Memory-Psych unit 3 area study 2

Represents memory as consisting of three distinguishable components called the sensory register, short term/working memory and the long term store. Each store represents a place where information is held and processed. Each component stores, encodes and processes information differently, but operate simultaneously and interacts.

Atkinson Shiffrins multi-store model of memory

Central executive: (ATTENTION) >very active and responsible for the selection, initiation, and termination of processing routines (encoding, storage, retrieval). It controls attention: integrates info from phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, as well as helping to retrieve info from the LTM to associate with info which is in working memory. >decision maker Visuospatial sketchpad: >aka visual working memory. It is responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of visual and spatial info. >visual info is anything you see or visualise, including features of an image. >spatial info refers to visual location of objects in space Phonological (articulatory) loop: >verbal working memory-SUBVOCAL >responsible for storing speech based info >holds verbally produced sounds and words for around 2 seconds >when you read, listen or speak or repeat words Episodic buffer: (LTM) >sub-system of working memory that enables the different components of working memory to interact with LTM- combines separate pieces of info from other components into single episode >assumed to be a limited capacity, temporary storage system that holds about 4 chunks of info. >under the control of the central executive, however, it is capable of holding info in any form. >provides mental workbench for cognitive activities. making a cake: phonological loop- repeats the ingredients or recipe subvocally visiospatial sketchpad: can be used to picture where equipments or ingredients are at home central executive: directs and controls attention in phonological loop and visiospatial sketch pad visuospatial sketchpad: used to visualise what the batter should look like using the episodic buffer to remember past examples

Baddeley and Hitch

framework proposes that the level or 'depth' at which we process info during learning determines how well it is stored in the LTM. LEVELS OF PROCESSING AND DEPTH ARE HARD TO DEFINE SPECIFICALLY AND TO MEASURE >According to Craig and Lockhart the 3 levels of encoding are: >Structural: VISUAL ENCODING (SURFACE)- SHALLOW *Shallow encoding on a superficial processing level *focusing on the physical appearance of info >Acoustic (phonological, phonemic) *retention of stimuli according to what it sounds like *moderate level of processing >Semantic (meaning): *attaching meaningful associations in order to understand the items being remembered *deepest level of processing. MORE MEANINGFUL, DEEPER PROCESSING, BETTER STORAGE

Craig and Lockhart levels of processing framework

Capacity: unlimited duration: potentially permanent function: >relatively permanent system that holds vast amounts of info for a long period. >LTM stores all the information which we do not need right now. Such information is not immediately active and needs to be retrieved from our LTM to the STM when the time comes to use it. >Because of the vast amounts of information stored, we cannot scan everything like in STM, we must organise the information to gain efficient retrieval >We retrieve information by using retrieval cues, which provide us with prompts for remembering information. >Only the specific information relevant to the cue is retrieved rather than the entire contents of LTM >STM stores information in a PHYSICAL FORM (such as sensations) but LTM stores information SEMANTICALLY (in terms of its meaning)

Long term memory

the storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning. Essentially, it is an internal record or representation of some prior event or experience.

Memory

Encoding: the process of converting information into a useable form or code so that it can enter and be stored in memory Storage: retention of encoded representations of information overtime Retrieval: process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it.

Memory as information processing

Bartlett read stories that included unusual events and the memories when tested were more in line with personal beliefs and sense about what was likely to be true. Loftus's leading questions are those questions that are phrased in a way that suggests what the desired answer is. Choice of words can evoke a different response. Memories where manipulated by the questions asked. The way questions are asked during eye witness testimony can influence memory. Shows how recall does in fact involve an active reconstruction of events, that is open to suggestion. Memories can be altered by post event exposure to inaccurate info during questioning.

bartletts research loftus's

-Prefrontal cortex: memory involving the sequence of events, but not the events themselves -Medial temporal lobe: (not visible) encodes and transfers new explicit memories to LTM. -Hippocampus: encodes and transfers new memories into LTM -Amygdala: encodes emotional aspects of memories + fear Temporal lobe: -includes hippocampus and amygdala (explicit) -verbal information is stored in the left hemisphere -visual designs are stored in the right hippocampus -damage to the hippocampus would result in the inability to form new explicit memories, but the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories is not affected. Amygdala: role in emotional learning- in learning to associate fear with new unpleasant stimulus -Stimulation of the amygdala activates the hippocampus, and, in humans, learning and memory for pleasant and unpleasant emotional information is linked to the amount of activity in the amygdala when learning occurs. -in humans and other animals the amygdala's main function is to aid survival behaviour, particularly related to aggression and fear (flight'fight) -the amygdala provides a primitive 'quick pathway' to the cortex, which enables us to react to dangerous stimuli before we have fully comprehended the situation. -Application: humans with damage to their amygdala are unable to be classically conditioned (to learn) to fear a dangerous object (stimulus)

brain structures involved in memory

brain trauma: damage inflicted through injury interferes with functioning. EG. BRAIN INJURY, STROKE, DRUG ABUSE neurodegenerative disease: decline in structure and functions of neurons. EG. ALZHEIMERS DISEASE Amnesia: refers to any loss of memory, either partial or complete, temporary or permanent. Anterrograde amnesia: inability to form new memories for events occurring after the trauma which results in difficulty in consolidating information to long term memory. Related to hippocampus damage. -Korsakoffs syndrome: (a type of anterograde amnesia) -caused by chronic alcoholism -bad diet- lack of thiamine (vitamin B) -sometimes confabulate- make up stories to fill in gaps in memory Retrograde amnesia: inability to remember past episodic information occurring before the trauma (TEMP) Alzheimers: a neurodegenerative disease involving the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, causing increasingly severe memory loss and gradual detrioration of mental abilities, personal skills and behavior. Plaques and tangles within the neurons as they die from the back forward. Explanation: gradual denegeration of brain neurons, so brain tissue shrinks and dies, damaged connections between neurons and a build-up of neurofibrillary tangles (proteins with neurons).

brain trauma and neurodegerative disease amnesia ALZHEIMERS

a period of time in the transfer of information from STM into LTM when some consolidation of the information is necessary for a permanent memory to be retained. -consolidation theory suggests that information can be altered or completely lost during this consolidation phase. -it proposes that structural or 'physical' changes to the neuron in the brain occur when something new is being learned, and immediately following learning. -if memory is disrupted during the consolidation phase (stabilisation of changes in the brain's neurons), information may not be processed in LTM and therefore will be lost. -Consolidation of information is a gradual process and material remembered is vulnerable to disruption for at least 30 minutes, although consolidation of memories can proceed for as long as several years in some people. reconsolidation: -after retrieval from LTM, memories need to be reconsolidated before being placed back in LTM -

consolidation theory reconsolidation

context dependent: environmental cues in a particular setting where memory was formed that acts as retrieval. state dependent: internal cues that relate to an experience may also trigger retrieval of associated memories. These are associated with an individuals' internal psychological (happy, sad, angry)/ physiological state (sober/intoxicated) state at the time the memory was formed.

context dependent and state dependent cues

based on the assumption that when something new is learned, a physical or chemical memory trace of the experienced is formed. This is formed in the brain as the information is consolidated in LTM. Decay theory suggests that forgetting occurs because a memory (or the memory trace) fades through disuse as time passes, unless it is reactivated by being used occasionally. This theory involves an explanation of forgetting in psychological terms. According to the decay theory memories are forgotten as the physical neurological pathways are no longer there. One criticism of the decay theory is that the retrieval cues can allow old information to be retrieved, indicating that the connections are still there and they just need to be reactivated.

decay theory

-elaboration enables effective encoding -the more associations that are made between new information and that are already in memories the more likely the information will be retrieved. -making it meaningful makes it more easier to remember

elaboration and organisation

-participants read stories about them getting lost in the shopping centre as children. -told the info comes from a relative -about 25% of participants after reading the story reposrt recalling the event

false memories

-inability to retrieve previously stored information -unable to retrieve the information at the same time you need it - not gone forever -can involved failure in encoding, storage or retrieval ' forgetting may occur because: -the right retrieval cue or prompt is not being used -there is interference from competing material -there is some underlying motivation to not remember -memory fades through disuse over time Retrieval failure theory: forget because one fails to use the right cues. -tip of the tongue phenomenon: you know that you know the answer, but you can't retrieve it from memory at the point in time. -possible due to partial retrieval. Lack of correct cue. interference theory: forget because other memories interfere with the one we are trying to retrieve, particularly those that are similar to the one we are trying to recall. -if learning of the similar information occurs close in time, interference is more likely retroactive interference: new similar information interferes with the remembering of old information proactive interference: old similar information interferes with the ability to remember new information motivated forgetting: forgetting that arise from a strong motive or desire to forget, usually because the experience is too disturbing or upsetting to remember. -repression: involves unconsciously blocking a memory of an event or experience from entering conscious awareness. memory is not lost from memory just prevented from entering awareness. -suppression: involves being motivated to forget an event or experience by making a deliberate conscious effort to keep it out of conscious awareness. Person remains aware of the experience yet consciously chooses not to think about it.

forgetting,

rehearsal: the process of doing something so that info can be retained in memory and the retrieved when required- can be verbal, non verbal, vocal, sub vocal, mental imagery etc. maintenance rehearsal (STM): involves simple, rote repetition odd info being remembered can be retained. Going over and over it! Needs to be attended to consciously-not just meaningless repetition. >info can be kept in STM longer than 18secs if rehearsed in some way >involves spatial, visual or simple rote repetition but does little to encode or add meaning to the info elaborative rehearsal:process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in LTM. More active and more effective, ensure that info is encoded well. >attribute meaning to new info >meaningful and integrated with existing LTM >more effective and effortful process than maintenance rehearsal and helps with memory and info is stored with a deeper level of info processing. >eg. self referencing: making new info meaningful and personal to you.

improving STM duration

Chunking; refers to the grouping of separate bits of information into larger single units or 'chunks' of info. eg-mobile number. You can now remember 7 chunks of info rather than 7 pieces.

improving/increasing capacity of STM

there may be some naturally occurring decline in some aspects of memory among older people; however memory decline is not necessarily an inevitable part of growing old. May need more time tom retrieve memories but still ca do well as a young person but recognising new information is not effected. Memory decline is most likely to be experienced in working memory and the declarative memory systems (episodic and semantic) rather than in procedural memory. slower processing- -due to myelin loss- less efficient -due to shrinking of frontal lobe -due to less motivation to remember recall is less for episodic memory divided attention not so good

memory decline over the lifespan

-Memory is not an exact copy of the world -memory does include some exact details, but may have additions that are logically plausible, things that may have happened. -confidence in memory is no guarantee of its accuracy, in fact there is little correlation. -memory is actively constructed -retrieving memory involves active reconstruction -over time recalling memories can change the content and meaning of a memory -your experience of memory is NOT guarantee that it reflects reality

memory manipulation

memory techniques -methods or strategies for improving memory. They make use of information already in LTM. -They don't make it simpler, they make it more elaborate. -help organise information into a cohesive whole narrative chaining: make up a story using the items that have to be remembered. acrostics: word associations for items to be remembered, with phrases constructed using the first letters of words to be remembered. eg. Never Eat Soggy Weetbix acronyms: pronounceable words formed from the first letters of a sequence of words rhymes: rhymes are a phrase or string of words often with an emphasis on similar sounding key words.

mnemonic devices

Dendrite: receive information from other neurons and transmit to the soma Soma: integrates information received from the dendrites (contains the nucleus) Axon: carries neural information away from the soma towards other neurons Axon collaterals/axon terminals/synaptic knob action potential: neural/electrical impulse is formed in the soma Myelin sheath: serves to speed up processing by insulating and protecting the neuron/impulse. Disintegrates with age. Myelinated is faster then unmyelinated. Synapse: where the communication occurs between adjacent neurons (site of storage) More synaptic connections as memories are formed, dendrites become bushier. Presynaptic neuron- terminal button post synaptic neuron- dendrites Neurotransmision: Neurotransmitter attaches itself to receptor sites of the postsynaptic neuron. If the neuron transmitter doesn't bond to the post synaptic neuron then its taken back by the presynaptic neuron (KNOWN AS REUPTAKE) 2 EFFECTS: -Excitatory effect: stimulate postsynaptic neuron -Inhibitory effect: block postsynaptic neuron from firing structure: growth and strengthening of synaptic connections when a memory is formed. Dendrite spines increase therefore the dendrites become bushier. There is also growth in synapses Functioning: increase in amount of neurotransmitter released by presynaptic neuron. =learning

neuron - dendrites/soma/axon/axon terminal

Information in LTM is organised systematically in the form of overlapping networks of connected units of information that are interconnected and interrelated by meaningful links. (eg. USB--> FOLDERS--> SUB FOLDERS) -When we search memory we start by searching a general area then follow the links to find the specific information we need. -Research indicates that we tend to store items in categories. This is based on studies which require participants to memorise lists of words which could be placed into any four categories. -Everyone's semantic network can be different, because it depends on what something means to an individual, but they provide means for storing new material and for helping us access material previously learned. The diagram showing the types of memory is a semantic network and shows characteristics of this model of our storage systems. Nodes- the named units Links- (shows the relationship between nodes)- the shorter the link the faster the recall Hierarchical structure- several nodes on the lowest level form part of one node at the next level, etc Spreading activations- activating one node increases the likelihood of activating associated nodes (recall) The shorter the link between the nodes the stronger the association the longer the link between the node the weaker the association exam tips: -memories are stored as nodes in a hierarchical network -connections between nodes represent the relationships between concepts stored at each node. -nodes are information (concepts) and can act as cues to spread activation throughout the network -links are the pathways along with activation travels/spreads between nodes.

organisation of information in LTM

the role of neuron in memory formation: -new memories (either STM or LTM) are NOT stored in individual synapses but in the pattern of thousands of new interrelated connections. -looking for memories in a single nerve cell or synapse is a dead end -we know that there is a molecular basis to memory formation, what we do not know is exactly how thousands of these new connections hold our memories. Long term potentiation: refers to the long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections of neurons in order to improve the ability of pre and post synaptic neurons to communicate with one another at the synapse level. -neural basis for memory formation -synapse strength can be increased in 3 ways: >release extra neurotransmitter >increase number of receptor sites >growth of new synapse

physical basis of memory formation

problem is that the concept of level or depth has proved difficult to quantify or measure. Nevertheless, the concept that deep processing results is more effective encoding and better memory for new info is widely accepted.

problem with the 3 levels of processing framework

a retrieval cue is any stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information stored in memory. A retrieval cue acts as a prompt or hint that guides the search and recovering process within memory. According to the retrieval failure theory we sometimes forget because we lack or fail to use the right cues to retrieve information stored in LTM. The memories in LTM are available and not actually forgotten, however the memories are temporarily inaccessible due to an inappropriate cue, and this is why it might be referred to as cue depended learning. The tip of the tongue phenomenon occurs when you are aware of knowing something, and confident you will actually remember it, but are unable to retrieve the memory at the time. Lack of correct cue.

retrieval cues retrieval failure theory tip of the tongue phenomenon

the entry area of memory of all stimuli, which bombard our senses and are retained in their original, raw sensory form, for a very brief period of time in memory sub systems called sensory registers. >Must attend and select information to be transferred to short term memory. >Can not consciously manipulate info in sensory memory. If it has been attended o and transferred to short term memory, we can manipulate/ encode info. >Sensory memory may act as a filter to keep out irrelevant and unimportant info and prevent it cluterring sensory stores.

sensory memory

iconic: >visual sensory memory >visual images in their original sensory form are usually retained here for about .2-.4 seconds--> .3 >Spirlings experiment- proved iconic memory echoic: >auditory sensory memory >registers and retains all kinds of sounds for about 3-4 seconds >the longer duration of echoic memory is important for understanding speech >plays an important role in language comprehension as it enables storage of all sounds that makes a word so the word can be processed as a whole

sensory registers: iconic and echoic memory

5-9 pieces of information (7+/-), 18-20 seconds >stores information temporarily while working on it >no longer an exact replica of the sensory stimulus, but an encoding/ representation of one >holds all information you are consciously aware of at any one moment. >information stored in STM is lost primarily through decay (not being used) and displacement (being pushed out). Decay of information occurs in STM when information is not maintained by rehearsal and simply fades with the passage of time. Displacement of information from STM occurs when the capacity of STM is exceeded. >STM is now preferred to be called 'working memory'. Used to emphasise the active part of memory where info we are consciously aware of is actively 'worked on'.

short term/working memory

An important aspect of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model is its description of human memory in terms of its structural features and its control processes. Structural features: are the permanent, built in fixed features of memory that do not vary from one situation to another. The three different stores are the basic structural features. Control processes: are selected and used by each individual and may vary across situations. They are under the 'conscious' control of the individual. eg. attention, rehearsal and retrieval are controlled processes. limitations of A & S MODEL OF MEMORY: >short term store is no longer believed to be a single store in which info is rehearsed until it flows into Long term store or is discarded. It consists of number of separate, interacting components of subsystems that process different types of info. >evidence suggests there are different types of rehearsal methods >long term store is no longer viewed as a 'single' memory component. It seems it has different subsystems. .evidence suggests there is a separate sensory register for all senses >info from environment does no simply flow through each store.

structural features and control processes and limitations of model

forgetting curve: graph shows that forgetting is rapid soon after the original learning, then the rate of memory loss gradually declines, followed by stability of remaining memories. -within 20 minutes around 40% of information is lost -more than half the memory loss occurs within the first hour of learning -virtually all the material will be forgotten is lost in the first 8 hours -the better the initial learning, the longer the material is likely to be retained. recall- being asked to reproduce information with the fewest possible cues. free recall- asked to remember as much information as possible in no particular order- eg- list of grocery items serial recall- asked to remember as much information in a particular order -eg-iteniary cued recall- given a cue then asked to recall information-eg seven dwarfs- D,D,S,S,G,H recognition: identifying correct information from among alternatives. Can retrieve more this way as recognition provides more cues for retrieving from LTM. -RECOGNITION IS A MORE SENSITIVE MEASURE THAN RECALL- eg- multiple choice Relearning: even if one can't recall or recognise, it doesnt mean that is no memory. If relearn it and learn it more quickly the second time, the assumption is that there was some memory available. -savings score MOST SENSITIVE METHOD OF RECALL= RELEARNING RECALL IS WORST RECOGNITION IS BETER RELEARNING IS THE BEST

the forgetting curve, three measures of retention

Evidence for separate STM and LTM -Recall tends to be best for items at the end and the beginning and worst for those in the middle. -primacy- superior recall for items at the beginning of a list- (because they are already stored in LTM) -recency- superior recall for items at the end of the list (because they are still in short term memory) -WHY? items at end are still in STM so remembered well, items at start have been transferred to LTM. Middle too late to be in STM and too early to be in LTM without rehearsal.

the serial position effect

Procedural (IMPLICIT) MEMORY>HOW -Long term memory stores for actions and skills that can be physically or intellectually learned by condition and practice (eg. brushing teeth, kicking a ball, riding a bike) Declarative (EXPLICIT) MEMORY > THAT -Memory of specific facts or events that can be brought into conscious awareness and explicitly stated -Explicit memory occurs when a process can be consciously brought into awareness. This is a deliberate attempt to recall information. Types of declarative memory: -EPISODIC (PERSONAL): Memory of life events , autobiographical (episodes) (eg. 18th birthday) -SEMANTIC (GENERAL): Information about the world. Areas of expertise, academic knowledge, important places, meaning of words, famous people or events (eg. facts that do not rely on a specific time or place- eg. population of Australia)

types of long term memory

Neurotransmitter; chemicals that transmit signals across the synapse to another neuron. Glutamate: GLU -Excitatory neurotransmitters that enhance transmission of information throughout the brain. -GLU grows and strengthens synaptic neurons -NMDA & AMPA are 2 glutamate receptors sites which allow for above changes -NMDA found in the hippocampus specialises in receiving glutatmate and the formation of LTM Dopamine: DA -involved in attention, initiation of voluntary movement, pleasure and reward base learning -involved in strengthening the synaptic connections and formation of LTM -This effects the function of working memory -as levels increase or decrease so can the functioning of working memory -in an abundance of dopamine reward system tends to take over and thoughts aren't as clear Acetylcholine: ACH -involved in learning, attention, sleeping, dreaming and motor control -this neurotransmitter is found in low levels in patients with Alzheimer's disease resulting in significant memory loss Norepinephrine: NE -Known as the neurotransmitter and as a "stress hormone" -secreted during heightened levels of arousal -it influences activities of the amygdala and hippocampus which have critical roles in memory formation -the amygdala communicates to the hippocampus which then strengthens the storage of emotional information in declarative memory.

what is neurotransmitter? 4 neurotransmitters in memory formation- glutamate, aceytecholine, dopamine, norepinephrine NAGD