MGMT 340 EXAM 2

iNTRINSIC FACTORS

-Achievement -recognition -work itself -responsibility -advancement -growth

• Power goals/ direction of influence/ strategy

-Goals: achieved through dependence -Direction of influence: all directions work -Tactics for gaining compliance

• Leadership goals/ direction of influence/ strategy

-Goals: achieved through shared vision and commitment -Direction of influence: downwards -Leadership style

CAUSES OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR-INDIVIDUAL FACTORS:

-High self-monitors -Internal locus of control -High need for power -Organizational investment -Perceived job alternatives -Expectations for success

Outcomes

-Increased group performance. -Deceased group performance.

Power Tactics- Moderately Effective

-Legitimacy -Exchange -Personal Appeal -Coalitions

INCREASED POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

-MORE ETHICAL DILEMMAS TO FACE -MORE ETHICAL CHOICES TO MAKE FAVORABLE OUTCOMES: -AWARDS -AVERTED PUNISHMENTS

extrinsic factors

-Policy and administration -Supervision -Relationship with supervisor -Work Conditions -Salary -Relationship with peers

Power Tactics- Least Effective

-Pressure -Ingratiation

Power Tactics - Most Effective

-Rational Persuasion. -Inspirational Appeal -Consultation

Causes of Political Behavior- Organizational factors

-Resource dependence -Promotion opportunities -Low trust -Role ambiguity/ unclear performance evaluation -Zero-sum rewards -High performance pressure -Self-serving senior managers

Ethics of political behavior

-WHISTLE BLOWING -PLAY POLITICS -FOLLOW ORDER YOU -DISAGREE WITH -BE PART OF CORRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR

cognition and personalization

-perceived conflict -felt conflict the potential for opposition or incompatibility becomes actualized. Because a disagreement is a perceived conflict, however, does not mean it is personalized. It is at the felt conflict level, when individuals become emotionally involved, that they experience anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility. Stage II is important for two reasons: because it's where conflict issues tend to be defined, where the parties decide what the conflict is about; and because emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions and therefore our reactions to the conflict.

coercive power

...control over...the punishments in an organization. depends on fear of negative results. It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his or her job. Similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner that B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B.

Personality

Agreeableness/Extraversion/Intelligence weakly related to negotiation effectiveness because (situation and type of negotiation moderate the relationship) Self-efficacy positively related to individuals Can you predict an opponent's negotiating tactics if you know something about his or her personality? The evidence says "sort of." It suggests that overall agreeableness is weakly related to negotiation outcomes. Why is this the case? Because the degree to which agreeableness, and personality more generally, affects negotiation outcomes depends on the situation. The importance of being extraverted in negotiations, for example, will very much depend on how the other party reacts to someone who is assertive and enthusiastic. Research also suggests intelligence predicts negotiation effectiveness, but, as with personality, the effects aren't especially strong.

Closing and commitment

An agreement is formalized. The final step is formalizing the agreement that has been worked out and developing any procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring. Major negotiations will require hammering out the specifics in a formal contract. For most cases, however, closure of the negotiation process is nothing more formal than a handshake.

Moods and emotions

Anger is positively related to getting concessions (!coupled with power; !genuine or deep acting) Disappointment is positively related to winning concessions Anxiety use of deceptions/ quicker responses/ lower outcome expectations lower negotiation effectiveness Moods and emotions influence negotiation, but the way they do appears to depend on the type of negotiation. It appears that negotiators in a position of power or equal status who show anger negotiate better outcomes because their anger induces concessions from their opponents. Anxiety also appears to have an impact on negotiation. For example, one study found that individuals who experienced more anxiety about a negotiation used more deceptions in dealing with others. Another study found that anxious negotiators expect lower outcomes from negotiations, respond to offers more quickly, and exit the bargaining process more quickly, which leads them to obtain worse outcomes.

Potential opposition or incompatibility

Antecedent conditions -communication -structure -personal variables communication as a source of conflict represents those opposing forces that arise from semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and "noise" in the communication channels. The potential for conflict increases when either too little or too much communication takes place. The term structure includes variables such as size, degree of specialization, jurisdictional clarity, member-goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of dependence. Personal variables include personality, emotions, and values. People high in the personality traits of disagreeableness, neuroticism, or self-monitoring are prone to tangle with other people more often, and to react poorly when conflicts occur. Emotions can also cause conflict even when they are not directed at others.

_______ is a conflict-handling technique in which the parties in a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties.

Collaborating. When parties in conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all parties, there is cooperation and a search for a mutually beneficial outcome. In collaborating, the parties intend to solve a problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view.

• Personal Power is which two?

Comes from the person themselves o Expert Power o Referent Power

Self determination theory proposes that in addition to being driven by a need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve

Competence and positive connections. Self-determination theory proposes that in addition to being driven by a need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve competence and positive connections to others.

• Conflict. There's two types

Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. 1.FUNCTIONAL -Supports the goals of the group -Improves performance Is constructive 2.DYSFUNCTIONAL -Hinders group performance -Is destructive

• Organizational (Formal) power is which three?

Derived from a person's POSITION o Legitimate Power o Reward Power o Coercive Power

Expert Power

Derived from the person's expertise, skill, or knowledge. is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals.

Mike and Keith are on the same team; they work well with other people in the same team but don't get along with each other. This type of conflict can best be described as

Dyadic.

Peparation

Each party determines its goals for the negotiation, including its best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA). When it comes to preparation and planning, first, do your homework. What is the nature of the conflict? What is the history leading up to this negotiation? Who is involved, and what are their perceptions of the conflict? What do you want from the negotiation? What are your goals? You also want to assess what you think are the other party's goals. Once you have gathered your information, use it to develop a strategy. Determine your and the other side's Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement, or BATNA. Your BATNA determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement. Any offer you receive that is higher than your BATNA is better than an impasse.

Bargaining

Each party uses distributive or integrative strategies to gain something of value. The essence of the negotiation process takes place in the bargaining and problem solving phase. This is the actual give-and-take in trying to hash out an agreement. Concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by both parties.

Employment years and Mike needs two more years. He met up with one of the existing board members who was having problems accounting for allocated funds that went missing and offered to settle that for him in his department provided he nominate Mike to the board. Which of the following power tactics is being used here?

Exchange. The power tactic used here is exchange, which involves rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request.

Referent Power

Exists when others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person. source is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person; it is a lot like charisma. It also explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. Some people who are not in formal leadership positions nonetheless have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional effects on us.

• Self-determination theory -Rewards -Promotion -Incentives

Extrinsic Motivation

Integrative bargaining

Goals: Expand the pie so that both parties are satisfied. Motivation: win-win Focus: Interests Interest: Congruent Information Sharing: High (opportunity to satisfy each other's interests) Duration of the relationship: Long term

Distributive bargaining

Goals: Get as much of the pie as possible, zero-sum game. Motivation: Win-lose Focus: Positional Interest: Opposed Information Sharing: Low(the other party may take advantage) Duartion: Short term

Intensity:

How hard are you trying? concerned with how hard a person tries to do anything. This is the element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation

Persistence

How long are you willing to maintain your effort? Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain his or her effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

Which of the following statements is true regarding power?

If A has the capacity to influence the behavior of B, then A is said to have power over B. The most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. The greater B's dependence on A, the greater A's power in the relationship.

The management has decided to try to find a win-win solution to help both parties resolve their differences. Management is attempting to engage in ______ bargaining.

Integrative

_________ Is the third stage in the conflict process and it intervenes between people's perceptions and their overt behavior.

Intention. Intentions intervene between people's perceptions and emotions and their overt behavior. They are decisions to act in a given way.

• Self-determination theory o Autonomy o Relatedness o Competence

Intrinsic motivation

Direction

Is your effort channeled in a direction that benefits the organization? is the orientation that benefits the organization; it can be positive or negative

Which of the following is true regard to leadership?

Leadership focuses on the downward influence on followers. It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns, while power does not.

Gender

Men place a higher value on status, power, and recognition / women on compassion and altruism. Women search relationship outcomes, men - economic outcomes

Culture

Negotiations within the same culture are more effective Negotiators need to be aware of the emotional dynamics in cross-cultural negotiations. Do people from different cultures negotiate differently? The simple answer is the obvious one: yes, they do. First, it appears that people generally negotiate more effectively within cultures than between them. For example, a Colombian is apt to do better negotiating with a Colombian than with a Sri Lankan. Second, it appears that in cross-cultural negotiations, it is especially important that the negotiators be high in openness. Finally, because emotions are culturally sensitive, negotiators need to be especially aware of the emotional dynamics in cross-cultural negotiation.

o Organizational Justice

Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. example: I think this is a fair place to work.

Behavior

Overt Conflict -Party's behavior -Other's reaction

Which of the following statements is true regarding goal-setting theory?

People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals.

Which of the following factors contributes to political behavior in the organization?

Presence of limited resources in the organization. Organizations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests, and this sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation of limited resources, such as departmental budgets, space, project responsibilities, and salary adjustments. As resources are limited, not everyone's interests can be satisfied. Furthermore, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as coming at the expense of others within the organization.

When your work group disagrees, the disagreements usually concern how the group's work should be accomplished. The type of conflict experienced by your group is known as a

Process. Process conflict relates to how the work gets done.

According to the two-factor theory proposed by Herzberg, which of the following is considered a hygiene factor?

QUALITY OF SUPERVISION According to the two-factor theory, conditions such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relationships with others, and job security are considered hygiene factors or extrinsic factors.

o Positive reinforcement o Extinction o Punishment o Negative reinforcement

Reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of its consequences. Reinforcement conditions behavior. Behavior is environmentally caused. Goal setting is a cognitive approach: an individual's purposes direct his or her action. Reinforcement theory takes a behavioristic view, ignoring the inner state of the individual and concentrating solely on what happens when he or she takes some action.

Factors contributing to political behavior, as shown here in Exhibit 13-3, include individual factors.

Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest. An individual's investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will also influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action.

As a regional sales officer, one of Brandon's job responsibilities is to process the yearly appraisal forms of his subordinates and provide them with increments, bonuses, or benefits based on their performance that year. This job responsibility directly reflects his.....

Reward Power. The opposite of coercive power is reward power, with which people comply because it produces positive benefits; someone who can distribute rewards others view as valuable will have power over them. These rewards can be either financial, such as controlling pay rates, or nonfinancial, including recognition and promotions.

Jonathan is 60 years old, extremely wealthy, has a loving family, and enjoys his work. Which of the following needs would most motivate Jonathan?

Self Actualization

Helen, a highschool teacher, wants her students to actively participate more in class. She has decided to use reinforcement theory to get the required results. Which of the following methods is she most likely to use?

She is going to give students an extra mark each time that they contribute.

The conflict process

Stage 1.potential opposition or incompatibility. Stage 2. cognition and personalization. Stage 3. intentions Stage 4. behavior Stage 5. outcomes.

The organizational factors that influence politics are many.

The organizational factors that influence politics are many. Political activity is probably more a function of the organization's characteristics than of individual difference variables. When an organization's resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to surface. Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create breeding grounds for politicking. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations.

One of the sources of self-efficacy is________, becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task.

Vicarious modeling

ACCOMMODATING (LOSE TO WIN)

When issues are more important to others When harmony and stability are important When you need to show reasonableness

Reward power

When someone has control over the resources or rewards others wants. is the opposite of coercive power. People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. These rewards can be either financial—such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses—or nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories.

collaborating (win-win)

When the goal is shared When both the outcome and the relationship are important

COMPETING (WIN-LOSE)

When the goal is very important When you are not concern with the long-term relationship with the other party

COMPROMISING

When time or resources are limited When collaboration is not possible

AVOIDING (LOSE-LOSE)

When you need to calm down and regain perspective When you waste time/resources When you have low value in the outcome

definition of ground rules

Who will do the negotiating? Where? What time constraints, if any, will apply? To what issues will the negotiation be limited? Will there be a specific procedure in case of impasse? During this phase, the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands.

Political Behavior

activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. -Withholding key information -Exchanging favors with others for mutual benefits -Joining/building a coalition -Whistle-blowing -Spreading rumors -Leaking confidential information -Lobbying....

• Self-efficacy Theory o Past accomplishment o Vicarious Experience o Verbal persuasion o Emotional cues (Arousal)

also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory, is a new theory gaining much attention. The theory defines four characteristics: enactive mastery, or gaining relevant experience with the task or job; vicarious modeling, or becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task; verbal persuasion, occurring when a person is more confident because someone convinces him that he has the skills; and arousal, which leads to an energized state, driving a person to complete the task.

• Equity Theory o Organizational Justice Distributive justice Procedural justice Interactional Justice

argues that individuals make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others and then respond to any inequities. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as fair. When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension.

Personal Appeals

asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.

Intentions

conflict-handling intentions. -competing -collaborating -compromising -avoiding -accommodating

Consequences of political behavior

decreased job satisfaction, increased anxiety and stress, increased turnover, reduced performance DEFENSIVE BEHAVIORS: AVOIDING ACTION AVOIDING BLAME AVOIDING CHANGE

Inspirational Appeal

developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.

Coalitions

enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

clarification and justification

explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands. Each party makes a case for its position and put all favorable information on the table. When initial positions have been exchanged, explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands. This need not be confrontational. You might want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support your position.

Consultation

increasing the target's support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan.

Physiological

needs that include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.

Esteem

needs that include internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.

Safety

needs that include security and protection from physical and emotional harm.

• Five conflict-handling intentions

o Collaborating o Accommodating o Competing o Compromise o Avoiding

• Negotiation (Bargaining)

o Distributive o Integrative

POWER TACTICS BY INFLUENCE DIRECTION

o Downward influence: -Rational persuasion -Inspirational appeals -Pressure -Consultation -Ingratiation -Exchange o Lateral Influence: -Rational persuasion -Consultation -Ingratiation -Exchange -Personal appeals -Coalitions o Upward influence: Rational persuasion

Loci of conflicts

o Dyadic conflict-Between two people o Intragroup conflict-occurs within a group or team o Intergroup conflict-conflict between groups or teams

• Reinforcement Theory

o Operant conditioning theory Skinner's behaviorism o Positive reinforcement o Extinction o Punishment o Negative reinforcement

• Maslow's hierarchy of needs

o Physiological o Safety o Love/belonging o Esteem o Self-actualization

• Goal-Setting Theory

o Specific and difficult o Promotion focus o Prevention focus

Three types of conflict

o Task conflict-Relates to the content and goals of the work o Relationship conflict: -Focused on interpersonal relationships -Dysfunctional and psychologically exhausting o Process conflict:Relates to how the work should be done

Operant conditioning theory Skinner's behaviorism

people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don't want B. F. Skinner, one of the most prominent advocates of operant conditioning, argued that creating pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior - a theory known as behaviorism. He demonstrated that people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so, that rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response, and that behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.

Distributive justice

perceived fairness of outcome. example: I got the pay raise I deserved.

Procedural justice

perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome. example: I had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why I received the raise I did.

Legitimate power

position power. shown in formal groups and organizations through one's structural position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.

Rational Persuasion

presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable.

Exchange

rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request.

Love/belonging

social needs that include affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship

• Motivation-hygiene theory

the idea that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate and distinct dimensions.

• Impression management (IM)

the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them

Self-actualization

this is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, and includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment.

Ingratiation

using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request.

Pressure

using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.

Describe motivation in terms of:

• Intensity • Direction • Persistence

Show how individual differences influence negotiations.

• Personality • Intellectual ability • Moods/emotions • Culture • Gender

Apply the five steps of the negotiation process.

• Preparation • Definition of ground rules • Clarification and Justification • Bargaining • Closing and commitment