Mechanisms of Disease

The most significant strategy for combating disease is

therapy and prevention.

Describe a virus. How does a virus damage a cell?

an intracellular parasite that consists of a nucleic acid, either RNA or DNA, surrounded by a protein coat and sometimes by a lipoprotein envelope. A virus invades the cell and inserts its own genetic code into the host cell's genetic code, causing the cell to produce viral DNA or RNA and protein coats. They pirate the host cell's nutrients and organelles to produce more virus particles.

A vector of the disease is

an organism that spreads disease to other organisms.

three benign tumors that arise from connective tissue.

(1) Lipomas, (2) Osteomas, (3) Chondromas

three benign tumors that arise from epithelial tissue.

(1) Papillomas, (2) Adenomas, (3) Nevi

six risk factors discussed in the chapter.

(1) genetic factors, (2) age, (3) lifestyle, (4) stress, (5) environmental factors, and (6) preexisting conditions.

eight mechanisms of disease.

(1) genetic mechanism, (2) pathogenic organisms, (3) tumors and cancer, (4) physical and chemical agents, (5) malnutrition, (6) autoimmunity, (7) inflammation, and (8) degeneration.

four ways disease can be spread.

A disease can be spread by (1) person-to-person contact, (2) environmental contact, (3) opportunistic invasion, and (4) transmission by a vector.

What happens in the body to cause fever?

A fever is a result of an irritant or inflammation mediator causing the "thermostat" of the brain to reset at a higher temperature.

What is a Ligament

A ligament is a strong fibrous connective tissue that connects bone to bone.

What is metastasis?

A metastasis is the spreading of malignant tumor cells by way of the lymphatic system or blood vessels.

How is a primary condition different from a secondary condition?

A primary (preexisting) condition adversely affects our capacity to defend ourselves against further infection. A primary condition can put a person at risk for developing a secondary condition. For example, blisters from a preexisting burn may break open and thus increase the risk of a bacterial infection of the skin.

What is the difference between a sign, and a symptom?

A sign is an objective abnormality that can be seen or measured by someone other than the patient. A symptom is a subjective abnormality felt only by the patient.

This type of benign tumor forms from glandular epithelium.

Adenoma

Distinguish between anaerobic and aerobic bacteria

Aerobic bacteria require oxygen for their metabolism. Anaerobic bacteria require an absence of oxygen for their metabolism.

How does an acute disease differ from chronic disease?

An acute disease is one that persists for a short time, then disappears. A chronic disease develops slowly and lasts for a long time (perhaps for life).

What is the difference between an epidemic and a pandemic?

An epidemic is when a disease spreads to many individuals at the same time. Pandemics are epidemics that affect large geographic regions, perhaps spreading throughout the world.

How is an antibiotic drug different from an antiviral drug?

Antibiotics are compounds produced by certain living organisms that kill or inhibit pathogens. Antiviral drugs are synthetic drugs that do not stop infections but merely inhibit viral reproduction and thus slow down the progression of the viral disease.

Genetic mechanism Malnutrition Autoimmunity Inflammation

Are disease mechanism

What is aseptic techniques?

Aseptic technique involves killing or disabling pathogens on surfaces before they can spread to other people.

Name the shapes and sizes used to classify bacteria. Which of these include the obligate parasites?

Bacilli—are large, rod-shaped cells found singly or in groups. Cocci—are large, round bacteria that are found singly, in pairs, in strings, or in clusters. Curved or spiral rods—can be curved rods arranged singly or in strands, or they can be large spiral cells or cell colonies. Small bacteria—round or oval bacteria that are so small they were once thought to be viruses. They can only reproduce inside other living cells, so they are sometimes called the obligate parasites.

How do bacteria cause disease?

Bacteria can produce toxic substances that damage human tissues. They may also become parasites inside human cells, or they may form colonies in the body that disrupt normal human function.

List the ways in which bacteria produce disease

Bacteria produce disease in a variety of ways. They can secrete toxic substances that damage tissue, they can become parasites inside human cells, or they can form colonies in the body that disrupt normal functions.

Distinguish between malignant and benign tumors.

Benign tumors remain localized within the tissue from which they arose. Malignant tumors tend to spread to other regions of the body.

What are four major types of tumors?

Benign tumors that arise from epithelial tissues: papilloma, adenoma, nevus; benign tumors that arise from connective tissues: lipoma, osteoma, chondroma; malignant tumors that arise from epithelial tissues: melanoma, adenocarcinoma; malignant tumors that arise from connective tissues: lymphoma, osteosarcoma

How is cancer treated?

Cancer can be treated through chemotherapy, radiation therapy, laser therapy, or immunotherapy.

What are the three major categories of vertebrae? How many bones in each?

Cervical (7 bones), thoracic (12 bones), and lumbar (5 bones)

What is chemotaxis?

Chemotaxis is the movement of white blood cells in response to chemical attractants.

Having an upset stomach Having a headache

symptom of a disease or condition?

What is the difference between an epidemic and a pandemic? What factor makes pandemics more common?

Epidemic refers to a disease that has spread to many people at the same time. Pandemics are epidemics that affect large geographical regions or even the entire globe. Because of the speed and availability of modern air travel, pandemics are more common than they once were.

examples of a hinge joint, decribe the movment a hing joint allows

Examples of a hinge joint are elbow, knee, and the joints between the fingers. Hinge joints allow movement in only two directions: flexion and extension.

Describe the use of genetically engineered versions of T cells in the treatment of cancer.

Genetically engineered versions of one's own T cells are used in the treatment of cancer. These newly programmed T cells remove specially targeted cancerous cells throughout the patient's body.

How is a false rib different from a true rib?

False ribs (eighth, ninth, and tenth pairs) are attached to cartilage of the seventh ribs, whereas true ribs 1-7 are attached to the sternum by costal cartilage.

How does the female hipbone differ from the male pelvis.

The female hipbone forms a wider structure than the male hipbone. The woman's pelvis has a broader, shallower shape, more like a basin. Also, the woman's pelvic inlet and pelvic outlet are both normally much wider than in the male

five methods of cancer treatment.

Five methods of cancer treatment are (1) surgery, (2) chemotherapy, (3) radiation therapy, (4) immunotherapy, and (5) genetic engineering.

What is a fontanel?

Fontanels (soft spots) are areas where ossification is incomplete at birth.

Describe fungi. Distinguish between yeasts and molds.

Fungi are a group of simple organisms similar to plants but without chlorophyll. Pathogenic fungi cannot produce their own food, so they must consume or parasitize other organisms. Yeasts are small, single-celled fungi. Molds are large multicellular fungi.

What are six factors that may cause risk of developing a disease?

Genetic factors, age, lifestyle, stress, environmental factors, and preexisting conditions

What are five general causes of cancer?

Genetic factors, carcinogens, age, environment, and viruses

What are eight general mechanisms that may cause disease?

Genetic mechanism; pathogenic organisms and particles; tumors and cancer; physical and chemical agents; malnutrition; autoimmunity; inflammation; and degeneration

five factors that are known to play a role in the development of cancer.

The five factors known to play a role in the development of cancer are (1) genetics, (2) carcinogens, (3) age, (4) environment, and (5) viruses.

What causes the imflammation

Inflammation mediators cause blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood volume in the tissue. Increased blood volume produces the redness and heat of inflammation. Inflammation mediators also increase the permeability of blood vessel walls. This allows immune cells and other blood components to move out of the blood vessels easily where they can deal directly with the injured tissue. As water leaks out of the vessel, tissue swelling results. The pressure caused by the swelling triggers the pain receptors.

List the four major groups of protozoa.

The four major groups are (1) the amoebas, (2) the flagellates, (3) the ciliates, and (4) the sporozoa.

What are the three bones that fuse together to form the coxal bone

Ilium, ischium, and pubis

four methods used to detect the presence of cancer.

The four methods used to detect the presence of cancer are (1) self-examination, (2) diagnostic imaging, (3) biopsy, and (4) blood tests.

How does cartilage differ from bone?

In cartilage, collagenous fibers are embedded in a firm gel instead of in a calcified cement substance like they are in bone. Because of this, cartilage has the flexibility of a firm plastic rather than the rigidity of bone.

What are the four primary signs of inflammation?

The four primary signs of inflammation are (1) redness, (2) heat, (3) swelling, and (4) pain.

What are the four categories of the bones in the skeleton?

Long, short, flat, and irregular

What is a mutagen?

Mutagens are agents that cause mutations. Mutation means "change," such as a genetic mutation is a change in the genetic code. Genetic mutagens include chemicals, some forms of radiation, and viruses.

Why are new antibiotics often needed in the treatment of bacterial disease?

New antibiotics are needed when bacteria develop a resistance to the drug or when the drug treatment cycle is difficult to complete.

Which of the following describes a malignant neoplasm?

Not encapsulated and migrates via the lymphatic or blood vessels

Where would you find most pathogenic fungi?

On or near the skin or mucous membranes

What are osteocytes?

Osteocytes are mature bone cells.

Where would you find osteocytes in bone tissue?

Osteocytes lie between the hard layers of the lamellae in little spaces called lacunae.

What is the basic structural unit of a compact bone tissue called

Osteons or haversian systems

What is pathogenesis? Give an Example.

Pathogenesis is the actual pattern of a disease's development. The common cold is an example.

Define pathophysiology.

Pathophysiology is a branch of pathology that studies the underlying physiological processes associated with disease.

The process of hyperplasia

Production of too many cells

Name four ways a disease can be spread.

Person-to-person contact, environmental contact, opportunistic invasion, or transmission by a vector

Describe protozoa.

Protozoa are one-celled organisms that are larger than bacteria and whose DNA is organized into a nucleus.

What are protozoa and how do they cause disease?

Protozoa are one-celled organisms whose DNA is organized in a nucleus. They can infect human fluids and cause disease by parasitizing cells or directly destroying them.

What is the oldest and most widely used method of noninvasive imaging of the internal body structures?

Radiography

What are the four principal signs of inflammation?

Redness, heat, swelling, and pain

What is a risk factor?

Risk factors are certain predisposing conditions that may make the development of a disease more likely.

What are sarcomas?

Sarcomas are malignant tumors that arise from connective tissue.

What is a sinus

Sinuses are spaces or cavities inside some of the cranial bones.

What is the role of an inflammation mediator?

Some inflammation mediators cause blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood volume in the tissue. Some inflammation mediators increase the permeability of blood vessel walls, allowing the immune system cells and other blood components to move out of the blood vessels easily where they can deal directly with injured tissue

What are the five major functions of the skeletal system?

Support, protection, movement, storage, and hematopoiesis

What is a suture?

Sutures are immoveable joints located in the skull.

Three major types of joints in the skeleton and their examples.

Synarthroses: sutures between cranial bones; amphiarthroses: symphysis pubis and joints between the bodies of the vertebrae; diarthroses: knee, hip, and elbow

what membrane in a diarthrotic joint provides lubrication for movement?

Synovial membrane

What are the arches that form the foot and explain their significance?

The arches that form the foot are medial longitudinal arch, lateral longitudinal arch, and the transverse or metatarsal arch. These arches provide great supporting strength and a highly stable base.

What is the difference between the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton?

The axial skeleton is made of bones in the center or axis of the body (skull, spine, chest, and hyoid bone). The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper extremities and the lower extremities.

What are the major features of a long bone

The major features of the long bone include: diaphysis—shaft; medullary cavity —hollow area inside the diaphysis; epiphyses—ends of the long bone; articular cartilage—thin layer of cartilage covering each epiphysis; periosteum—strong fibrous membrane covering a long bone everywhere except at joint surfaces; and endosteum—thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity.

What are the major groups of pathogenic animals?

The major groups of pathogenic animals are nematodes, platyhelminths, and arthropods,

Name and give an example of each of the pathogenic animals. Which of the arthropods are parasitic? Which is a vector?

The pathogenic animals are the nematodes, which include the roundworms; the platyhelminths, which include flukes and flatworms; and arthropods, which include wasps, bees, mosquitoes, and spiders and the parasitic mites, ticks, lice, and fleas. A vector is an organism that spreads disease to other organisms.

Name some of the organs of the skeletal system.

The primary organs of the skeletal system are the bones.

Name some of the bones of the upper and lower extremities?

Upper extremity: clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges; lower extremity: coxal, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges

Name a disease caused by a virus and a disease caused by a prion.

Viral diseases: severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS); West Nile virus (WNV); Human papilloma virus (HPV); Hepatitis A, B, and C; Herpes simplex 1 and 2; Epstein-Barr virus (EBV); Influenza A, B, and C; Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); Flavivirus; Paramyxovirus; Rhinovirus; and Coronavirus (CoV). Prion diseases: bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or "mad cow disease"); Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD)

Name a common fungal infection.

Yeast infection, athlete's foot, or pneumonia

When signs and symptoms of a disease appear suddenly, persist for a short time, then disappear, the disease is said to be

acute

What is bacterium.

bacterium is a tiny, primitive cell without a nucleus.

What is ossification?

bone formation.

What is the role of the osteoblast?

bone-forming cells. They first lay down organic material followed by calcium salts.

Malignant tumors that arise from epithelial tissues generally are called

carcinomas.

The movement of white blood cells in response to chemical attractants is called

chemotaxis

Staining properties Shape and size Growth requirements

classify bacteria?

Inflammatory exudates can best be described as

fluid that accumulates in an inflamed tissue

our sarcomas discussed in the chapter.

four sarcomas discussed in the chapter are (1) lymphomas, (2) osteosarcomas, (3) myelomas, and (4) fibrosarcomas.

Etiology

he study of all factors involved in causing a disease.

Latent or incubation period

is a time when no signs or symptoms of a disease are evident.

four factors involved in the spread of disease

nutrition, age, gender, sanitation practices, and socioeconomic conditions.

Microscopic organisms that include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa are called

microbes.

The actual pattern of a disease's development is called its

pathogenesis.

Prions can best be described as

pathogenic protein molecules that convert normal protein to abnormal proteins.

Conditions caused by psychological factors are sometimes called

psychogenic.

Communicable

refers to a disease that can be transmitted from one person to another.

Idiopathic

refers to a disease with an undetermined cause

An increased body temperature A rash on the skin A blood pressure of 210/103

signs of a disease of condition

An attenuated pathogen that is given to a person to stimulate immunity is called a(n)

vaccine.