MGMT 309

Substitutes for Leadership

A concept that identifies situations in which leader behavior is neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization. Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership

Attribution

A mechanism through which we observe behavior and attribute a cause to it.

Self-Efficacy

A person's belief about his or her capabilities to perform a task. High self-efficacy individuals believe they can perform well while low self-efficacy individuals doubt their ability to perform.

Stress

A person's response to a strong stimulus (i.e., a stressor).

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A popular questionnaire that some organizations use to assess personality types. *Is a useful method for determining communication styles and interaction preferences.*

Negative Affectivity

A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood.

Positive Affectivity

A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood.

Attitudinal Components

Affective component - Feelings and emotions toward a situation Cognitive component - Perceived knowledge Intentional component - Expected behavior in a given situation

The "Big Five" Personality Traits

Agreeableness—a person's ability to get along with others. Conscientiousness- The number of things a person can effectively work on at one time. Negative emotionality—the extent to which a person is calm, resilient, and secure. Extraversion—a person's comfort level with relationships. Openness—a person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.

Organizational Commitment

An attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to an organization.

Job Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction

An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work.

Equity Theory

An individual's belief that the treatment the individual receives is fair relative to the treatment received by others. • Theory's Assumptions People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance. Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs of effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves to other people.

Team

An interdependent group of workers who function as a unit, often with little or no supervision, to carry out work- related tasks, functions, and activities.

Process Perspectives

Approaches to motivation that focus on: Search for behavioral options and alternatives Choice of behavioral options to satisfy needs Rewards and evaluation of satisfaction after goals are attained.

Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors

Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and organizational factors. Satisfied employees are absent less often, make positive contributions, and stay with the organization. Dissatisfied employees are absent more often, may experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and may be continually looking for another job.

Norms

Are standards of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors that a group sets for its members. Norm generalization—the norms of one group cannot always be generalized to another group (external). Norm variation—norms and their application vary within a group or team (internal). Norm conformity occurs when individuals conform to: Group or team pressure An initial (ambiguous) stimulus prompting group behavior. Individual traits that reflect their propensity to conform. The influence of situational factors related to the group. Individual responses to norm conformity: Adopt the norms of the group. Try to obey the "spirit" of the norms while retaining individuality. Socialization Norm conformity that occurs when a person makes the transition from being an outsider to being and insider in the organization.

Situational Models of Leader Behavior

Assume that: Appropriate leader behavior depends on the situation. Situational factors that determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified.

Leadership Traits Approach

Assumed that a basic set of personal traits that differentiated leaders from nonleaders could be used to identify leaders and as a tool for predicting who would become leaders. The trait approach did not establish empirical relationships between traits and persons regarded as leaders. The "Great Man" Approach

Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)

Assumed that leadership style is fixed and situation must be changed to favor leader. Appropriate leadership style varies with situational favorableness (from the leader's viewpoint). LPC scale asks leaders to describe the person with whom they are least able to work well. High scale scores indicate a relationship orientation; low scores indicate a task orientation on the part of the leader. Situational favorableness is determined by: Leader-member relations—the nature of the relationship between the leader and the work group. Task structure—the degree to which the group's task is defined. Position power

The Human Resource Approach Emphasized value of employees to organization

Assumptions: Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee and the organization. Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions. Management's job is to encourage participation and create a work environment that motivates employees.

The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory

Assumptions: If performance results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied. High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction. • Types of Rewards: Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties. Intrinsic rewards are outcomes internal to the individual.

Vroom's Decision Tree Approach

Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a given situation. Basic premises: Subordinate participation in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation. No one decision-making process is best for all situations. After evaluating problem attributes, a leader chooses a path on the decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee participation. - Decision significance—the degree to which the decision will have an impact on the organization. Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high. - Decision timeliness—the degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude involving subordinates. Decision-Making Styles Decide Consult (individually)—manager presents program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision. Consult (group)—manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then makes the decision. Facilitate—manager presents the problem to the group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision. Delegate—manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution.

The Creative Individual

Background experiences and creativity Many creative individuals were reared in creative environments. Personal traits and creativity Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity.

Machiavellianism

Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others.

Attitudes

Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people.

Ways in Which Attributions Are Formed:

Consensus - The extent to which other people in the same situation behave the same way. Consistency - The extent to which the same person behaves the same way at different times. Distinctiveness - The extent to which the same person behaves in the same way in other situations.

Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt)

Continuum identifies a range of levels of leadership from boss-centered to subordinate-centered leadership Variables influencing the decision-making continuum: Leader's characteristics—value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security. Subordinates' characteristics—independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations. Situational characteristics

The Needs Hierarchy Approach

Contributions of Maslow's Theory Identified and categorized individual needs. Emphasized importance of needs to motivation. • Weaknesses of Maslow's Theory All levels of need are not always present. Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same. Cultural differences can impact the ordering and salience of needs.

The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace

Determinants of Individual Performance Motivation—the desire to do the job. Ability—the capability to do the job. Work environment—the resources to do the job.

Ohio State Studies

Did not interpret leader behavior as being one- dimensional as did the Michigan studies. Initial research assumption: leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders. Identified two basic leadership styles that can be exhibited simultaneously: Initiating-structure behavior—the leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate role expectations, formalizes communications, and sets the working agenda. Consideration behavior—the leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish a friendly and supportive climate. Initial assumption of the research was that leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders. Subsequent research indicated that: Employees of supervisors ranked high on initiating structure were high performers, but had low levels of satisfaction and had higher absenteeism. Employees of supervisors ranked high on consideration had low- performance ratings, but had high levels of satisfaction and had less absenteeism.

Elements of Expectancy Theory

Effort-to-Performance Expectancy Employee's perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance. Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy Employee's perception of the probability that performance will lead to a specific out come—the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational setting. Valence Is an index of how much an individual values a particular outcome (reward). What is required for motivated behavior to occur: Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance- to-outcome expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero. The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.

The Human Relations Approach

Emphasized role of social processes in workplace. Assumptions: Employees want to feel useful and important, employees have strong social needs, more important than money, maintaining the appearance of employee participation is important.

Commitment and Work Behaviors

Employee commitment strengthens with an individual's age, years with the organization, sense of job security, and participation in decision making. Committed employees have highly reliable habits, plan a longer tenure with the organization, and muster more effort in performance.

Personality Types

Extraversion (E) versus Introversion (I) - Extraverts get their energy from being around other people, whereas introverts are worn out by others and need solitude to recharge their energy. Sensing (S) versus Intuition (N) - The sensing type prefers concrete things, whereas intuitives prefer abstract concepts. Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F) - Thinking individuals base their decisions more on logic and reason, whereas feeling individuals base their decisions more on feelings and emotions. Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P) - People who are the judging type enjoy completion or being finished, whereas perceiving types enjoy the process and open-ended situations.

Type A Personality

Extremely competitive (aggressive), devoted to work, have a strong sense of time urgency (impatient). Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as possible as quickly as possible.

Equity Comparisons of Individuals:

Feeling equitably rewarded. Maintain performance and accept comparison as fair estimate. Feeling under-rewarded—try to reduce inequity. Change inputs by trying harder or slacking off. Change outcomes by demanding a raise. Distort the ratios by altering perceptions of self or of others. Leave situation by quitting the job. Change comparisons by choosing another object person. Feeling over-rewarded. Increase or decrease inputs. Distort ratios by rationalizing. Help the object person gain more outcomes.

Stages of Group and Team Development

Forming Attempting to define the task and how it will be accomplished through discussions of task-related concepts/issues. Storming Defensiveness, intragroup competition, and the formation of factions; arguing among members, even when they agree. Norming Establishing and maintaining team ground rules. More friendliness and confiding in one another. Performing The ability of the group/team to prevent or work through problems. Members developing a close attachment to the team.

Types of Groups and Teams

Functional Group A permanent group created to accomplish a number of organizational purposes with an indefinite time horizon. Informal or Interest Group A group created by its own members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to organizational goals. Task Group A group created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated time horizon.

Benefits of Teams

Give more responsibility for task performance to workers who do the tasks. Empower workers by giving them greater authority and decision-making freedom. Allow organizations to capitalize on the knowledge and motivation of their workers. Enable the organization to shed its bureaucracy and to promote flexibility and responsiveness.

Michigan Studies

Identified two forms of leader behavior Job-centered behavior—managers who pay close attention to subordinates' work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance. Employee-centered behavior —managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfaction. The two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same continuum.

Reasons for poor person-job fit:

Imperfect organizational selection procedures Change in both people and organizations over time New technologies require new employee skills Unique individuals and unique jobs

Stereotyping

Is the process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute (e.g., gender and race). May cost the organization valuable talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is likely unethical.

Cognitive Dissonance

The conflict individuals experience among their own attitudes. The affective and cognitive components of the individual's attitude are in conflict with intended behavior.

Type B Personality

Less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker sense of time urgency. Less likely to experience personal stress or to come into conflict with other people. More likely to have balanced, relaxed approach to life.

Other Personality Traits

Locus of Control Self-Efficacy Authoritarianism Machiavellianism Self-Esteem Risk Propensity

Enhancing Creativity in Organizations

Make creativity part of the organization's culture. Set goals for revenues from creative products and services. Reward creativity; refrain from punishing creative failures. Some ideas work out as expected, others don't work out as intended.

Risk Propensity

The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions.

Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance

Merit Reward Systems Base a meaningful portion of individual compensation on merit—the relative value of an individual's contributions to the organization. Employees who make greater contributions are given higher pay than those who make lesser contributions. • Incentive Reward Systems Concept: Employee pay is based on employee output. Assume that: Performance is under control of individual worker. Employee works at a single task continuously. Pay is tightly tied to performance (i.e., pay varies with output). Incentive Reward Systems (cont'd) Incentive pay plans Piece-rate systems Sales commissions Non-monetary incentives (perks) Team and Group Incentive Reward Systems Gain sharing is group based, and all members get bonus when pre-determined levels are exceeded. Aligns employee and corporate interests. Profit sharing provides a varying annual bonus to employees based on corporate profits. Employee Stock Ownership Programs (ESOPs) gradually grant stock ownership of the firm to employees as a reward.

Leadership Behaviors

Michigan Studies Ohio State Studies

Expectancy Theory

Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it. Assumes that: Personal and environmental forces determine behavior People make decisions about their behavior in organizations. People have different types of needs, desires, and goals. People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that that leads to a desired outcome. Motivation leads to effort that, when combined with ability and environmental factors, results in performance which leads to outcomes having value (valence) to employees.

The ERG Theory (Aldefer)

Needs are grouped into overlapping categories: Existence needs—physiological and security needs. Relatedness needs Growth needs—self-esteem and self-actualization. ERG theory assumes that: Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute hierarchy of needs). If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower- level need and pursue that need (frustration-regression).

Consequences of Stress

Negative Personal Consequences Behavioral - smoking, alcoholism, overeating, accident proneness Psychological - sleep disturbances, depression, family problems Medical - heart disease, stroke, headaches, backaches • Negative Work-related Consequences Poor quality work output and lower productivity. Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment. Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism. Burnout A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time.

Role Conflict

Occurs when messages and cues of the sent role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive. Interrole conflict Intrarole conflict is caused by conflicting demands from different sources. Intrasender conflict arises when a single source sends contradictory messages. Person-role conflict is the discrepancy between role requirements and an individual's values, attitudes, and needs.

Role Ambiguity

Occurs when the sent role is unclear.

Stress Management Strategies in Organizations

Organizations are partly responsible for stress. Organizations also must bear the costs of stress- related claims. Organizational wellness/stress management programs can be used to promote healthful employee activities and derive the benefits of increased organizational productivity.

The Need Hierarchy Approach Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs: - Physiological needs for basic survival and biological function. - Security needs seeking a safe physical and emotional environment - Belongingness needs for love and affection. - Esteem needs for positive self-image/self-respect and recognition and respect from others. - Self-actualization needs Weakness of Maslow's theory Five levels of need are not always present. Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.

Individual Differences

Personal attributes that vary from one person to another. (Physical, psychological, or emotional.)

Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations

Positive reinforcement Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed. Avoidance Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behavior is not performed. Punishment Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed. Extinction

The Creative Process

Preparation - Formal education and training is used to "get up to speed." Experiences on the job provide additional knowledge and ideas. Incubation - A period of less intense conscious concentration during which knowledge and ideas acquired, during reparation, mature and develop. Insight - A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation. Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding. Verification - Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see if the insight leads to the expected results.

Content Perspectives

The ERG Theory (Aldefer) The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) Individual Human Needs (McClelland) Process Perspectives Expectancy Theory

Historical Perspectives on Motivation

The Traditional Approach The Human Relations Approach The Human Resource Approach Emphasized value of employees to organization The Need Hierarchy Approach Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Creativity

The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas.

Political Behavior

The activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one's preferred outcomes. Common Political Behaviors Inducement—offering to give something to someone else in return for that person's support. Persuasion—persuading others to support a goal on grounds that are objective and logical as well as subjective and personal. Creation of an obligation—providing support for another person's position that obliges that person to return the favor at a future date. Coercion Impression management—making a direct and intentional effort to enhance one's image in the eyes of others.

Stress Management Strategies for Individuals

Regular exercise - reduces tension and stress, and improves self-confidence and feelings of optimism. Relaxation allows individuals to adapt and better deal with their stress. Time management reduces stress by prioritizing activities to accomplish them in their order of importance. Support groups

Providing Reinforcement in Organizations

Reinforcement schedules Fixed interval schedule—reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior. Variable interval—reinforcement applied at variable time intervals. Fixed ratio—reinforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time. Variable ratio - Provides reinforcement at varying intervals of time, such as occasional visits by the supervisor

The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two independent sets of factors. Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums: Motivational factors (work content) are on a continuum that ranges from satisfaction to no satisfaction. Hygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction. Theory posits that motivation is a two-step process Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not blocking motivation.

Situational Approaches to Leadership

Situational Models of Leader Behavior Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt) Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House) Vroom's Decision Tree Approach The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach

Organizational Citizenship

The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization.

Situations that Enhance Creativity

Specific and difficult goals Time pressure Small budget Adversity Supportive culture Heterogeneity

Executive Compensation

Standard Forms of Executive Compensation Base salary Incentive pay (bonuses) • Special Forms of Executive Compensation Stock option plans Executive perks • Criticism of Executive Compensation Excessively large compensation amounts Compensation not tied to overall and long-term performance of the organization Earnings gap between executive pay and typical employee pay

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach

Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates. Vertical dyads Leaders form unique independent relationships with each subordinate (dyads) in which the subordinate becomes a member of the leader's out-group or in-group.

Causes of Stress

Task Demands Associated with the task itself. Have to make quick decisions, critical decisions, or decisions based on inappropriate information Physical Demands Associated with the job setting. May have extreme temperatures, poorly designed office space or threats to ones health. Role Demands Associated with the role; may experience role ambiguity or role conflict Interpersonal Demands Associated with relationships that confront people in organizations. May result from group pressure, leadership styles or conflicting personalities.

Self-Esteem

The extent to which a person believes she/he is a worthwhile individual.

Authoritarianism

The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social organizations.

Emotional intelligence, or EQ

The extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills. Self-awareness is a person's capacity for being aware of how they are feeling Managing emotions is a person's capacity to ensure that feelings do not interfere with getting things accomplished Motivating oneself is a person's ability to remain optimistic in the face of failure Empathy Empathy refers to a person's ability to understand how others are feeling, even without being explicitly told. Social skill is a person's ability to get along with others

Locus of Control

The extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them. Internal locus of control—individuals who believe they are in control of their lives. External locus of control—individuals believe that external forces dictate what happen to them.

The Person-Job Fit

The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

The general cycle of the stress process. Stage 1 Alarm - Panic, wondering how to cope, and a feeling of helplessness. Stage 2 Resistance - Individual is actively resisting the effects of the stressor. Stage 3 Exhaustion - At this stage, the person literally gives up and can no longer resist the stressor.

Individual Human Needs (McClelland)

The need for achievement The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past. The need for affiliation The need for power The desire to be influential in a group and to be in control of one's environment.

The Psychological Contract

The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return.

Role

The part an individual plays in helping the group reach its goals. Task-specialist role Socioemotional role

Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)

The primary functions of a leader are: To make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace To clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards Leader Behaviors: Directive leader behavior—letting subordinates know what is expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work. Supportive leader behavior—being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals. Participative leader behavior—consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making. Achievement-oriented leader behavior—setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates.

Selective Perception

The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs. If selective perception causes someone to ignore important information it can become quite detrimental.

Personality

The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another.

Reinforcement Theory

The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or remain the same over time. Assumes that behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Role Structures

The set of defined roles and interrelationships among those roles that the group or team members define and accept.

Motivation

The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways. The goal of managers is to maximize desired behaviors and minimize undesirable behaviors.

Perception

The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information.

Goal-Setting Theory

Theory's Assumptions Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions. Setting goals influences behavior in organizations. • Characteristics of Goals Goal difficulty Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort. - People work harder to achieve more difficult goals. - Goals should be difficult but attainable. Goal specificity Clarity and precision of the goal. Goals vary in their ability to be stated specifically Goal acceptance The extent to which persons accept a goal as their own. Goal commitment The extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal.

Characteristics of Creative People

Tolerance for ambiguity •Independent thinker •Not inhibited by conformity pressure •Good verbal communicator •Imaginative •Reasonably intelligent •Intrinsically motivated •Hard worker •Asks lots of questions •Willing to take risks and fail

Group

Two or more people who interact regularly to accomplish a common purpose or goal.

Alternative Forms of Working Arrangements

Variable Work Schedules Compressed work schedule—Working a full forty-hour week in less than five days. Flexible work schedules (flextime)—Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they will work. Job sharing—When two part-time employees share one full-time job. Telecommuting—Allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usually at home, by using e- mail, the Internet, and other forms of information technology.

The Traditional Approach

Workers are interchangeable tools of production. Assumptions: Managers know more than workers, economic gain (money) is the primary motivation for performance, work is inherently unpleasant.

Types of Workplace Behavior

Workplace Behavior A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness. • Performance Behaviors The total set of work-related behaviors an organization expects an individual to display. • Withdrawal Behaviors Absenteeism occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons. Absenteeism may be a symptom of other work-related problems.

Role overload

occurs when role expectations exceed an individual's capacities.

Leadership as a Process:

what leaders actually do. Using noncoercive influence to shape the group's or organization's goals: Motivating others' behavior toward goals. Helping to define organizational culture. Leaders are people who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on force.

Leadership as a Property:

who leaders are. Characteristics attributed to individuals perceived as leaders. Leaders are people who are accepted as leaders by others.

Managing Political Behavior

• Be aware that even if actions are not politically motivated, others may assume that they are. • Reduce the likelihood of subordinates engaging in political behavior by providing them with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback. • Avoid using power to avoid charges of political motivation. • Get disagreements and conflicts out in the open so that subordinates have less opportunity to engage in political behavior. • Avoid covert behaviors that give the impression of political intent even if none exists.

Using Power

• Legitimate Request A subordinate's compliance with a manager's request because the organization has given the manager the right to make the request. • Instrumental Compliance A subordinate complies with a manager's request to get the rewards that the manager controls. • Coercion • Rational Persuasion Convincing subordinates compliance is in their best interest. • Personal Identification Using the superior's referent power to shape a subordinate's behavior. • Inspirational Appeal Influencing a subordinate's behavior through an appeal to a set of higher ideals or values (e.g., loyalty). • Information Distortion Withholding or distorting information (which may create an unethical situation) to influence subordinates' behavior.

Leadership and Power

• Power is the ability to affect the behavior of others. Legitimate power is granted through the organizational hierarchy. Reward power Coercive power is the capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat. Referent power is the personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma. Expert power is derived from the possession of information or expertise.