually) less developed countries to cut costs

Cocktail Party Effect

When information of personal importance from previously unattended channels catches our attention. An example of this is at a party when you are talking with a friend, and a conversation across the room is going on, and you hear the name of your friend being said when you were not really listening to their conversation.

Tokenism

When one person from a minority group is shown in some medium and is viewed as a representative of that entire group

Rural rebound

When people (usually rich enough to leave the city) leave the city for a quieter life. But these rural settlements are still close enough to the city for people to enjoy the city's benefits

Suburbanization

When people move just out of the city

Urban decline

When too many people leave the city center, leading to economic downturn (example: Detroit)

identity vs role confusion

Who am I and what is my potential Fidelity age 12 -20

Kin

Who we consider belonging to our family outside our bloodline (family friends, etc.)

Neologisms

Words made up by schizophrenic. Not real words

Formal norms

Written down, specific, and typically associated w/ penalties for violations (e.g. laws)

Growth rate

[(New pop- Initial pop)/initial pop] *100

Cochlea

a Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulse.

labeling theory

a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labeled it as so

altruism

a behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the indivudal

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth

convergence

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

inter-generational mobility

a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.)

neurotransmitter

a chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize slightly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP) e.g. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, etc.

pheromone

a chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species

industry vs. inferiority

a child can resolve towards industry and develop a feeling of competency and a freedom to do the work he or she wants to do, or else resolve feelings of inferiority, incompetency, and low self-esteem ages 6-12

hallucinogens

a class of drugs, also known as psychedelics, that distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions (e.g. LSD, marijuana)

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. it helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. It also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord; HOWEVER, it is NOT concerned with delivering oxygen to the brain. This is the job of red blood cells; it also helps reduces brain ischemia by reducing its own volume to reduce pressure on the blood vessels

caste system

a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into

ganglion

a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS

Assimilation (Piaget)

a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge/schemas

group

a collection of any number of people 'as few as two' who regularly interact and identify with each other sharing similar norms, values, and expectations

Group

a collection of any number of people who regularly interact and identify with each other, sharing similar norms, values and expectations.

global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries

social isolation

a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears; not the same thing as loneliness, which is temporary

door-in-the-face technique

a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by first making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. This is followed by a smaller request which the respondent will now more easily agree to.

Addiction

a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal

addiction

a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal

pluralism

a condition or system in which two or more states, groups, principles, sources of authority, etc., coexist

The life course

a culturally defined sequence of age categories through which you are expected to pass.

interdependence

a culture in which members contribute to each other and view the collective good as the primary goal. This is closely related to the goals of a transformational leader who seeks to inspire deep loyalty and shared vision across the organization

downward mobility

a decrease in social class

case study

a descriptive analysis of an individual, group, or an event, which does not involve various experimental groups

personal identity

a distinct sense of self including personally defined attributes

ecclesia

a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions

endocrine gland

a ductless gland hat secretes hormones into the blood

delusion

a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false

hallucination

a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)

egalitarian family

a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions

rational-legal authority

a form of leadership that is organized around rational-legal rules

charismatic authority

a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people)

polygyny

a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman

polyandry

a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man

polygamy

a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously

monogamy

a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other

mental set

a framework for thinking about problems and solutions that can be used again and again

personality trait

a generally stable predisposition towards a certain behavior

exocrine gland

a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Example: sweat glands

in-group

a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are

out-group

a group that an individual does not belong to

cultural assimilation (diffusion)

a group's culture starts to resemble another

pupil

a hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball; its diameter is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of light

peptide hormone

a hormone made of amino acids, in some cases, just a single modifies amino acid; they are generally hydrophilic and can't cross the plasma membrane of cells; thus receptors for them must be found on the cell surface; and exception is THYROXINE which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily; binding of these hormones do its receptor usually triggers a second-messenger system within the cell

epinephrine

a hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system

parathyroid hormone

a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increase serum calcium levels; it targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption)

growth hormone

a hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body and stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents and increased cell turnover rate in adults

prolactin

a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce milk

dual coding hypothesis

a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

organization

a large group, more impersonal than a network that comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently

action potential

a localized change in a neuron's membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. Action potentials are all-or-none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels repolarizes the membrane

axon

a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated

functional amnesia

a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde autobiographical memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years, also called psychogenic and dissociative amnesia. These gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature consciously, but subconscious recall (sweating and increased HR) is common

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

ennui

a mental state characterized by lethargy and apathy, often associated with depression; it is not a social effect

central route processing

a method of persuasion (i.e., a way to persuade others). This method focuses on facts and the content of the message in order to convince the listener, as opposed to relying on peripheral factors like the personality of the speaker, or how the message was delivered

parkinson's disease

a movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigr, 2 subcortical structures in the brain; among the symptoms are a resting terror (shaking, slowed movemement, rigidity of movements and the face, and a shuffling gait)

interneuron

a neuron found completely within the central nervous system that typically connect sensory and motor neurons especially in the reflex arcs

efferent neurons

a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system

multipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system

bipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory organs

religion

a pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence

glucagon

a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, which primarily targets the liver stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose level

illusory correlation

a perceived relationship between two things (people, events, or behaviors) even when none exists (e.g. A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. )

long-term potentiation

a persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation leads to increased sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated; believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory

method of loci

a person associates an item to be memorized at points along an already memorized route

attitude

a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him, and his behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations

mood

a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life

affect

a person's visible emotion in the moment

multiculturalism

a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy; also called pluralism

groupthink

a phenomenon where within a group, the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one

iris

a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye, in the center of it is the pupil: a hole though which light enters the eyeball; it regulated the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light

conditioned response

a previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that becomes a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

social dysfunction

a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society

acculturation

a process that occurs when one group adopts the behavior and cultural patterns of another after the two have made contact

neural plasticity

a process that refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, environment, and neural processes

dendrite

a projection off the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites

dysthymic disorder

a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. A person with dysthymic disorder has felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years, with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major depressive episode

conversion disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms of conversion disorder begin or worsen after an emotional conflict of other stressor

antisocial personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation

dependent personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself

mood disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

dissociative disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness

hypochondriasis

a psychological disorder characterized by a pre-occupation with a fear of having a serious illness

body dysmorphic diorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia

depersonalization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing one's self from the outside

histrionic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior

dissociative identity disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by alternating between two or more distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts with other people at any one time

personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by an enduring rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder, or to those in his or her life

dissociative amnesia

a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or traums

pain disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors

bipolar disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes of "poles," depression and mania. In bipolar I disorder, a person has experiences at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II disorder, the manic phases are less extreme

borderline personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and to damage both of the person with the disorder and of others in his or her life

narcissistic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power

avoidant personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism and rejection; resulting in the person becoming socially withdrawn

schizoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members

paranoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others motives and actions and suspicion of harm/betrayal

major depressive disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes where a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks

catatonic-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded or excited motor activity)

paranoid-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions usually relating to a certain theme

schizophreniform disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning

panic disorder

a psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks which can be cued by certain situations but are more often uncued or spontaneous, "occuring frequently" and unexpectedly

disorganized-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior

schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal function

cyclothymic disorder

a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. A person with cyclothymic disorder has experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years

residual-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms

prison study (Stanford Prison Study)

a psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo designed to elucidate the extreme effects of roll-playing on human behavior. 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards. The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations. The guards enforced extreme measure including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it.

attachment theory

a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby)

humanistic psychology

a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology

Raymond Cattell

a psychologist interest in personality, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control

saltatory conduction

a rapid form of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier

proprioceptor

a receptor that responds to changes in the body position such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle; the receptors allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts

photoreceptor

a receptor that responds to light

reciprocal determinism

a reciprocal interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality), and environmental factors

reflex arc

a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement

cult (aka a new religious movement)

a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle. Rejects the values of society

decoy

a research technique often used as part of deception, generally to intentionally mislead or confuse participants

neobehaviorism

a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments

critical theory

a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities, it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society

mechanoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances such as shape changes, being squashed, bent, pulled; they include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells in the ear, muscle spindles, and others

chemoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and central chemoreceptors (which respond to changes in CSF pH)

psychological disorder/illness or mental illness

a set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or sufficient impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

culture

a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential

IPSP

a slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell moving the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold

gatekeeping

a small number of people control what is in the media

race

a social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people

ethnicity

a social construct which sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors

social construct

a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, e.g. the idea of gender, social class

class system

a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)

meritocracy

a social stratification where people's social standing's are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system - no society solely stratifies based on effort

matriarchy

a social system where females, esp. mothers within families are the primary authority figures

patriarchy

a social system where males are primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family

symbolic ethnicity

a specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life

demographic transition

a specific example of demographic shift referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system

physical attractiveness stereotype

a specific type of halo effect bias; people tend to rate attractively individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive

progesterone

a steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of the fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy

neutral stimulus

a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention

self-handicapping

a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment

phobia

a strong unreasonable fear that almost always causes general anxiety of a full panic attack

meta-analytic study

a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies, with the aim of finding patterns among the results that might bring about new information

secure attachment

a style of relating to to others that forms whe an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs, in Ainsworth's experiments, securely attached infants were found to be willing to explore surroundings in the presence of the mother; they were upset, but consolable when the mother left and then returned to the room

language

a symbolic system that is codified for communication

endocrine system

a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood

patrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage

bilateral descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important

matrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage

social structure

a system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships social institutions such as school, govts, ect

distraction

a technique in which researchers attempt to redirect the brain while conducting an experiment, usually in order to allow a previously acquired memory to be encoded

rehearsal

a technique of repeating verbal information in one's phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory

halo effect

a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics

primacy effect

a tendency to better recall the first items on a list

belief bias

a tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic

misinformation effect

a tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the. (e.g. if an interrogator questions an individual about an event using leading questions, the person's perception of the event will change to fit the question)

Drive Reduction Theory

a theory about the impact of motivation on human behavior that suggests that a physiological need (a drive) creates an aroused state that motivates the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we predict the presence of a faint stimulus aid background stimulation assumes that their is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations

attribution theory

a theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior - both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes; it is the idea that individuals make inferences in order to understand the causes of various behaviors or actions

cognitive dissonance theory

a theory that explains that we feel tension ("dissonance") whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs ("cognitions") that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making our views of the world match how we feel or what we've done.

inclusive fitness

a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behaviors) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all of the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation (e.g. a lapwing will fake injury to distract a hawk from its young, thereby acting altruistically toward its offspring)

incentive theory

a theory that suggests that incentives (objects or events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior

game theory

a theory used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population

cerebral cortex

a thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the conscious mind, and is functionally divided into four lobes: the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes. (F-POT)

Secondary Process

a thought process connecting the preconscious and conscious, governed by the reality principle and reflecting the decision-making and problem-solving activity of the ego.

pitch

a tone's highness or lowness; depends on frequency

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone

luteinizing hormone (LH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads; in females, it triggers ovulation and the development of corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, it stimulated the production and release of testosterone

exposure therapy

a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy whereby the individual is introduced to the specific anxiety-inducing situation gradually and in a controlled environment until his or her anxiety level decreases through adaptation; it has been found to be the most effective form of treatment for agoraphobia

chemical synapse

a type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ)

electrical synapse

a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques

humanistic psychotherapy

a type of therapy that focuses upon the more positive aspects of human beings in general and rejects the medical model, the psychoanalytic emphasis upon maladaptive personality traits, and the labeling of individuals as pathological. Accordingly, it places considerably less emphasis upon dispositional factors than does psychoanalysis

LSD

a user may see vivid images and colours emotions can vary from euphoria to panic

Functionalism

a view that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs, each of which as a distinct purpose. Focuses on the social functions of different structures by seeing what they contribute to society at large. Manifest Functions: intended and obvious consequences of a structure. Latent functions: are unintended or less recognizable consequences, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Social dysfunction: a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society.

deviance

a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations

Biological perspective on personality

a way of looking at psychological topics by studying the physical basis for animal and human behavior. It is one of the major perspectives in psychology and involves such things as studying the brain, immune system, nervous system, and genetics.

social network

a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others, as well as those in which people are directly connected through others

prospective memory

ability to remember to perform a task at some point in the future

recognition

ability to retrieve information from memory with clues identifying something you learned previously and is therefore stored in some manner in memory.

recall

ability to retrieve information from memory without any clues ability to retrieve stored information

Intuition

ability, developed by experience, to make choices or decisions based on ideas or perception that are not evident based on available information.

parasomnia

abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep

psychological fixation

acc. to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the first 3 psychosexual stages; if parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes fixated at that stage and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage

psychoanalytic theory

acc. to this theory, personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. the classical version of this theory was developed by Sigmund Freud

Formal control

accomplished through external sanctions via governments

ego

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle)

manifest content

according to Freud, the overt storylines of dreams

latent content

according to Freud, the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underly dreams (e.g. falling in a dream might have to do with feeling out of control in your life or failing at something. It might even represent giving in to sexual temptation)

self-actualization (actualizing tendency)

according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to maintain and enhance themselves or realize their human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes

death instinct

according to psychoanalytic theory, the death instinct drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others

behaviorism

according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people being as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities

social cognitive perspective

according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

semantic memory

accounts for facts and concepts that we know

procedural memory

accounts for motor skills and specific physical actions

manifest function

action intended to help some part of a system

habit

action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

positive punishment

administration of an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior

Three primary aspects of an attitude

affective component: the way a person feels about something behavioral component: the way a person acts in relation to something cognitive component: the way a person thinks about something

common demographic categories

age, gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, immigration status

medicine (institution)

aimed at maintaining or improving the health status of the individual, family, society as a whole

comparison study

aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures

Alcohol

alcohol suppresses REM sleep; stimulates GABA(inhibitory; reduced anxiety) and dopamine(minor euphoria) systems people are more likely to be impulsive and may appear hyperactive

Iron rule of oligarchy

all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, thus making true democracy practically and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations

ego-expressive attitude

allow us to communicate and solidify out self-identity

amygdala

almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences. Fear response and aggression center

basal nuceli

also known as basal ganglia, these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement

posterior pituitary gland

also known as the neurohypophysis; it is made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes 2 hormones made by the hypothalamus (oxytocin and ADH); it is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus

Accommodation

altering one's existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences

Personality

amalgamation of characteristics and qualities that come together to comprise a person's character

Trait theory

an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion

food desert

an area typically in a highly populated, lower income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find

capitalism

an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit

interference

an error in memory retrieval caused by newer information interfering with older information or vice versa

manic episode

an experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms: grandiose, exaggerated, or delusional self-esteem, high energy with little need for sleep, increased talkativeness and pressured speech, poor judgement, increase psychomotor and goal-directed activity, and distractibility with flight of ideas or racing thoughts

deindividuation

an explanation of people's startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

ostrich effect

an individual avoiding an apparently risky financial situation by pretending it does not exist; not a social effect

Huntington's Disease

an inherited (autosomal dominant) disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain, it has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders

language acquisition device

an innate element of the human brain that allows people to gain a mastery of language simply through limited exposure during sensitive developmental years, from two years old up until puberty

primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

myelin

an insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body; it is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells: in the PNS they are Schwann cells and in the CNS they are Oligodendrocytes

normative organization

an organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals

gestalt

an organized whole

conditioned stimulus

an originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present

learned helplessness

an overwhelming sense that a goal cannot be accomplished

primary process

an unconscious thought process that arises from the pleasure principle and is irrational and not subject to compulsion, such as condensation, which occurs in dreaming, or displacement, which occurs in the formation of a phobia. id's response to frustration, seeks immediate gratification through immediate resolution of the frustration

social phobia

an unreasonable paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom

drive

an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. Drives can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium

Seven basic human emotions

anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise

instrumental conditioning

another term for operant conditioning

mental retardation

another way of saying intellectual disability

prefrontal cortex

anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, sequencing, social responses, and decision-making; directs behavioral aspects of emotion, including approach and avoidance behaviors; damage to this are may lead to inappropriate social behavior, impulsivity, and trouble with initiation

gonadotropins

anterior pituitary tropic hormones, follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids

social anxiety disorder

anxiety due to social or performance situations

Consanguines

are biological or blood relatives

ghettoes

areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated usually due to social or economic inequities

inattentional blindness

aren't aware of things in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere

social exchange theory

argues that all behavior is the result of a kind of cost-benefit analysis

Nativist theory (biological theory)

argues that humans are pre-programmed with the innate ability to develop language. Noam Chomsky is the main theorist associated with the nativist perspective. He developed the idea of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Psychological dependence

associated with the use of a drug in response to painful emotions related to depression, anxiety, or trauma -can be stopped by removing the individual from a painful situation

dramaturgical approach

assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. Also called the dramaturgical perspective

Role taking

assuming the perspective of another person to enable yourself to respond as they would

diathesis-stress model

attempts to explain behavior as a predisposition vulnerability together with stress from life experience (genetics environment)

type theory

attempts to identify a variety of set personality types

knowledge-based attitude

attitude based on the knowledge of something and can be helpful in predicting the behavior

fertility rate

average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population; fertility rates have trended downward in U.S, but still contribue to population growth

self-consciousness

awareness of oneself

consciousness

awareness of self, internal states, and the environment

olfactory tract

axons from the olfactory bulb form the olfactory tract. the path along which the olfactory receptors send their electrical messages to the brain.

Social behavior: Attachment

basis of attachment: comfort > food

Beck's cognitive theory of depression

beck asserts there are three main dysfunctional beliefs that dominate depressed people's thinking. 1) I am defective/inadequate. 2) all of my experiences result in failure. 3) the future is hopeless

inductive reasoning

begins with particular instances or information and draws conclusions and solutions from them. AKA bottom-up reasoning

aggression

behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. In sociology, aggression is considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group

self-enhancement

behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others

instinct

behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species

selective priming

being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected

Delusions of reference

belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual. May believe man on TV is talking directly to them

fundamental attribution error

believe that others behave a certain way based on inherent personality flaws

internal locus of control

believing that you have control over situtations and events, and that your actions can contribute to influencing the outcomes

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

four key tenets of medical ethics

beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient autonomy, justice

function

beneficial coonsequences of people's actions

REM sleep

beta waves (similar to when awake, but more variable frequency) bursts of rapid eye movement low intensity, variable frequency very low skeletal movement

procedural bias

bias related to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results, leading to this phenomenon

selection bias

bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen

dispositional attribution

blame behavior on internal causes (e.g. that driver is a bad person)

Barbiturates

both alcohol and barbiturates depress sympathetic nervous system activity sleep aids

hippocampus

brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain and plays a key role in forming memories; damage to this part of the brain can lead to the inability to form new memories or anterograde amnesia

dyssomnias

broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

self-concept (self-identity)

broadly defined as the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his/herself including physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influence by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas

papillae

bump on the top of the tongue.

sleep spindle

bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep

Formal Organizations

businesses, governments, and religious groups.

reinforcement modeling

can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of temper tantrum leads to more tantrums

korkasoff's syndrome

caused by a lack of vitamin b1 or thiamine. Poor balance, mild confusion and memory loss

Cocaine

causing release of brain's NTs: dopamine, serotonin, NE

sensory adaption

change over time of a receptor to a constant stimulus

confounding variables

changes in dependent variable may be due to existence of or variations in a third variable

demographic shifts

changes in the makeup of a population over time

pheromones

chemical signals that provide information to members of the same species. mark territories, etc.

Endorphins & Enkephalins

chemicals that serve as the body's natural pain killers

olfactory receptors

chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that respons to odor chemicals

gustatory receptors

chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food

initiative vs. guilt

child can resolve towards initiative and develop an ability to self-start, as well as a sense of purpose and the ability to enjoy successes, or else resolve towards guilt and develop a propensity for self-restrictions and fear of punishment ages 3-6

Concrete operational

children learn the idea of conservation and reasoning skills. Accommodation happens at this step.

birth rate

children per 1000 people per year

educational stratification

children's achievements mirror their parents

korsakoff's syndrome

chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B-1). Korsakoff syndrome is most commonly caused by alcohol misuse, but certain other conditions also can cause the syndrome.

depressant

class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates

intellectual disability

classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives; previously called mental retardation

episodic memory

clear memories of unique and often highly emotional events, such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, also called flashbulb memories

Karl Marx

closely identifies with conflict theory, he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production; he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism; he along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology

Pygmalion effect

closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.

conjunction fallacy

co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one

frontal lobe

cognitive functions and control of voluntary movement or activity

central route

cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument

peripheral route

cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator

B.F. Skinner

coined the term "operant conditioning", he is famous for his box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior

opponent process theory

color perception is controlled by activity of three opponent systems

prevalence

commonness

acoustic encoding

concentrate and memorize the way something sounds

associations

connections between nodes in semantic networks some associations are stronger than others, and some notes have more associations connecting them to others

suppression/denial

conscious, deliberate form of repression, typically used to willfully forget and emotionally painful experience of event

Thordike's law of effect

consequences determine the connection between a stimulus and a response--pleasant consequences lead to repetition--unpleasant consequences lead to decreased behavior

republican

consider countries to be public concerns

Emile Durkheim

considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism, Emile Durkheim was the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy

Carl Rogers

considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, Carl Rogers pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy

parallel forms reliability

consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation

unconscious

contains thoughts that have been repressed

conscious

contains thoughts that we are currently aware of

preconscious

contains thoughts we are not currently aware of

autocratic government

controlled by a small group or single person

confabulation

creation of vivid but entirely fabricated memories

Subcultures

cultures that exist within larger cultures, despite their interests being at odds with the dominant culture

habituation

decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated, continuous exposure to that stimulus

Inclusive Fitness

defined by the number of offspring the organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offspring support others in a group.

C fibers & substance P

delayed; slow pain receptors -Limbic System (Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Amygdala

Opiates

depress neural functioning temporarily reduce pain by mimicking NTs endorphins prolonged use: brain may stop producing endorphins = painful withdrawal

pervasive depressive disorder

depressed mood for at least two years

binocular cues

depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes

demand characteristics

describes how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter

anomie

describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak. Without attachment, people experience purposeless and aimlessness

intragenerational mobility

describes the differences in social classes between different members of the same generation

Kinsey scale

description of sexuality on a zero to six scale with zero= exclusive heterosexuality, six= exclusive homosexuality

learning theory (behaviorist theory)

developed by B. F. Skinner, posits that, because language use is a form of behavior, language acquisition is a direct result of operant conditioning.

Mead

developed the idea of social behaviorism. The mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others (start of social interactionism)

differential association

deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others who violate norms and laws (growing up in the ghetto)

mnemonic

device of technique that can help encourage the encoding of information to memory

sensory adaptation

diminish sensitivity as a consequence of a constant stimulation

cognitive dissonance

discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting beliefs

Alzheimer's disease

disease that can cause memory loss

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

disorder characterized by 3 clusters of symptoms:

cultural shock

disorientation when you move to a new culture

monocular cues

distance cues available to either eye alone

Hallucinogens

distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input include LSD and marijuana

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

disturbance of affect and avolition (lack of interest)

nonmaleficence

do no harm; the physician has a responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweights the potential for benefit

normative influence

do what group does to avoid social rejection, whether or not you think it is right

core nation

dominant capitalist countries that exploit peripheral countries for labor and raw materials. They are strong in military power and not dependent on any one state or country.

Problem-solving theory

dreams are a way for the brain to find solutions to problems without the constraints of reality

Cognitive dream theory

dreams are simply stream-of-consciousness events that happen while we sleep

organic solidarity

each person has a different experience through division of labor. Forced mutual independence. Common in modern/industrial societies

working memory

element of short-term memory that allows us to consciously process and manipulate a few pieces of information

cannon-bard theory

emotion -> physiological response

behaviorist perspective on personality

environment-based learning by operant conditioning behaviors are created by response tendencies over time (childhood not important)

decreases with age

episodic memories decrease with age. And prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future)

MDMA

esctasy triggering release of dopamine and serotonin blocking reabsorption of serotonin emotional elevation

conscience

essentially a database of actions and behaviors that warrant punishment

ego-ideal

essentially a database of ideal or appropriate actions and behaviors that warrant rewards

Teacher expectancy

essentially says that whatever a teacher expects is what she will likely get from her students.

continuous reinforcement schedule

every single occurrence of a behavior is reinforced

Physical dependence

evidenced by withdrawal; notably in the nucleus accumbens "the pleasure centre"

longitudinal study

examines a group of the same people over a defined time period

glutamate

excitatory, responsible for consciousness

parliamentary

executive and legislative branches are interconnected

Ludwig Gumplowicz

expanded upon Marx' ideas about conflict theory by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups

social roles

expectations for people of a given social status

Social role

expectations for people of a given social status. (expect females to be better babysitters than males)

lazarus

experience of emotion depends on the label we assign to it

Shadowing task

experiment that studies selective attention

Robber's cave experiment

experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases

rationalization

explaining and intellectually justifying ones behavior r

internal validity

extend to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted

Erik Erikson

extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. He added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus or unconscious conflicts within a person. And he delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood. His stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair

social stigma

extreme disapproval of person or group, may arise from deviant behavior

explicit memories

facts you can clearly describe. Two types: semantic and episodic

Collective behavior

fads, mass hysteria, and riots. Not the same as group behavior because social interactions are short

change blindness

fail to notice changes from a previous state to a current state in environment

kinship

familial relationship including blood-ties, family-ties, and common ancestry

six major social institutions

family, education, religion, government, economy, medicine

Phineas Gage

famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy

Albert Bandura

famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning, also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning

Ivan Pavlov

famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell

agoraphobia

fear of places or situations where it is hard for an individual to escape

positive symptoms

feelings or behaviors that are usually not present

sensorimotor stage

first stage of Piaget's developmental theory from birth to age 2 where babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety

force field theory

focus little on the past but almost entirely on the present, with specific focus on the sum of the influences (or force field) affecting a person at any given time

Case studies

focus on a small, narrow group of people, with a great deal of description of context and individual detail of subjects.

symbolic culture/nonmaterial culture

focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people (ex: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness)

rational choice/exchange theory

focuses on what provides the greatest reward for the lowest cost

cohort study

following the subset of a population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic in a period of time.

denial

forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory

secondary groups

formal, impersonal, temporary, business-like relationships

ritual

formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior

sect

formed by breaking away from larger religious institutions (ex Mormon/Amish)

general intelligence

foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities

frustration aggression hypothesis

frustration creates anger which can spark aggression

neurosis

functional mental disorder

fixation (problem solving)

getting stuck on the wrong approach to a problem

fundamentalism

go back to strict religious beliefs/ creates social problems when people take it to the extreme

federalist

government head that shares power w/ constituent groups

reference group

group to which an individual is compared to

negative control

group with no response expected

hierarchies of information

grouping information into ordered groups

primary groups

groups that play a more important role in an individual's life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages within person, in long-term, emotional ways. Close and intimate.

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought and behavior

6 universal emotions

happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise

dysfunctions

harmful consequences of people's actions as they undermine a social system's equilibrium

Semi-Periphery Nations

have organizational characteristics of both core countries and periphery countries and are often geographically located between core and peripheral regions as well as between two or more competing core regions. play a major role in mediating economic, political, and social activities that link core and peripheral areas Don't dominate international trade but have developed and diverse economies (Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, Argentina, Israel, China, India, Iran)

pantagamy

having everyone married to everyone

Polyandry

having multiple husbands to one wife

Polyamory

having multiple lovers, where everyone consents and the relatioships are meant to endure.

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

Social cognitive theory

holds that our attitudes and behaviors of others

melatonin

hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles, and seasonal functions

Prestige

how favorably something is regarded

language acquisition

how infants rapidly develop a capacity for their native tongue

semantic networks

how long term memories are organized. consists of nodes and associations

self-reference effect

human tendency to most readily recall information that pertains directly to our lives and ourselves

Dissociation theory

hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness e.g. driven somewhere and not recalled anything bat the actual autopilot

fictional finalism

idea that a person is more motivated by his or her expectations of the future than his or her past experiences.

trust vs. mistrust

if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust ages 0-1

A-delta fibers

immediate fast-pain receptors -thalamus>somatic sensory cortex

immigration status

immigrant population is growing rapidly in U.S, largest proportions emigrated from Mexico, the Caribbean, and India

migration rate

immigration rate minus emigration rate

Altruistic behavior

implies there will be no sort of benefit on the part of the person engaging in the sacrificing behavior.

generalization

in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also become conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response

extinction

in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

confederates

in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation

palmar grasp reflex

in response to stroking a baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months

Babinski reflex

in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out

rooting reflex

in response to touching or stroking on of a baby's cheek, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple

dynamic equilibrium

in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability

church

in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers

postganglionic neuron

in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a pre-ganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ

preganglionic neuron

in the autonomic nervous system of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron's axon synapses with the target organ)

back stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves, as opposed to the "front stage," where we are playing a role for others

front stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

antereograde amnesia

inability to create new memories

retrograde amnesia

inability to recall memories

agnosia

inability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, typically only one of the three caused by brain damage from strokes or other neurological issues or disorders

false memory

inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination of suggestion

Depressants

include alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates slowing of brain activity related to judgement inhibition in the frontal lobe

Stimulants

include caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines either increasing release of NT, reducing reuptake of NT or both speed up body functions

key goals in American healthcare

increased access, to care, decreased costs of healthcare, prevention of disease, increased education

three major trends changing healthcare

increasing diversity in the American population, increased access to healthcare through reform legislation, success in medicine and public health have increased survival rates

peer pressure

indirect pressure to change your behavior or beliefs to match your peer group.

HyperGlobalist

individual countries will become less important as inter-dependency increases

nodes

individual ideas in semantic networks

family

influenced by a number of factors including culture, value systems, beliefs, etc.

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

monarchic

inherited leadership role

gaba

inhibitory

Broca's aphasia

injury in Broca's area; lost ability to speak

Instinct

innate, unlearned, and usually fixed pattern of behavior that is present in all members of a species

primary reinforcer

innately satisfying/desirable, may be biologically driven (hunger, thirst, etc).

Emotion

instictive state of mind a person has based upon mood, circumstances, and realationships, and it can often influence a person's problem solving and decision-making.

Intersectionality

intersection of oppressed identities

nonverbal communication

involves all of the methods of communication that we use that do not include words

Generation and Experience of Emotions

involves many brain regions - "circuits"

implicit memory

involves recollection of skills, things you know how to do, preferences, etc., that you don't need to recall consciously. Includes procedural memory Cerebellum plays a primary role in encoding implicit memories

identification

is conforming to someone who you respect and like. It is a deeper form of conformity, and also self motivated

A status set

is the collection of social statues an individual occupies

Master Status

is the core status of your identity. Its often tied to your occupation.

McDonaldization

is the standardization of businesses globally

ethnocentrism

judging someone else's culture from the position of your culture, under the assumption that your culture is superior

infantile amnesia

lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown

linguistic determinism

language influences thought

K complex

large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep

short-term memory

lasts closer to 30 seconds without repitition will fade without further attention can typically handle about seven pieces of information at once may be bolstered by mnemonic devices

observational learning

learning by observing others and imitating their behavior

latent learning

learning this takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred; this learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required (learning about cancer when your close family member has been diagnosed with it, even though you don't have to study it for a school test)

Part of the brain responsible for language

left side. If you have a split brain, you can only verbally name objects that appear on the right side

Class

levels of wealth, influence, and status

10 days

life of a taste bud

pacinian corpuscle

located beneath skin and sends neural message to the brain when stimulated; sensory adaption occurs when pressure is constant

mirror neurons

located in the frontal and parietal lobes, have a major role in observational learning: they fire when we perform an action but also when we observe someone else performing that same action function for physical actions as well as emotions, playing a role in human empathy

informative influence

look to the group for guidance when you don't know what to do. Assume the group is always correct

Activity theory

looks at how generations view themselves

Microsociology

looks at small scale social, face-to-face interaction

dimentia

loss of cognitive abilities

alpha waves

low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. Alpha waves are the first indicator that a person is read to drift off into sleep

self-discrepancy theory

maintains that each of us has three selves: actual self, ideal self and our ought self

discrimination

making a conditioned response more specific when a subject learns to discriminate between two similar stimuli

two types of culture (sociology perspective)

material culture and symbolic culture

artifacts

material items that people make, possess, and value

Mating behavior and mate choice

mating behaviors include courtship rituals, copulation, building nests, and the rearing of offspring. mating strategies: random mating - all individuals of the species are equally likely to mate with each other (there are no spatial, genetic, or behavioral limitations to mating.) disassortive mating - individuals with more disparate traits mate more frequently. assortive mating - nonrandom matting pattern in which individuals with similar genotypes or phenotypes mate with one another more frequently.

biofeedback

means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate)

morbidity

measure of sickness or disease within a geographic area while

explicit (or declarative) memory

memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge

echoic memory

memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds

chunking

memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.

implicit (procedural) memory

memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do things

schema

mental blueprint containing common aspects of the world

schemas

mental frameworks/blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience

Heuristics

mental shortcuts or simplified iterations of principles that can help us make decisions but can also lead to poor judgement

heuristics

mental shortcuts used for problem solving, using these sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed

meditation

mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way; may involve intense focus on one object of attention or broad attention to a field of awareness

Threshold of conscious perception

minimum amount of stimulus energy that is needed for a signal to be sent to the central nervous system and perceived

attenuation model of selective attention

model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect

elaboration likelihood model

model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument

information processing models

models for cognition that assume that information form the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including, attention, perception, and storage into memory

Obedience can be considered

moral, immoral, or amoral

insomnia

most common sleep disorder characterized by difficult falling or staying asleep

extrinsic motivations

motivations created by external forces

intrinsic motivations

motivations created by internal forces

basal ganglia

motor functions

emigration

movement away from a geographic space

immigration

movement into a new geographic space

fundamental movement skills

movement patterns that involve different body parts. They are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialized, complex skills used in play, games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. (Autistic children have the ability to master these)

Vertical mobility

movement up or down in socioeconomic status

Horizontal mobility

moving from one position to another, but the move doesnt result in change of socioeco status

polysomnography (PSG)

multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG

acetylcholine

muscle contraction

ciliary muscle

muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye

drive reduction theory

need is the deprivation that will energize the drive, the drive is an aroused state. Individual is motivated to reduce this state

Push factors

negative traits that cause people to immigrate to a new place

feral children

neglected/abandoned children who grow up without without human contact/care. Much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized

cultural or ethnic enclaves

neighborhoods or areas with a high concentration of people from one distinct culture or ethnicity

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

mores

norms that are highly important for the benefit of of society and so are often strictly enforced, mores are general (but not always) formal norms

folkways

norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.)

ethnographic

observing social interactions in real social settings

intermittent reinforcement schedule

occurrences are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not

penis-envy

occurs during phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis

projective identification

occurs in close relationships, where one person induces feelings/impulses which are viewed as unacceptable in the other person

amalgamation

occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

self-reporting bias

occurs when subjects skew their responses often to impress/appease researchers

overgeneralization

occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence; e.g. the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future

Tertiary socialization

occurs when we are integrated into society and ready for new ideas and values

false consensus

occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)

gender bias in medicine

occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness

double-blind study

of or relating to an experiment or clinical trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the active medication, treatment, etc., and which are not: a technique for eliminating subjective bias from the test results.

positive transfer

old information facilitates the learning of new information (athletes learn new sports easily)

pathway of smell

olfactory receptor cells>olfactory nerve>olfactory bulb> olfactory tract

Schachter-Singer Theory

once we experience physiological arousal based on a stimulus, the cognitive aspect is conscious: we interpret our circumstances and identify the emotion we are experiencing.

confounding variable

one that affects both the independent and dependent variables in a relationship

moderating variable

one that affects the intensity of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable

mediating variable

one that provides an explanatory link between the independent and dependent variables

unconditioned stimuli

one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response

self-esteem

one's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth

self-efficacy

one's own measure of efficacy or effectiveness

Self-esteem

one's own measure of self-worth

5 factor model of personality traits

openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

coercive organizations

organization in which members do not have a choice in joining

social movements

organized either to promote or to resist social change can be proactive or reactive (ex: Black Lives Matter, gay rights movement)

Power

our ability to get someone else to do something, in spite of obstacles or opposition

social behaviorism

our minds and sense of self fully develop through communicating with others

linguistic relativity hypothesis

our perception of reality is dependent upon the content of the language that we speak. Language affects cognition more than cognition affects language

ought self

our representation of the way others think we should be

acting out

overt expression of unconscious emotions and impulses without insightful understanding of one's behaviore

open-pain gateways

pain experienced or intensified

Phantom limb pain

pain in a limb that has been amputated

closed pain gateways

pain reduced

permissive parenting

parenting style that creates few rules and demands and little discipline; parents are warm and loving to their children, but very lenient and allow their children

authoritative parenting

parenting style that places limits on behavior and consistently follows through on consequences, but also expresses warmth and nurturing and allows for two-way communication between parents and children

central executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention

phonological loop

part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory

reticular formation

part of the brain that is responsible for motivation and alertness

thalamus

part of the brain where taste message is sent.

magnocellular pathway

pathway responsible for detecting motion

sensitization

pathways become more responsive (pain is increased)

spreading activation

pattern of further activation of nodes used to attempt to retrieve information form out long-term memory

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are common to all people; cultural universals tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing good and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, and illness

personal construct psychology

people act like scientists by observing the behavior of significant people in their lives, and then test their theories bout that behavior through their own behavior

Social Influence theory

people do and report what's expected of them

Relative Deprivation Theory

people join social movements because they feel deprived relative to other people or groups with whom they identify negative discrepancy between perceived reality and actual reality FACTORS: Relative Deprivation, feeling of deserving better, to believe that conventional ideas do not work Issues: Ppl who dont feel deprived join it Not enough resources for the deprived to make a movement even if those factors are there, there may be no movement

aggregate

people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

fundamentalists

people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs

category

people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together as a group

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

Social Support

perception that you are cared for and part of a supportive social network.

peripheral route processing

peripheral route to persuasion occurs when the listener decides whether to agree with the message based on other cues besides the strength of the arguments or ideas in the message.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory

personality is shaped by childhood experiences and unconscious thoughts/desires

cocktail party effect

phenomenon of information of personal importance from previously unattended channels "catching" one's attention

cones

photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision

James Lange theory of emotion

physiological response -> emotion

choroid

pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that nourishes the retina

Stages of sleep

polysomnography (PSG) Includes electroencephalogram (EEG)- measures of electric impulses in the brain Electromyogram(EMG)- measures of skeletal muscle movements Electroculogran(EOG)- measures of eye movement

brainstem

pons, reticular formation, medulla

Authority

power to enforce rules.

Racialization

practice of ascribing racial or ethnic idenity to a group, social practice, or relationship that doesnt exist

Homogamy

practice of encouraging individuals to select a mate with similar social background characteristics, and may be based on socioeco status, gender, ethnicity, or religion

Scapegoat

practice of singling out a group to take the blame for a social ill

Self fulfilling prophecy

prediction that indirectly or directly causes itself to come true

personality traits

predispositions to certain behaviors

Bias

preference to one thing over another

ageism

prejudice or dsicrimination on the basis of a person's age

positive reinforcement

presentation of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior

group pressure (peer pressure)

pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs

id

primal instincts and urges (libido and death instinct included)

meaningful encoding principle

principle that states that experts use prior knowledge in the encoding of new domain-specific information

bureaucratization

process by which organizations become increasingly governed bylaws and policies

racial formation

process by which racial categories are formed and destroyed

repression

process ego uses to push undesired or unacceptable thoughts and urges down into the unconscious

classical conditioning

process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them

projection

process of attributing one's own undesired thoughts or feelings onto another person

cultural acculturation

process of change that happens when 2 cultures meet

Role: Role exit

process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self identity to take on another. (eg. transitioning from the workforce to retirement). This is difficult because it involves detaching from something significant, and facing something new and unknown.

Rationalization

process of justifying one's behaviors, which might be socially unacceptable and impulsive, with intellectual explanations that are more acceptable

relearning

process of learning information that we have already learned. it is easier to learn something the second time around

reaction formation

process of repressing a feeling by outwardly expressing the exact opposite of it

regression

process of reverting back to behaviors that are less sophisticated and often associated with children

deductive reasoning

process of solving a problem by beginning with a set of rules as drawing conclusions and solutions from these rules. Also known as top-down reasoning

Sublimation

process of transferring unacceptable urges into acceptable and perhaps laudatory behaviors

retrieval

process the brain uses to find information stored in long-term memory

parietal lobe

processes information about temperature, taste, touch and movement

temporal lobe

processes memories, integrating them with sensations of taste, sound, sight and touch

peak experiences

profound, rare moments that lend richness and depth to life

encoding specificity principle

proposed by researchers Thomson and Tulving, states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval; explains why a subject is able to recall a target word as part of an unrelated word pair at retrieval with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during encoding

Lev Vygotsky

proposed that the most important driver of cognitive development was how a child inernalizes the values of his or her culture

The mere exposure effect

proposes that the more we are exposed to someone, the more likely we will become familiar with them and come to like them.

mindfulness-based stress reduction

protocol involving mindfulness meditation, shown to be effective for helping individuals with pain, stress and anxiety

humanisitic theory

psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person focuses on the healthy development of personality, and moreover, ascribes free will to people rather than the constraints of early relationships that Freud espoused

oral stage

psychosexual stage from birth to 18 months; pleasure centers on the mouth.

phallic stage

psychosexual stage that focuses on the genitals (3-5)

Erikson's theory

psychosocial development theory. Proposed that personality and identify occurs throughout ones life. Each stage depends on over coming conflict. 8 stages.

semantic encoding

put new information into the context of information we already have committed to memory strongest form of encoding

pragnanz

reality is reduced to the simplest form possible (eg Olympic rings)

Social construction of gender

recognizes that society creates gender roles, which are prescribed to us as ideal behavior.

electroencephalogram (EEG)

recording of electrical impulses in the brain

electrooculogram (EOG)

recording of eye movements

electromyogram (EMG)

recording of skeletal muscle movements

Pull factors

refer to positive traits of a place that draw immigrants to it

Fictive relationse

refer to those individuals we take into our family and who take on obligations in the absence of blood or marriage ties.

Aristocracy

refers to a govt run by nobility

Social networking group

refers to a group of people connected by a social network

controlled processing

refers to a more effortful process of creating memories

oligarchy

refers to a situation where a small number of elites control the country

False Consciousness

refers to a state of mind that prevents you from perceiving the injustice of your own situation

Class Consciousness

refers to a state of mind that prevents you from perceiving the injusticse of your own situation.

Back Stage

refers to activities we do in private to prepare for our performance of our roles.

Front stage

refers to behaviors which are visible to the 'audience' or what you show to the public

Play stage

refers to children playing roles in their imaginative play, such as doctor, teacher, or mommy.

Popular culture

refers to cultural products, like music, and art used by the non-elite.

Institutional discrimination

refers to discrimination against an individual by an institution

Ethnicities

refers to ethnic groups

Binuclear family

refers to families where members live in separate households

automatic processing

refers to information that is processed into memory without any effort

Intersections of race with ethnicity

refers to intersectionality, which looks at the systems of oppression and domination in overlapping marginalized identities

Mass media

refers to large scale organizations which use technology to communicate ideas to the masses.

Post modern family

refers to mothers who are single by choice, LGBT families, and other departures from models.

Cultural Capital

refers to non-material assets that help promote your social mobility

Symbolic culture

refers to our way of thinking, doing, and believing

Urban Poverty

refers to poverty in an urban area

Rural poverty

refers to poverty in rural settings

Blended family

refers to step-families

social exclusion

refers to systematic process of blocking access to rights and opportunities of certain people, effectively isolating them.

Religiosity

refers to the aspects of religious activity of a group

Cultural lag

refers to the fact that sometimes culture take time to catch up with technological innovations and sometimes social problems result

Urban growth

refers to the increase in size of an urban area

Nuclear family

refers to the individual, their spouse, and children.

relative poverty

refers to the perception of poverty due to not having resources to match those of your peers and neighbors

residential segregation

refers to the physical separation into different neighborhoods

Informal Control

refers to the socialization process

Mediocrity

refers to the state of being mediocre

Isolation

refers to the state of being separated from other people.

Exchange-rational choice

refers to the theory that we are rational actors, who perform a cost-benefit analysis of our decisions

Cultural transmission

refers to the way we learn and pass info within a culture

Network theory

refers to theories regarding social networks

institutional discrimination

refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives (e.g. laws and decisions that reflect racism, such as the Plessy vs. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case. The verdict of this case ruled in favor of separate but equal public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans.)

Variations in intelligence

reflect a confluence of heredity, environment, and education

Broca's area

region of the brain located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe. Involved with speech production. Damage to this part of the brain results in Broca's aphasia, where individuals know what they want to say but are unable to express it verbally

pineal gland

region of the brain responsible for the production of melatonin: a hormone that influences sleep/wake cycles and seasonal functions; secretes melatonin

hypothalamus

regulates autonomic nervous system, controls endocrine system, responsible for hunger and thirst. Controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glans in the body

variable-interval schedule

reinforcement of a behavior is given after a period of time that is not constant

variable-ratio schedule

reinforcement of a particular behavior is given after an unpredictable times that behavior is performed

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule in which a reward is offered after a set period of time has passed

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior

shaping

reinforcing behavior that approximate the target behavior

retreatist

rejects both the means and the goals

Rebel

rejects society's definition of success

Ritualist

rejects the goals, but embraces the pathways and obeys the rules

Yerkes-Dodson Law

relationship between performance and emotional arousal -U-shaped correlation adaptive role of emotion -enhances survival -social context: cooperative interactions

identity

relationship of one's self-concept with the social groups that one belongs to there are many types of identity, including gender identity, ethnic identity, national identity, class identity

Affinal relationships

relationships established through marriage

dopaminergic neurons

release dopamine

negative reinforcement

removal of harmful stimuli as a way of encouraging behavior

negative punishment

remove stimulus to decrease behavior, take away freedom to decrease being late for curfew

maintenance rehearsal

repeating a phrase over and over again until you've memorized it

endogenous cues

require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it. E.g. a mouse arrow

social recipricity

responding to a kind or generous action with another kind or generous action

occipital lobe

responsible for vision

iconic memory

responsible for visual information and lasting only for a few tenths of a second

eustress

result of a more positive stressor

distress

result of an unpleasant stressor

Wernicke's aphasia

result of damage to Wernicke's area, causing the loss of speech comprehension. People with this disease can still speak and often do at great length, but their words are nonsensical

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

mood-dependent memory

retrieval cue that accounts for the fact that someone who learns a new fact or skill while in a particular mood will be more likely to recall that fact or display that skill while in the same mood.

state-dependent memory

retrieval cue that accounts for the fact that someone who learns a new fact or skill while in a particular state will be more likely to recall that fact or display that skill while in the same state.

context effects

retrieval cue that aids in the process of finding a specific piece of information when we are in the physical location where the memory was originally encoded

priming

retrieval cue that allows us to recall a specific piece of information after being presented with a word, phrase, or idea that is neurologically close to the desired piece of information

serial position effect

retrieval cue, when a person is trying to memorize a list, that person has a tendency to remember the first and last items, called the primacy and recency effect

Privilege

rights or benefits granted to you as a result of your social position

Rites of passage

rituals and ceremonies meant to mark and validate significant changes in our lives

Roger's humanistic theory

says people are inherently good and we are self-motivated to improve so we can reach self-actualization

Law of good continuation

says that elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together. Squared line and wavy line.. not 2 squared-wavy lines

high levels of dopamine

schizophrenia

Functionalist theory

sees education as a means to socialize citizens into their proper roles in society

Self-concept

self-identity, understanding of ourselves and our personalities

inferiority complex

sense of incompleteness or inferiority that motivates a person to strive for superiority

kinesthetic sense

sense of location and position of body parts in relation to one another -motion -proprioceptors

olfactory receptor cells

sensory receptors for smell, constantly replaced every 30 to 60 days. when stimulated by airborne molecules, the stimulation gets passed to its axons which bundle to create the olfactory nerve -specialized to respond to specific odors based on chemical structures

hair cells

sensory receptors found in the inner ear, cochlear hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves, and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration used for balance

proprioceptors

sensory receptors, located in muscles and joints that provide information about body position and movement

cribriform plate

separates brain from olfactory epithelium

communism

shared ownership but absence of currency, classes, etc./

schachter- singer

simultaneous emotion + physiological response

Largest & heavies sense organ

skin- contains many kinds of sensory receptors

narcolepsy

sleep disorder in which the individual experiences periodic overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 min

Triad

social group composed of three people. A 2 versus one dynamic often occurs

dyad

social group composed of two people, so if one leaves, there is no more group

Environmental justice

social movement centered upon the inequality of environmental burdens in our society

Reactionary Movements

social movements organized to resist change or to reinstate an earlier social order that participants perceive to be better

Innovator

social type IDied by Merton as the person who would embrace the social goals of success, but reach them through alternate pathways.

mechanical solidarity

society shares common beliefs, individuals share a collective conscience

belief

something that an individual accepts to be truth

parvocellular pathway

spatial resolution, boundaries and shape

Implicit memory is ________ with age

stable, retrieval of general information does not change with age

Meads theory about me and I

states that 'me' is who we learn to be through social interaction. And 'I' is our response to the attitude of our community.

looking-glass self

states that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others

algorithm

step-by-step procedure for solving a problem

mechanoreceptors

stimulated by changes in pressure or movement

thermoreceptors

stimulated by changes in temperature

chemoreceptors

stimulated by changes in the chemical concentration of substances

photoreceptors

stimulated by light energy

pain receptors

stimulated by tissue damage

Marijuana

stimulating cannabinoid receptors in the brain amplifying sensory perceptions impair motor skills, reaction time, and judgement

nucleus accumbens

structure located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior

hypnotism

structured social interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go, individuals that have gone through this may be more susceptible to accepting suggestions

social cognition

study of how exactly our attitudes affect our behavior

Sociology

study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by, the society in which they live.

behavioral genetics

study the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual's personality and behaviors

insecure attachment

style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs, in Einsworth's experiments; these infants were found to be less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their mother; they may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when the mother returned to the room

In vs Out-group

subcategories of primary and secondary groups. In-group: a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who she is is an in-group. Out-group: a group that an individual does not belong to is her out-group. In-group and out-group help to explain some negative human behaviors like exclusion and bullying.

dissociative fugue

sudden change in location that can involve the assumption of a new identity

insight learning

sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem; the aha moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways

empathy-altruism hypothesis

suggests that people are altruistic due to empathy

Hypnotism

susceptible to constructing false memories (using imagination to create inaccurate memories)

Meritocracy

system of promoting individuals based upon their merit and ability, not their social connections of socioeconomic backround.

government and economy

systematic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities, and social structures that affect rule-making, representation of the individual in society

education

systems aim to arm the population with information

Social desirability bias

tendency for people to answer survey questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

confirmation bias

tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs. This can contribute to overconfidence

availability heuristic

tendency to make decisions about how likely an action or event is based upon how readily available similar information is in our memories

actualizing tendency

tendency to not only maintain one's health and vitality, but also to improve oneself

overconfidence

term for when a person overestimates the accuracy and validity of their judgments and knowledge. It can be the result of heuristics and biases. Can contribute to belief perseverance

Reciprocity

term social psychologists use to describe how most people seek an equal exchange within a relationship in order to maintain attraction.

Artificial Control

term that refers to self control

Rorschach inkblot test

test in which patients or subjects identify what they believe is being depicted by amorphous shapes. Relies on projection

Emigration rate

the # of people per thousand who are leaving

ossicles

the 3 small bones found in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) that help to amplify the vibrations from the sound waves; the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea

reproducibility

the ability of an entire experiment or study to be duplicated, either by the same researcher or by someone else working independently

intelligence

the ability to acquire knowledge and skills, and then apply them

divided attention

the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously

empathy

the ability to identify with others' emotions

social mobility

the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system

eidetic memory

the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics; also called photographic memory

depth perception

the ability to see objects in 3D although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional

social perception

the ability to understand others in our social world; the initial info. we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions

intensity

the amount of energy in a wave, as determined by the wave's amplitude

retention interval

the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled

crude death rate

the annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population

crude birth rate

the annual number of live births per thousand people in a population

general fertility rate

the annual number of live births per thousand women of child-bearing age within the population

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

gender

the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex

optimism bias

the belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us

external locus of control

the belief that once does not have control over outcomes, but they are controlled by outside forces

self-schemas

the beliefs and ideas people have about themselves

optic disc

the blind spot of the eye; this is where the axons of ganglion cells exit the retina to form the optic nerve; there are no photoreceptors here

neural pathways to _________

the brain

recognition-primed decision model

the brain, in the face of a problem, can sort through a vast amount of information in order to find a proper solution

fluid intelligence

the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge; it involves the ability to identify patterns and relationships that underpin novel problems and to extrapolate these findings using logic.

cornea

the clear portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil

impression management or self-presention

the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others; this is achieved by controlling the amount of type of information or the social interaction

extrasensory perception

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input

Person-situation debate

the controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a person's behavior

beliefs

the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold

associative learning

the creation of an association between either a behavior and a response or between two stimuli process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning

cochlea

the curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials

mortality

the death rate in a population

face validity

the degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims to a casual observer, the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to the test participants

reliability

the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results in the study

generalizability

the degree to which the results of a study based on a sample can be said to represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population

identity formation (individuation)

the development of a distinct individual personality

identity formation / individuation

the development of a distinct individual personality

zone of proximal development

the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. skills that have not yet developed fully, but are undergoing development, are in this zone

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

sexual orientation

the direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes

Social construction of race

the discussion that race is not real. It is contingent upon our collective agreement that a certain set of physical characteristics denote a certain race.

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system and can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches

reality principle

the ego's control of the pleasure-seeking activity of the id in order to meet the demands of the external world.

Superego

the element that is responsible for inhibiting the primal urges of the id and bolstering the ego to strive for not just realistic, but moral goals. Can be divided into two elements: conscience and ego-ideal

social facts

the elements that serve some function in society such as laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and roles that make up a society

incongruity

the emotional result when the real self falls short of ideal self

olfactory bulb

the enlarged ending of the olfactory cortex at the front of the brain where the sensation of smell is registered

acetylcholinesterase

the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft

Intergenerational Poverty

the experience of poverty being transmitted from one generation to another

material culture

the exploration of the meaning of objects of a given society (ex: American flag)

religiosity

the extent that religion influences a person's life

global inequality

the extent to which income and wealth is distributed in an uneven manner among the world's population

locus of control

the extent to which people believe they have control of their lives and the events that affect them

bystander effect

the fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around

basilar membrane

the flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti (the structure that contains the hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch

principle of aggregation

the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act

depth of processing

the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered

adaptive attitude

the idea that one will be accepted socially if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed

ego depletion

the idea that self-control is a limited resource

absolute poverty

the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare

sensory memory

the initial recording of encoded sensory information, and is therefore the most fleeting form of memory storage. two types: iconic memory and echoic memory

retina

the innermost layer of the eyeball;

pleasure principle

the instinctive drive to seek pleasure and avoid pain, expressed by the id as a basic motivating force that reduces psychic tension.

gender inequality

the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other

corpus callosum

the largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

libido

the life instinct we all have, the instinct for survival, growth, procreation, and pleasure

anosmia

the loss of ability to detect odor - 65 to 80 = 50%

organic amnesia

the loss of memory due to biological factors such as brain disorders, tumors, strokes, degenerative diseases, or any other of a multitude of other disruptions of neurological function

oval window

the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear

representativeness heuristic

the mental shortcut where one judges the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations or examples of those things. Assessing similarity of objects and organizing them based around the category prototype

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

mere presence

the most basic level of interaction between individuals; when people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or just minding their own business

Alzheimer's Disease

the most prevalent form of dementia, this disease is characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia

depolarization

the movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential

optic nerve

the nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information; it is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina

olfactory nerve

the nerve that carries smell impulses from the nose to the brain

acetylcholine (ACh)

the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system, and by the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system

norepinephrine (NE)

the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the post-ganglionic organ-level (synapse)

cultural capital

the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility

personality

the nuanced and complex individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person

replacement level fertility

the number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people int he population who die

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

life expectancy

the number of years that an individual of a certain age can expect to life at present mortality rates

phenotype

the observable characteristics and traits of an organism

functionalism/ structural functionalism

the oldest of the main theories of sociology, which conceptualized society as a living organism with many different parts/organs, each of which has a distinct purpose (Prominent theorists include Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Auguste Comte, Davis and Moore, Robert Merton, almond and Powell)

master status

the one status that dominates the other statuses and determines that individual's general position in society (e.g. occupation, disability, role, etc)

effector

the organ that carries out the command sent along a particular motor neuron

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

adrenal cortex

the outer region of the adrenal gland. The adrenal cortex produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress and aldosterone in response to low BP or low blood osmolarity

spatial inequality

the pattern and structure of inequality in resources and services available to residents of an area

social support

the perception that one is cared for and part of a social network; supportive resources can be tangible or emotional

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

relative refractory period

the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)

conformity

the phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others

Stereotype threat

the phenomenon of poor performance by members of a stigmatized group because of their worry that they will confirm others poor perception of them.

group polarization

the phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the pre-existing views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was

mere-exposure effect

the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them sometimes repeatedly; e.g. listening to a song sounds better the second time; also called familiarity principle

social loafing

the phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable

beneficence

the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest

justice

the physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly

respect for patient autonomy

the physician has responsibility to respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare (exception: psychiatric illness, children)

hypophysis

the pituitary gland

healthcare disparities

the population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and qualities of healthcare in different social groups

midbrain

the portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes

outer ear

the portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal; it is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)

diencephalon

the portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus

medulla oblongata

the portion of the hindbrain that controls respiratory rate and blood pressure and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing

Status

the position one occupies in society

social capital

the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility

cultural relativism

the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture

endogamy

the practice of marrying within a particular group

mindguarding

the pressure to conform within a group causes individuals to censor their own opinions in favor of consensus which creates an illusion of unanimity. You guard what you say if you think the group will not agre

estrogen

the primary female sex hormone. It stimulates the development of the female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage

retrieval structure principle

the principle which states that experts develop memory mechanisms (called retrieval structure) to facilitate the retrieval of information stored int he long-term memory; these mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can be later regenerated to retrieve stored information effectively without a lengthy search

medicalization

the process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized into a disease

cultural diffusion

the process by which a cultural phenomenon spreads through a culture and outward into other cultures

cultural assimilatiion

the process by which a particular group's culture begins to resemble that of another

integrative reminiscence

the process by which older people may take stock of their lives and come to terms with previously unresolved conflicts

avoidance learning

the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present

assimilation

the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group

informational social influence

the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others know something I don't know

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

displacement

the process of redirecting violent, sexual, or otherwise unseemly impulses from being directed at one person or thing to another

encoding

the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system

secularization

the process through which religion loses its significance

parallel processing

the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision

meninges

the protective connective tissue wrappings of the CNS (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater)

self-actualization

the realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities, especially considered as a drive or need present in everyone

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

cultural sensitivity

the recognition and respect of differences between cultures, and research ethics

cerebellum

the region of the brain that coordinates and smooths skeletal muscle activity, responsible for balance

deception

the research equivalent of lying to participants, frequently used to mislead participants so that they do not learn what the actual purpose of the research may be

experimental study

the researcher manipulates one variable and controls/randomizes the rest of variables

Foraging behavior

the search for and exploitation of food resources by animals. Since an organism's environment is constantly changing, it is important that foraging behavior is adaptable.

anal stage

the second of Freud's five psychosexual stages, in this stage the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination

actual self

the self that people believe they are

existential self

the sense of being distinct and separate from others

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance sense of balance or equilibrium by responding to changes in gravity -semicircular canals and vestibular sacs= source -motion sickness

gender segregation

the separation of the sexes in schools or occupation, which sometimes occurs 'naturally' and other times purposeful. E.g. nurses and teaches being mostly female and construction workers being mostly male

social identity

the social definition of self including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like

Endogamy

the social role that one must marry within ones group

exogamy

the social rules that one must marry outside one's group

taste buds

the specialized sensory receptors for taste that are located on the tongue and inside the mouth and throat -50 receptor cells on 1 taste bud

Alertness

the state of being awake, being attentive to what is going on within us and around us, and being able to think

demographics

the statistics of populations and are the mathematical applications of sociology

organ of corti

the structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane; the Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials

social reproduction

the structures and activities in a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next; cultural capital and social capital are two mechanisms by which social reproduction occurs

demography

the study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

social epidemiology

the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population

symbolic interactionism

the study of the many ways people interact through the shared understanding of symbols, which are simply anything to which we attach meaning the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols

central nervous system

the subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord

Correct rejection

the subject did not respond when no signal was present

False alarm

the subject perceived a signal when none was present

Hit

the subject responded affirmative when a signal was present

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

visual capture

the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses, as when we perceive voices in films as coming from the screen we see rather than from the projector behind us

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute our success to ourself and our failures to others and the external environment

just world phenomenon

the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve;when bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act, and when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it

negativity bias

the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging

activation-synthesis theory

the theory that dreams are simply byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. Suggests that the content of dreams is not purposeful or meaningful

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors--one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue--which when stimulated in combination can produce that perception of any color

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. the gate is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

cultural lag

the time it takes to adapt and accept new technological advances

object permanence

the understanding that things continue to exist once they're out of sight

latent functions

the unintended or less recognizable consequences or a social structure, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful (e.g. A newspaper acting as a fly swatter)

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

the universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders; the current latest edition is the fifth edition of the DSM (the DSM-5)

unconditioned response

the unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus

long-term memory

the unlimited capacity memory store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time. divided into implicit memory (nondeclarative memory) and explicit memory (declarative memory)

norms

the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society; they help define what type of behaviors are acceptable and in accordance with a society's values and benefits; formal _____ are generally written down; laws are examples of formal _____. Informal _____ are generally understood, but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments

basic anxiety

the vulnerability and learned helplessness that can result from inadequate parenting and can cause basic hostility in a person

circadian rhythm

the waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day

Language acquisition

the way infants learn to understand and speak their native language

social stratification

the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income, among other things

sclera

the whites of the eye, attachment point for muscles

educational segregation

the widening disparity between children from high income neighborhoods and low income neighborhoods due to taxes

Emotion work

the work women do for their loved ones in terms of managing emotional health.

Psychoanalytic theories of personality

theories based on the idesa that our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories both determine out personalities and motivate our choices and actions

place theory

theory of sound that says our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibration along the basilar membrane

unconditional positive regard

therapist accepts the client unconditionally and empathizes with him or her, no matter what

Oedipus complex

this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a male child is sexually attracted to his mother and hostile towards his father who is seen as a rival.

Electra complex

this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

this guy sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs (demonstrated by a pyramid) at the base of this pyramid are physiological needs or the basic element necessary to sustain human life; in order, the rest of the needs include, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization; lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs

Sapire-Whorf hypothesis

this hypothesis asserts that people understands their world through language and that language in turn shapes how people experience their world

frustration-aggression principle

this principle suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggressionk

cortisol

this steroid hormone is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body's use of fuel from glucose toward fats and proteins, thus "sparing" glucose for the brain's use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity and increased susceptibility to illness

psychoanalytic therapy

this therapy approach uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are causing difficulties

difference threshold (aka the just noticeable difference or JND)

this threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time

behavioral therapy

this type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction

ascribed status

those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts

achieved status

those statuses that are considered to be due largely to an individual's efforts

escape learning

through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus

ego defense mechanisms

to cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop defense ego mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality. Ego defense mechanisms are therefore normal, and become unhealthy only when taken to extremes; developed by Sigmund Freud

autonomy vs. shame/doubt

toddler either resolves toward autonomy, and therefore develops a feeling of control and self-restraint, or else resolves toward constant doubt, shame, and an ongoing external locus of control ages 1-3

reinforcement schedule

tool for controlling the timing and frequency of reinforcement or punishment while trying to elicit a particular behavior from a subject

cognitive psychology

tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus-response behaviors

cardinal traits

traits around which people organized their lives

source traits

traits that are less apparent and more abstract

surface traits

traits that are outwardly apparent from a person's behavior

secondary traits

traits that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation

central traits

traits that were defining characteristics of a person, and were easy to infer from a person's behavior

positive control

treatment with known response

explicit memory

type of long-term memory in which we store memories of fact. In addition, explicit memory is divided further into semantic and episodic memories hippocampus plays a primary role in encoding explicit memory

Generalized other

understanding of the behavioral expectations of society

authoritarian government

unelected leaders, totalitarian (public and private lives of citizens are regulated)

grey matter

unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short, unmyelinated axons

pain

unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

used in medical setting to help alleviate stress

Meditation

usually involve training of attention -manage pain, stress, and anxiety disorders

night terrors

usually occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares; the individual may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified although none of it is remembered the next morning

Trial and error

various solutions are tried until one works. Most effective when there are relatively few solutions to a problem

social cues

verbal/nonverbal hints guide social interactions

Multiculturism

view that other cultures should be respected or even encouraged

Conflict Theory

views society as a competition for limited resources. Furthermore, social structures and institutions will reflect this competition in their degree of inherent inequality; certain groups and people will be able to obtain more resources than others. Focuses on aspects that are functional for one group but dysfunctional for another in the society.

visual encoding

visualize new information to be stored in memory. weakest form of encoding

pons

waking and relaxing

Stanford-Binet IQ test

was the standard method for testing IQ

Learning theory

we develop attitudes through the various forms of learning

spacing effect

we learn material more effectively and easily when we study it several times spaced out over a longer time span, rather than trying to learn it in a short period of time.

Education: Educational segregation and stratification

wealthy neighborhoods have schools with better teachers who provide a better education to students. Also has parents who have the time and resources to be more involved. Poorer neighborhoods have schools that are poorly funded with worse teachers who will provide worse education to students. Parents from here also do not have enough time to get involved in their education.

social institutions

well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture Education, family, religion

values

what a person deems important in life, which dictates one's ethical principals and standards of behavior

cultural barriers

when a cultural difference impedes interaction with others

generalized other

when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the ____.

retroactive interference

when more recently learned information blocks recall of information learned in the past

proactive interference

when older information interferes with new information that you are trying to learn

Individual discrimination

when one person discriminated against another

environmental injustice

when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being

social persuasion

when someone says something positive to you, it helps you overcome self-doubt

self-fulfilling prophecy

when stereotypes lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes

normative social influence

when the motivation for compliance is a desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection

projection bias

when we assume that others have the same feelings we do due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourself an others

cued recall

when you retrieve information after being provided with a cue, or some other information to help find that stored memory

free recall

when you retrieve your stored information without any further information

construct validity

whether a tool is measuring what it is intending to measure

external validity

whether the results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people

ideal self

who we want to be

just world hypothesis

you get what's coming to you

public declaration

you're more likely to follow through if you've told everyone

Communism

• All property is owned by the community

Macro-sociology

• Analyzes how large phenomena affect individuals • Civilizations, societies, cities populations • Looks for patterns/ broad social trends • Some sub concepts: functionalism, conflict theory, etc.

Socialism

• Common ownership of property, focused on human needs and economic demands

Functionalist perspective of mass media

• Enforces social norms • Provides entertainment • Builds communities by compiling people's collective experiences

Feminist theory

• Focuses on inequities faced by women • Forms of inequity: general discrimination, stereotyping, objectification, oppression

Democracy

• Government by people

Monarchy

• King or queen is a leader or at least a figurehead

(some) Cultural univerals possibly selected for in evolution

• Medicine • Marriage/partnership ceremonies • Death rituals • Language

Capitalism

• Private ownership of production, market economy, supply and demand

Authoritarian

• Run by dictator, requires absolute obedience to authority

Strong social constructionism

• The idea that all knowledge is a social construct and that there are no brute facts that simply exist

Social constructionism

• The idea that most knowledge is not real and simply constructed from human thought and society • Some social constructs: money, nations, laws, etc.

Social fact

• Way of thinking that exists before any individual enters a society or leaves it; not influenced by any individual • Examples: laws, religion, social trends (birth rates, health trends, etc.)

Medicalization

• When human conditions get treated like medical conditions; happens a lot with over diagnosed mental conditions like depression or ADD