mechanics and punctuation

large numbers

With numbers of more than three digits, use a comma after every third digit from the right. Examples 3,823 students 205,000 gallons 2,674,970 tons

ellipsis marks and single quotation marks

(...) Use three ellipsis marks in a quotation to indicate that words have been omitted. Ellipsis at the Beginning Suzanne Charle described the Black River area in Missouri as having "... old mines and quarries to explore, fast-running waters to canoe, and wooded trails to ride." Ellipsis in the Middle Suzanne Charle wrote, "The Black River ... lends its name to an area of great natural beauty. Within this expanse are old mines and quarries to explore, fast-running waters to canoe, and wooded trails to ride." Ellipsis at the End Suzanne Charle wrote, "The Black River, which cuts a winding course through southern Missouri's rugged Ozark highlands, lends its name to an area of great natural beauty. ..." Notice in this last example that when a period falls right before an omitted portion of the quotation, it is added along with the ellipsis marks to conclude the sentence. The ellipsis marks are only a group of three periods with spaces between them, never more or less. In this example, the fourth period ends the sentence. Use single quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation. Examples "I will always remember my grandmother quoting Shelley, 'If winter comes, can spring be far behind?'" Michael commented. Rephrase most sentences with one quotation within another to include the same information in a less complicated way.

quotation marks for direct quotations

A direct quotation represents a person's exact speech or thoughts and is enclosed in quotation marks (" "). An indirect quotation reports only the general meaning of what a person said or thought and does not require quotation marks. Direct Quotation "When I learn to ride," said the student, "I'll use the bridle path every day." Indirect Quotation The student said that when she learns to ride, she plans to use the bridle path every day. To enclose a sentence that is an uninterrupted direct quotation, place double quotation marks around the quotation. Example "One can live in the shadow of an idea without grasping it." —Elizabeth Bowen When a phrase or a fragment is quoted, enclose the quoted words in quotation marks just as you would a full sentence. Capitalize the first word of the quote, however, only when it falls at the beginning of the sentence you are writing or when it is a proper noun or a proper adjective that would be capitalized in any case. Examples In one of his essays, George Mistry calls the stables near his home "the source of an almost profound stench." "The source of an almost profound stench" is how Mistry refers to the stables near his home. Many direct quotations contain not only the actual words of a speaker but also words identifying the speaker. These identifying words or phrases are called conversational tags. They include such expressions as she asked, they replied, my father explained, and Jenny shrieked. Conversational tags are never enclosed in quotation marks. Use a comma after short introductory expressions that precede direct quotations. Example My mother warned, "If you get a horse, you'll be responsible for taking care of it." If the introductory conversational tag is very long or formal in tone, set it off with a colon instead of a comma. Examples Bert rose to his feet: "I'd like to announce the winner of the event." At the end of the meeting, Marge spoke of her dreams: "I hope to advance the cause of women jockeys everywhere." Use a comma, question mark, or exclamation mark after a direct quotation followed by a concluding expression. Example "If you get a horse, you'll be responsible for taking care of it," my mother warned. Use a comma after part of a quoted sentence followed by an interrupting conversational tag. Use another comma after the tag. Use two sets of quotation marks to enclose the quotation. Example "If you get a horse," my mother warned, "you'll be responsible for taking care of it." Use a comma, question mark, or exclamation mark after a quoted sentence that comes before an interrupting conversational tag. Use a period after the tag. Example "You own a horse now," warned my mother. "You are responsible for taking care of it."

using commas with a series

A series consists of three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses of a similar kind. Words in a Series Her costume was colorful, exciting, and original. Notice that if there are three items in a series, two commas are used; if there are four items in a series, three commas are used; and so on. Phrases in a Series The groom was fidgeting at first, then chewing his lip, and finally sweating profusely. It's important to drink plenty of fluids before the day arrives, during the event, and immediately afterward. Subordinate Clauses in a Series The newspapers reported that the weather was flawless, that the dinner was impeccable, and that the band played remarkably well. When conjunctions are used to separate all of the items in a series, no commas are needed. Example We saw fireworks and streamers and confetti. You should also avoid placing commas before items, such as salt and pepper, that are paired so often that they are thought of as one item. Example The best man, bride and groom, and maid of honor sat together.

Astrophe

Add an apostrophe and an -s to show the possessive case of most singular nouns. Examples the woman's wallet the dog's collar the actress's lines For classical references ending in -s, only an apostrophe is used. Examples Confucius' teachings Tacitus' history Add an apostrophe to show the possessive case of plural nouns ending in -s or -es. Examples the barking of the dogs the dogs' barking the color of the leaves the leaves' color Add an apostrophe and an -s to show the possessive case of plural nouns that do not end in -s or -es. Examples the books of the women the women's books the grazing lands of oxen the oxen's grazing lands Add an apostrophe and an -s (or just an apostrophe if the word is a plural ending in s) to the last word of a compound noun to form the possessive. Names of Businesses and Organizations the Salvation Army's headquarters the Department of the Interior's budget Titles of Rulers and Leaders Catherine the Great's victories the chairman of the board's desk Hyphenated Compound Nouns Used to Describe People my sister-in-law's car the nurse-practitioner's patient To form possessives involving time, amounts, or the word sake, use an apostrophe and an -s or just an apostrophe if the possessive is plural. Time a month's vacation three days' vacation a half-hour's time Amount one quarter's worth two cents' worth Sake for Marjorie's sake for goodness' sake To show joint ownership, make the final noun possessive. To show individual ownership, make each noun possessive. Joint Ownership I always enjoyed Bob and Ray's radio show. Individual Ownership Liz's and Meg's coats are hanging here. Use the owner's complete name before the apostrophe to form the possessive case. Incorrect Singular Jame's idea Correct Singular James's idea Incorrect Plural two girl's books Correct Plural two girls' books Use an apostrophe and an -s with indefinite pronouns to show possession. Examples everyone's time one another's friends somebody's umbrella each other's homework

using other punctuation marks with quotation marks

Always place a comma or a period inside the final quotation mark. Examples "Secretariat was a great horse," sighed Mother. Marge said, "We're all ready to ride now." Always place a semicolon or colon outside the final quotation mark. Examples We were just informed about his "earth-shaking discovery"; we are all pleased. The panelists gave her ideas their "strong endorsement": Most of them promised to spread her theory of equine development. Place a question mark or an exclamation mark inside the final quotation mark if the end mark is part of the quotation. Examples Larry wondered, "How could such a fast stallion lose the race?" King Richard shouted, "My kingdom for a horse!" Place a question mark or an exclamation mark outside the final quotation mark if the end mark is not part of the quotation. Examples Did the officer say, "I'll be back soon"? We were shocked when he said, "Yes"!

Capitalize names of awards; names of specific types of air, sea, space, and land craft; and brand names.

Awards Nobel Peace Prize, the Pulitzer Prize, Phi Beta Kappa, the Medal of Honor Specific Crafts Boeing 747, the U.S.S. Kearsarge, Apollo V, Ford Mustang Brand Names Aunt Molly's Crackers, John's Elixir

titles

Capitalize a person's title when it is used with the person's name or when it is used as a name. Capitalize titles of people and titles of works. With a Proper Name Yesterday, Governor Wilson addressed the state legislature. As a Name Mrs. Alvarez is on the phone, Doctor. In a General Reference Have you met the mayor of our city? Capitalize the titles of certain high government officials even when the titles are not used with a proper name or in direct address. Titles that are always capitalized include those of the current President, Vice President, and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, as well as that of the Queen of England. Example The Chief Justice was appointed by the President. Capitalize titles showing family relationships when they are used with a name or as a name. With the Person's Name Aunt Liz speaks two languages. In Direct Address I'm glad you're coming to lunch, Grandma. Referring to a Specific Person Will Grandfather come with us on our trip to Africa? Capitalize the titles and subtitles of works of literature, art, and media and of various publications. Book Profiles in Courage Movie The Great Train Robbery Magazine Life Play The Tragedy of Macbeth Capitalize titles of courses when they are language courses or when they are followed by a number. With Capitals Spanish, Sociology 1, English 2 Without Capitals biology, zoology, home economics Capitalize the first word and all nouns in letter salutations and the first word in letter closings. Salutations Dear Eric, Dear Sirs: Closings With love, Yours truly,

proper nouns

Capitalize all proper nouns. Proper Nouns Henry, Sir Edmund Hillary, the White House, Cincinnati, H.M.S. Beagle, National Geographic Capitalize each part of a person's full name. Capitalize both parts of surnames beginning with Mc, O', or St. Examples Roald Amundsen, T. S. Eliot, Francis Drake McCarthy, O'Donovan, St. James The proper names of animals should also be capitalized. Examples Lassie, a dog Velvet, a horse Capitalize geographical and place names. Articles are not usually capitalized. Examples Hillside Road, Putnam County, the Alps, Kalahari Desert, Fiji Islands, the Southwest, the Oval Office, Room 14, Laboratory C Note that words indicating direction can be used in two ways: to name a section of a country and to give travel directions. These words are capitalized only when they refer to a section of a country. Examples Urban areas of the Northeast face many problems. We traveled two miles west and one mile south.

proper adjectives

Capitalize most proper adjectives. Proper Adjectives from Proper Nouns American, Elizabethan, Chinese Proper Nouns as Adjectives a Chicago accent, a March day, a Eugene O'Neill play Do not capitalize certain frequently used proper adjectives. Examples bowie knife, china cabinet, french toast, afghan blanket Capitalize a brand name used as an adjective, but do not capitalize the common noun it modifies. Examples Everlasting refrigerator, Big Guy jeans Do not capitalize a common noun used with two proper adjectives. Volstead and Payne-Aldrich acts Main, Welch, and Macopin streets Mississippi and Missouri rivers Do not capitalize prefixes attached to proper adjectives unless the prefix refers to a nationality. Examples pro-English Franco-Prussian War In a hyphenated adjective, capitalize only the proper adjective. Example Swedish-speaking immigrant

using capitals for first words

Capitalize the first word in declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences. Declarative The mountain was tall and forbidding. Interrogative (question) Where is the highest peak in the world? Imperative Take your camera with you. Exclamatory What a breathtaking view! Capitalize the first word in interjections and incomplete questions. Interjections Oh! Marvelous! Incomplete Questions Why not? When? If the quotation is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word. Example "The water rushes to the edge of the falls," the tour guide said. "Its force could crush a person." The example shows a quotation that consists of two sentences. The first word of each sentence is capitalized. Example "As the water crashes to the bottom of the falls," he said, "a thick spray of mist is flung up." In this example, a sentence is interrupted by a "he said/she said" expression. Only the first word of the interrupted sentence is capitalized. After seeing the Grand Canyon, Theodore Roosevelt said that "the ages have been at work upon it and man cannot improve it." The example contains a portion of a quotation that is not a complete sentence. When only a portion of a sentence is quoted, do not capitalize the first word unless it is the first word of the sentence in which it is used. Capitalize the first word after a colon if the word begins a complete sentence. Complete Sentence In 1866, David Livingstone set out to attempt something never before accomplished: He led an expedition to discover the source of the Nile. List of Words or Phrases Previous to this, Livingstone had explored much of Africa: the Kalahari Desert, the Zambezi River, Lake Ngami, and Victoria Falls.

poetry

Capitalize the first word in each line of traditional poetry. Example Tyger! Tyger! burning bright, In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry? —William Blake Capitalize the first word after a colon in a formal resolution that states the subject of debates, legislative decisions, and acts. Example Resolved: That the Senior Class hold an exhibit of its work on natural wonders.

events and periods of time

Capitalize the names of specific events and periods of time. Most dictionaries and encyclopedias include lists of historic events and periods that require capitalization. Do not capitalize any reference to the seasons. Example The winds were so cold during the winter that we thought we were at the North Pole. Capitalize abbreviations of titles before and after names. Examples Mrs. Bellamy Arthur Romano, Ph.D Although Miss is not an abbreviation, it is capitalized when used with a name.

various groups

Capitalize the names of various organizations, government bodies, political parties, races, nationalities, languages, and religious references. When you use pronouns to refer to the Judeo-Christian deity, they should always be capitalized. Example I prayed for His help. When referring to ancient mythology, you should not capitalize the word god or goddess. The names of the gods and goddesses, however, are capitalized. the gods of ancient Greece the Roman god Mars

Titles That Do Not Use Underlining or Quotation Marks

Do not underline or place in quotation marks the name of scriptures, such as the Bible, the Torah, and the Koran, or their books, divisions, or versions. Example She recited the Twenty-third Psalm. Do not underline or place in quotation marks the titles of government charters, alliances, treaties, acts, statutes, or reports. Example The Versailles Treaty officially ended World War I.

hyphens

Hyphens are used to join some words and to divide others. The hyphen (-) resembles the dash (—) but is shorter. Use a hyphen when writing out the compound numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine. Examples twenty-eight ounces fifty-five apartments Use a hyphen with fractions used as adjectives. A fraction used as a noun is not hyphenated. Adjectives one-quarter inch a two-thirds majority Nouns One fourth of the members were present. Two thirds of the population voted. Use a hyphen after a prefix that is followed by a proper noun or a proper adjective. Examples pre-Renaissance mid-February un-American Prefixes that may be used before proper nouns or proper adjectives are ante-, anti-, mid-, post-, pre-, pro-, and un-. Use a hyphen in words with the prefixes all-, ex-, self-, and words with the suffix -elect. Examples all-powerful ex-jockey self-made mayor-elect Use a hyphen to connect two or more words that are used as one word unless the dictionary gives a contrary spelling. Examples sister-in-law tractor-trailer six-year-old Use a hyphen to connect a compound modifier that comes before a noun unless it includes a word ending in -ly or is a compound proper adjective or compound proper noun acting as an adjective. Examples with Hyphens a well-made pair of jeans the bright-eyed children an up-to-date decision Examples without Hyphens widely distributed information East European languages Red River valley When compound modifiers follow a noun, they generally do not require the use of hyphens. Examples The jeans were well made. The leather is high quality. Use a hyphen within a word when a combination of letters might otherwise be confusing. Examples semi-illiterate re-press (to press again) Use a hyphen between words to keep readers from combining them erroneously. Incorrect the special delivery-man If a word must be divided at the end of a line, always divide it between syllables. Example The lonely children had been sending let- ters describing their adventures at camp. Do not divide a word so that a single letter or the letters -ed stand alone. Incorrect a-bout scream-ed toast-y Avoid dividing proper nouns and proper adjectives. Incorrect Fe-licia Amer-ican Correct Felicia American Divide a hyphenated word only after the hyphen. Incorrect We are going with my sister and my bro- ther-in-law. Correct We are going with my sister and my brother- in-law.

special uses of parentheses

Parentheses are also used to set off numerical explanations, such as dates of a person's birth and death, and numbers or letters marking a series. Examples Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) was an innovative American architect. His phone number is (303) 555-4211. Her research will take her to (1) Portugal, (2) Canada, and (3) Romania.

using commas with compound sentences

The conjunctions used to connect independent clauses are called coordinating conjunctions. The seven coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. Use a comma before the conjunction to separate two or more independent clauses in a compound sentence. Examples My cousin is getting married this summer, but I won't be able to attend the wedding. The Newport Jazz Festival draws a big crowd every year, and this year won't be any different. Remember to use both a comma and a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence. Using only a comma would result in a run-on sentence. Simple Sentence with Compound Verb John bought them a blender and waited to have it gift wrapped. This sentence has two verbs: bought and waited. It does not require a comma. If it were written as a compound sentence, it would need a comma. John bought the blender, and then he waited to have it gift wrapped.

colons

a punctuation mark used before an extended quotation, explanation, example, or series and after the salutation in a formal letter Use a colon before a list of items following an independent clause. Example With Colon As part of our assignment, we had to interview a group of experts: an economist, a scientist, and a business manager. Example Without Colon As part of our assignment, we had to interview an economist, a scientist, and a business manager. Sometimes, an independent clause preceding a list includes a phrase such as the following or the following items. These phrases should signal the use of a colon to introduce the list. Example The following items must be stored safely in locked fireproof cabinets: acids and bases, toxic chemicals, and all flammable liquids. Use a colon to introduce a quotation that is formal or lengthy or a quotation that does not contain a "he said / she said" expression or tag line. Example Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., wrote this about freedom: "It is only through free debate and free exchange of ideas that government remains responsive to the will of the people and peaceful change is effected." Use a colon to introduce a sentence that summarizes or explains the sentence before it. Example His explanation for being late was believable: He had had a flat tire on the way. Use a colon to introduce a formal appositive that follows an independent clause. Example I had finally decided on a career: nursing. Use a colon in a number of special writing situations.

quotation marks and underlining

Underline or italicize the titles of long written works; of publications that are published as a single work; of plays, movies,and television series; and of other works of art. Book _To Kill a Mockingbird_ is a modern classic. OR -To Kill a Mockingbird- is a modern classic. Play He starred in _Long Day's Journey Into Night_. OR He starred in -Long Day's Journey Into Night-. Magazine I read _Newsweek_ to keep up with current events. OR I read -Newsweek- to keep up with current events. Newspaper She agreed with the story in the _Los Angeles Times_. OR She agreed with the story in the -Los Angeles Times-. Musical She went to see _Peter Pan_. OR She went to see -Peter Pan_. Painting I saw Chagall's painting _The Green Violinist_. OR I saw Chagall's painting -The Green Violinist-. The portion of a newspaper title that should be underlined will vary from newspaper to newspaper. _The New York Times_ should always be fully capitalized and underlined or fully italicized. Other papers, however, can usually be treated in one of two ways: the _Los Angeles Times_ OR -Los Angeles Times-, or the Los Angeles _Times_ OR Los Angeles -Times-. Underline or italicize names of individual air, sea, space, and land craft. Example I wonder if Columbus had horses aboard the _Santa Maria_. OR I wonder if Columbus had horses aboard the -Santa Maria-. Underlining and italics are also used for foreign words and phrases not yet accepted into English. Underline or italicize numbers, symbols, letters, and words used as names for themselves. Underline or italicize words that you wish to stress. Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of short written works, episodes in a television series, songs, and parts of long musical compositions or collections. Examples "Edward, Edward" and "Lord Randall" are two familiar English ballads. Winifred Welles's essay "The Attic" describes her as a child exploring her grandfather's attic. Read Chapter 1, "Dialogue and Action," in _Understanding Drama_.

using commas after introductory material

Use a comma after an introductory word. Introductory Words Yes, we do expect to hear from them soon. Well, I was definitely surprised by her question. Nouns of Direct Address Joe, will you attend? Introductory Adverbs Hurriedly, they gathered up their equipment. Patiently, the children's mother explained it to them again. Use a comma after an introductory phrase, such as participial phrases, prepositional phrases, and infinitive phrases. Participial Phrases Moving quickly, she averted a potential social disaster. Marching next to each other in the parade, we introduced ourselves and started to chat. Prepositional Phrases In the shade of the maple tree, a family spread a picnic cloth. After the lengthy festivities, we were all exhausted. Infinitive Phrases To choose the right gift, I consulted the bridal registry. To finish my speech on time, I will have to cut some remarks. Use a comma after an introductory clause, including an adverb clause. Adverb Clauses When she asked for a permit for the fair, she was sure it would be denied. If you compete in marathons, you may be interested in this one. Only one comma should be used after two prepositional phrases or a compound participial or infinitive phrase. In the pocket of his vest, he found the ring. Lost in the crowd and overwhelmed by the confusion, the children asked the policeman for help. Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions—words or phrases that interrupt the flow of a sentence. Parenthetical expressions may come at the end of a sentence or in the middle. When a parenthetical expression appears in the middle of a sentence, two commas are needed to set it off from the rest of the sentence. Nouns of Direct Address Will you have lunch with us, Ted? I wonder, Mr. Green, where they'll go for their honeymoon. Conjunctive Adverbs Someone else had already bought them a toaster, however. We could not, therefore, buy one. Common Expressions I listened to the teacher's explanation as carefully as anyone else, I think. Contrasting Expressions Tom is seventeen, not eighteen. Lisa's personality, not her beauty, won Bill's heart. Appositives, participial phrases, and adjective clauses can be either essential or nonessential. (The terms restrictive and nonrestrictive are also used to refer to these two kinds of materials.) Essential material, which is necessary to the meaning of a sentence, is not set off with commas. Essential Appositive The singer Diana Ross is also an actress. The appositive Diana Ross identifies the specific singer. Essential Participial Phrase The woman buying the tomatoes is my mother. The participial phrase buying the tomatoes identifies the specific woman. Essential Adjective Clause The report that the committee will consider today was prepared by members of the first-aid squad. The adjective clause that the committee will consider today identifies the specific report. Because these items limit, or restrict, identification to the person or thing described in the appositive, participial phrase, or adjective clause, they are all essential. They cannot be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence, so they require no commas. Use commas to set off nonessential expressions. Nonessential Appositive Diana Ross, the singer, is also an actress. Nonessential Participial Phrase My mother, buying the tomatoes, is an excellent cook. Nonessential Adjective Clause The first-aid squad's report, which the committee will consider today, took six months to prepare.

addresses

Use a comma after each item in an address made up of two or more parts. Example Send an invitation to Mrs. Robert Brooks, 145 River Road, Jacksonville, Florida 32211. Commas are placed after the name, street, and city, but not between the state and the zip code. Most commas in an address are unnecessary when stacked in a letter or on an envelope or package. A comma is still required, however, between the city and the state. Example Mrs. Robert Brooks 145 River Road Jacksonville, Florida 32211

salutations and closings

Use a comma after the salutation in a personal letter and after the closing in all letters. Salutations Dear Emily, Dear Uncle Frank, My dear Jane, Closings Yours truly, Sincerely, Your friend,

elliptical sentences

Use a comma to indicate the words left out of an elliptical sentence. Example Alan celebrates his birthday solemnly; Fred, casually. The words celebrates his birthday have been omitted from the second clause of the elliptical sentence. The comma has been inserted in their place, however, so the meaning is still clear.

using apostrophes for special plurals

Use an apostrophe and an -s to write the plurals of numbers, symbols, letters, and words used to name themselves. Examples m's and n's your 2's and 3's no if's or maybe's three ?'s in a row

forming contractions

Use an apostrophe in a contraction to indicate the position of the missing letter or letters. Contractions with verbs should be used mainly in informal writing and in dialogue. The same is true for another type of contraction, one for years. Examples the class of '04 the depression of '29 Examples e'en (for even) o'er (for over) Examples O'Hare o'clock d'Lorenzo l'Abbé Examples "Hi, ol' buddy. How you been feelin'?" "Don' you be afoolin' me."

brackets

Use brackets to enclose words you insert in quotations when quoting someone else. Example Cooper noted: "And with [ET's] success, 'Phone home' is certain to become one of the most oft-repeated phrases of the year [1982]." Lady Caroline Lamb wrote of Byron, "[He is] mad, bad, and dangerous to know." The Latin expression sic (meaning "thus") is sometimes enclosed in brackets to show that the author of the quoted material has misspelled or mispronounced a word or phrase. Example Michaelson, citing Dorothy's signature line from The Wizard of Oz, wrote, "Theirs [sic] no place like home."

using commas with coordinate adjectives

Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives, or adjectives of equal rank. Coordinate Adjectives a tasteless, boring affair a raucous, festive, thrilling occasion An adjective is equal in rank to another if the word and can be inserted between them without changing the meaning of the sentence. Another way to test whether or not adjectives are coordinate is to reverse their order. If the sentence still sounds correct, they are of equal rank. If you cannot place the word and between adjectives or reverse their order without changing the meaning of the sentence, they are called cumulative adjectives. Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives. Cumulative Adjectives a new dinner jacket many unusual guests

direct quotations

Use commas to set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence. Examples "You came home late," commented James's mother. He said, "The wedding rehearsal ran longer than expected." "I hope," James's mother said, "the best man doesn't forget the ring."

dash

Use dashes to indicate an abrupt change of thought, a dramatic interrupting idea, or a summary statement. To indicate an abrupt change of thought: The article doesn't provide enough information on Japan—by the way, did you find it in the school library? To set off interrupting ideas dramatically: The pagoda was built—you may find this hard to believe—in one month. The pagoda was built—where did they get the money?—in one month. To set off a summary statement: A good scholastic record and good political connections—if you have these, you may be able to get a job in a congressional office. Words such as all, these, those, this, and that will often be found at or near the beginning of a summary sentence preceded by a dash. Use dashes to set off a nonessential appositive or modifier when it is long, when it is already punctuated, or when you want to be dramatic. Appositive The cause of the damage to the porch and the roof—a rare species of termite—went undiscovered for years. Modifier The home-improvement book editor—bored with writing about cement, joists, and grout—quit the next day. Use dashes to set off a parenthetical expression when it is long, already punctuated, or especially dramatic. Example Yesterday we visited a castle—could you imagine living in such a place?—set on a small body of water out in the country.

parentheses

Use parentheses to set off asides and explanations only when the material is not essential or when it consists of one or more sentences. The task of cleaning the mansion (as she learned within the month) was far greater than she had believed. Turn-of-the-century wealth (two of the more famous fortunes are those of the Rockefeller and Frick families) spawned estate homes of incredible opulence. Although material enclosed in parentheses is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, a writer indicates that the material is important and calls attention to it by using parentheses.

geographical names and dates

When a geographical name is made up of two or more parts, use a comma after each item. Examples My cousin who lives in Dallas, Texas, is cutting the ribbon for the grand opening. They're going to Kouchibouguac, New Brunswick, Canada, for their honeymoon. When a date is made up of two or more parts, use a comma after each item. Examples The wedding took place on June 16, 1985, and their son was born on June 16, 1986. Friday, August 23, was the first day of the fair.

titles after a name

When a name is followed by one or more titles, use a comma after the name and after each title. Example Susan Martini, Ph.D., announces her engagement to Bob Taormina, M.D.

using parentheses with other punctuation marks

When a phrase or declarative sentence interrupts another sentence, do not use an initial capital letter or end mark inside the parentheses. Example Bill Frazier finally sold his vacation home (we used to love to visit there) to a young couple. When a question or exclamation interrupts another sentence, use both an initial capital letter and an end mark inside the parentheses. Examples Joseph Allen (Didn't he once star in the television show Homes for Tomorrow?) has had a string of personal difficulties. Uncle Bruce (He is a fabulous decorator!) chose our window treatments. When you place a sentence in parentheses between two other sentences, use both an initial capital letter and an end mark inside the parentheses. Example Newport is known for its incredible mansions. (See the Vanderbilt home as an example.) These wild excesses of wealth are staggering to behold. In a sentence that includes parentheses, place any punctuation belonging to the main sentence after the parenthesis. Example The town council approved the construction (after some deliberation), and they explained the new zoning laws to the public (with some doubts about how the changes would be received).

using quotation marks in special occasions

When writing dialogue, begin a new paragraph with each change of speaker. For quotations longer than a paragraph, put quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the final paragraph. The lack of end quotes at the end of the paragraph is intended as a clue to the reader that the quotation continues.

semicolons

a punctuation mark used to join independent clauses that are not already joined by a conjunction Use a semicolon to join independent clauses that are not already joined by the conjunction and, but, for, nor, or, so, or yet. The most common way to join independent clauses is by using a coordinate conjunction and a comma. Example We explored the attic together, and we were amazed at all the useless junk we found there. When no coordinating conjunction is used, however, closely related independent clauses can be joined with a semicolon. Example Jamaal and I explored the attic together; we were amazed at all the useless junk we found there. Note that the word we after the semicolon is not capitalized. Words following a semicolon are never capitalized unless they are a proper noun or proper adjective. Sometimes, the second independent clause may begin with a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression. Conjunctive adverbs include such words as also, furthermore, accordingly, besides, consequently, however, instead, otherwise, similarly, therefore, and indeed. Transitional expressions include as a result, first, second, at this time, for instance, for example, in fact, on the other hand, that is, in conclusion, and finally. Use a semicolon to join independent clauses separated by either a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression. Conjunctive Adverb We visited curio shops in eight counties in only two days; consequently, we had no time for sightseeing. The conjunctive adverb consequently is set off by a semicolon and a comma. A comma follows it because it is an introductory expression. Transitional Expression She never found the shipwreck; in fact, she really had no interest in scuba diving. The transitional expression is in fact. It is set off by a semicolon and a comma. Use semicolons to avoid confusion when independent clauses or items in a series already contain commas. Independent Clauses The city, supposedly filled with gold, was a fable; and the hungry, tired explorers would only find it in their dreams. Items in a Series I was convinced that we had won when I heard the music of the band playing our victory march; the jubilant players clapping and shouting; and the roar of spectators rising to their feet. Nonessential Appositives Harry, my brother; Mike, my friend; and I went to the soccer game together. (The words my brother and my friend are nonessential appositives.) Adjective Clauses The car, -red in color-, was my first one; after that, I bought another car, -a sleek black model-.

Which word is correctly divided for breaking at the end of a line?

re-gret

Which punctuation mark is always placed outside the final quotation mark?

semicolon