MGT 304 Test 3
Mediation
Third-party neutral person is called to resolve conflict Most common form of alternative dispute resolution Fair process results in people being satisfied
Cultural Values - Uncertainty Avoidance
Refers to the degree to which members in a society feel uncomfortable with ambiguous and uncertain situations, and take steps to avoid them. It describes a society's reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of the future
High-context cultures
Rely on situational cues for meaning when communicating with others
Responsiveness
Responsiveness reflects the behavioral aspect of the communication experience, and it indicates the norm of coordination or reciprocity that individuals experience in interpersonal interactions. Coordination and reciprocity denote both synchronization of speech patterns as well as responding to the informational inquiries and expressing empathy with the emotions expressed by the other party. A lack of Responsiveness to the other party's overtures signals unfulfilled expectations and may generate conflicts in interpersonal communication.
Artifacts
Rituals and ceremonies Symbols and paraphernalia Stories and slogans
Rituals
Rituals are repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization.
Incivility = Rudeness Who cares if someone is rude?
Rudeness spreads Rudeness Might have a Very negative influence on Performance
Keeping a Culture Alive
Selection Top Management
Types of Organizational Culture
Some research has conceptualized culture into four different types based on competing values:
hostile behavior
Some supervisors engage in hostile behavior known as "abusive supervision." Supervisors may ridicule, spread rumors, take credit for work done by followers, give the "silent treatment," and/or withhold information. Research has shown that such supervisory abuse is related to psychological distress, anxiety, and emotional exhaustion. Research has also shown that abusive supervision may even evoke a "paranoid" reaction from followers that is characterized as hypervigilance, rumination, and sinister attributions about others. Employees may be affected even when they are not the target of workplace abuse.
How EMPLOYEES learn culture: EXAMPLES
Stories Ray Kroc McDonald's story Rituals Wal-Mart cheer Symbols Papa John's Camaro (not anymore) Language Disney: Guests vs. customers
Stories
Stories circulate through many organizations, anchoring the present in the past and legitimating current practices. They typically include narratives about the organization's founders, rule breaking, rags-to riches successes, reductions in the workforce, relocation of employees, reactions to past mistakes, and organizational coping. Employees also create their own narratives about how they came to either fit or not fit with the organization during the process of socialization, including first days on the job, early interactions with others, and first impressions of organizational life.
Symptoms of Culture Shock
Stress due to the effort required to make necessary adjustments A sense of loss from missing family and friends--"homesickness" Wanting to avoid interactions with persons from the host culture Feeling helpless and wanting to depend on those from one's home country Fear of being robbed, injured or becoming ill Anger at delays and inconveniences experienced Feeling incompetent from not being able to cope with the new environment
Strong versus Weak Cultures
Strong culture - core values are intensely held and widely shared.
Organizational Culture
Strong versus Weak Cultures Culture versus Formalization
The dominant culture expresses the core values a majority of members share and that give the organization distinct personality.
Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems, situations, or experiences that members face.
There are three general sources of organizational conflict:
Substantive conflict. Affective conflict. Process conflict.
Symbols
Symbols are things such as the layout of corporation headquarters, the types of automobile top executives are given, aircraft, (those are considered material symbols), or size of offices and executive perks. These convey to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of behavior that are appropriate, such as risk taking, conservative, authoritarian, participative, individualistic, or social.
Hofstede & The Globe studies The Globe studies
The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research) project GLOBE Project directly involved 170 "country co-investigators" based in 62 of the world's cultures Looked at how leadership worked across cultures Built on Hofstede's findings grouping more countries and adding to Hofstede's values
Discuss the key findings from the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project international study of leadership effectiveness.
The GLOBE project described and predicted the relationship of specific cultural variables to leadership and organizational processes and their effectiveness. The GLOBE researchers refined and extended the Hofstede cultural value framework. GLOBE involved 170 social scientists and management scholars from 61 cultures throughout the world to collect, analyze, and interpret data collected from employees and managers. This research identified nine cultural concepts that were shown to be relevant to perceptions of leadership. As with Hofstede, this research identified power distance and uncertainty avoidance as cultural values. Collectivism was split into two dimensions--loyalty to the group and loyalty to institutions (such as the organization you work for). In addition, the GLOBE project identified humane orientation, assertiveness, gender egalitarianism, and future orientation, which is similar to Confucian Dynamism and performance orientation.
Culture Clusters
The GLOBE researchers grouped 60 countries into 10 clusters, and a discriminant analysis confirmed that the classification of countries into clusters accurately reflected differences in the nine cultural values for each country
Some research has conceptualized culture into four different types based on competing values:
The collaborative and cohesive clan. Like a Good Neighbor The innovative and adaptable adhocracy. Think Different The controlled and consistent hierarchy. Just Do It Because You're Worth It The competitive and customer focused market. I'm Lovin' It
Strategies for managing & manipulating QCE during negotiation
The concept of QCE suggests three levers for managing the communication process in negotiations. (1) Strive for clarity in communication, e.g.: Check for shared definition and understanding of the situation Clarify terms and meanings Use active listening Express your own ideas clearly When there is more Clarity... There is a more accurate understanding of counterpart's position, real interests, preferences, priorities, resources, and capabilities Increase probability of: (i) seeing a bigger range of options, (ii) finding common ground with counterpart, and (iii) coming up with an integrative solution better economic outcomes Extensive constructive information exchange trust and cooperation more satisfaction with the negotiation
Climate also influences the habits people adopt.
The difference between culture and climate is that culture is an evolved context and climate is a situation that employees are in.
Pattern of assumptions developed to cope with problems of external adaptation and internal integration
The group has invented, discovered, or learned these assumptions. The assumptions have worked well enough to be considered valid. Taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to problems.
Cultural Values -
The original 4 cultural values were perceived by many as too simplistic Hofstede subsequently has (after collecting more data) added a further two dimensions to his cultural values framework
Socialization
The process an organization uses so new members acquire necessary attitudes, behaviors, knowledge, and skills to become productive organizational members
Stages of Culture Shock.
The process of culture shock from pre-departure to reentry is shown in Figure 13.5 above. As Figure 13.5 illustrates, the impact of cultural transitions on well-being follows a W-shaped curve. During the pre-departure phase, there is a sense of excitement and anticipation of experiencing a new adventure in another culture. On arrival, there is typically a sense of confusion due to jet lag and getting accommodated to one's surroundings. As noted previously, most expatriates experience a honeymoon period followed by a plunge when they begin to encounter difficulties in understanding cultural practices and values. Over time, reconciliation occurs, and the expatriate begins to adjust and accommodate to the new environment. Nearing the time he will return home, there is a similar excitement as that of pre-departure where the expatriate puts things in order in the host country and makes preparations to return to his home country.
Why plan or prepare for a negotiation?
The promise of obtaining superior results
Why plan or prepare for a negotiation?
The promise of obtaining superior results plus (to) clarify one's needs and goals give direction to one's actions facilitate later decision-making and responses to counterparts' proposals anticipate some eventualities and prepare responses (reduce the amount of uncertainty) establish bases for controlling process promote communication and cooperation within team increase one's confidence and comfort with process
Cultural Retooling
The psychological process of adaptation to another culture. Will often lead to Individuals experiencing internal conflict
Formalization and culture are two different roads to a common destination.
The stronger an organization's culture, the less management needs to develop formal rules and regulations. Employees internalize guides when they accept the organization's culture.
Is Culture an asset or a liability?
There are many cases of business success stories because of excellent organizational cultures. There are almost no success stories despite bad cultures
Cultural Values - Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation
This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future
Cultural Values - Indulgence vs. restraint
This dimension is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised A tendency toward a relatively weak control over their impulses is called "Indulgence", whereas a relatively strong control over their urges is called "Restraint" Restrained societies do not put much emphasis on leisure time and control the gratification of their desires
Integrative acculturation
This is very difficult to do! Biculturals
Race and Ethnicity
Unfortunately, employees tend to favor colleagues of their own race in performance evaluations, promotion decisions, pay raises. Affirmative Action As an example African-Americans generally do worse than whites in employment decisions. No statistical difference between Whites and African-Americans in observed absence rates, applied social skills at work, or accident rates.
unproductive vs functional
Unproductive (__________) organizational conflict can harm relationships between leaders and followers and among teammates; This ultimately harms performance. But.... Functional conflict is productive; This type of conflict improves performance (if it aligns with the goals of the organization) -A group which is always harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative is prone to becoming static, apathetic, and unresponsive to needs for change and innovation
Stage Five: Concessions & Agreement
Well-prepared negotiators are aware of various concession strategies across cultures and have decided ahead of time what their own strategy will be. What does the research say? Start bargaining with extremes may be most effective.
Quality of Communication Experience is important in Negotiation
What do I mean by the Quality of Communication Experience (QCE)? Clarity Responsiveness Comfort QCE is lower in intercultural than in same-cultural negotiations. Higher QCE Higher economic gains and higher satisfaction with the negotiation Beneficial effects of higher QCE on negotiation outcomes are more pronounced in intercultural than same-cultural negotiation. It is possible for intercultural negotiators to achieve not only high individual and joint economic gains, but to even surpass those of same-culture negotiators when QCE is sufficiently high. It is important to remember to manage the QCE when negotiating across cultures.
The Effects of Conflict in Teams
While moderate levels of task conflict can improve team performance All types of conflict are detrimental to member satisfaction
What are reasons for gender differences in negotiation outcomes and styles?
Women adjust their own bargaining behavior to manage social impressions This is believed to be because in self-advocacy contexts, women fear that assertiveness will result in backlash
Antecedents to conflict
Workplace Incivility Workplace Aggression Abusive supervision Workplace Bullying Deviant Behavior
Cognitive (and metacognitive)--
acquiring information on the new culture and engaging in self-reflection
Workplace bullying is
an emergent phenomenon; it refers to "a social interaction through which one individual (seldom more) is attacked by one or more (seldom more than four) individuals almost on a daily basis and for periods of many months, bringing the person into an almost helpless position with potentially high risk of expulsion."
3. Identify Objectives A good objective is a goal that (is):
concrete, substantive measurable and quantified (you will know when you've reached it) corresponds with one or more underlying interests expressed in terms of counterpart's resources It may be high or low, extreme or modest. Suggestion: Set the bar high (but realistic, not extreme).
In a strong culture,
core values are intensely held and widely shared. Moreover, the more members accept the core values, and the greater their commitment to those values, the stronger the culture is. The unanimity of purpose builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organizational commitment, and in doing so, reduces employee turnover. High formalization creates predictability, orderliness, and consistency.
The global mind-set is developed through three interrelated skills:
cultural intelligence (CQ) and integrative acculturation (becoming bicultural).
Cultural Intelligence (CQ)--
defined as individual's capabilities to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings.
Workplace aggression is
defined as overt physical or nonphysical behavior that harms others at work (e.g., yelling or pushing). Workplace aggression can emanate from the culture of the organization and/or the behavior of supervisors. The next sections will discuss abusive supervision and toxic organizational cultures as sources of workplace incivility and aggression.
Research has shown that pressure to acculturate drives individuals toward more integrative complexity. Hence, integrative complexity might be
developed rather than a completely in-born trait.
Motivational--
developing culture-specific confidence (self-efficacy) and setting goals for cross-cultural adjustment
When negotiators are responsive to each other -
e.g., by exchanging integrative behaviors such as trade offs and communicating concerns for each other or when they have a higher summed perspective taking ability, that is, the ability to look at problems from another's perspective - they are more likely to achieve better economic outcomes and be more satisfied with the negotiation. More coordination and reciprocity means that more relevant information is being exchanged at the appropriate time, making the negotiation process more efficient and effective. E.g. at the beginning of negotiations, individuals may "test the waters" first by sharing a little sensitive information to see whether the other party is cooperative or competitive. If there is reciprocity, then the likelihood of additional information sharing and rounds of reciprocity is higher. Negotiators would then be able to discover more issues with integrative potential, resulting in better deals and more gains for the individual negotiators. Also, the trust built by the cooperation between the two negotiators would enhance their satisfaction with the negotiation.
Productive (functional) conflict
enhances organizational performance. In fact, a study of 232 employees in a long-term health care organization found that more frequent mild task conflict resulted in more information being generated. However, at a point, too much conflict may become unproductive or even dysfunctional, particularly if it brings affective conflict in which individuals become frustrated or angry. Performance may begin to suffer as the level of conflict becomes too much and begins to disrupt the work process.
The Comfort level
experienced during negotiation also influences economic gains. Negotiators can feel frustrated and confrontational when bargaining over power, which in turn will increase the tendency of premature closure and lower gains. Negative affect experienced during negotiation has been shown to have an adverse impact on satisfaction. For example, anger reduces trust, breeds distrust, and reduces satisfaction with negotiation agreements. Moreover, negotiators have to be motivated to search for agreements that are highly acceptable to both parties. An unpleasant atmosphere surrounding the negotiation is likely to reduce this motivation.
Global mind-set
has been defined as a set of individual attributes that enhance a manager's ability to influence others who are different from them.
Behavioral--
includes role-plays to model and practice effective behaviors with those from another culture.
In multi-cultural countries such as India, the U.S., Australia and China
it is not even clear how to obtain a sample of individual who are representative of the whole country
Dimensions of Cultural Intelligence. CQ is composed of four dimensions:
metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral
If organizations were composed only of numerous subcultures,
organizational culture as an independent variable would be significantly less powerful. It is the "shared meaning" aspect of culture that makes it such a potent device for guiding and shaping behavior. That's what allows us to say, for example, that the Zappos culture values customer care and dedication over speed and efficiency, and to use that information to better understand the behavior of Zappos' executives and employees. But subcultures can influence members' behavior too.
For example,
people may become so involved with the conflict that they spend time complaining to one another rather than on work that needs to be performed.
Organizational culture
refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations.
Organizational climate is
shared perceptions about the organization and work environment.
Research has shown
significant relationships between perceptions of organizational politics and psychological strain. For example, a study of Israeli employees found job distress was an immediate response to organizational politics. Also, organizational politics resulted in aggressive behavior by employees. In politicized workplaces there is less helping behaviors (OCBs) toward individuals and organizations.
Leaders need to
take an active role in resolving workplace conflicts before they escalate. A leader should be able to adapt to situations and adjust their conflict resolution style as needed. However, most people have a dominant style that they use, particularly when they are under stress. It's important to know what your tendencies are toward avoiding conflict.
A review of the literature on "coworkers behaving badly" found that
that deviant behavior of coworkers violates organizational norms may include "aggression, bullying, harassment, incivility and social undermining." The literature on deviant behavior in organizations has documented negative impacts of deviance on attitudes, emotions, and performance.
The key takeaway from the research on cross-cultural conflict resolution is
that the leader needs to consider the impact that national culture values may have on a person's perception of conflict and how to resolve it.
Cultural retooling
the psychological process of adapting to another culture.
Non verbal behaviors are
very different as well
Alternative dispute resolution
which are methods to resolve conflict that both parties agree to without involving litigation.
It's better not to negotiate when ...
you're ill-prepared you have nothing to offer (or negotiate with) the counterpart is not committed to negotiation the counterpart does not have authority at least to make a preliminary decision
Creating and Claiming Value
"No matter how much creative problem-solving enlarges the pie, it must still be divided; value that has been created must be claimed. And, if the pie is not enlarged, there will be less to divide; there is more value to be claimed if one has helped create it first ... There is a central inescapable tension between cooperative moves to create value jointly and competitive moves to gain [claim] individual advantage." Joint Gains increases: The pie gets enlarged as value is created jointly through cooperative moves.
Biculturals have higher metacognitive CQ skills and have been shown by research to be more complex than those using other strategies. This is referred to as integrative complexity, which is defined as follows:
"The degree to which a person accepts the reasonableness of different cultural perspectives on how to live, both at the micro interpersonal level and at more macro organizational-societal levels and, consequently, is motivated to develop integrative schemas that specify when to activate different worldviews and/or how to blend them together into a coherent holistic mental representation." (Tadmor, 2006)
Culture
"the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people."
Strategies for managing & manipulating QCE during negotiation
(2) Be responsive to others' overtures, e.g.: Respond to questions and requests quickly during the negotiation Reciprocate and adapt to the counterpart's behavioral patterns, norms, and expectations Engage in trade-offs with counterpart Express empathy with the emotions expressed by counterpart and respond to concerns When negotiators are responsive to each other ... More relevant information is exchanged at the appropriate time the negotiation process more efficient & effective, more issues are able to be discovered with integrative potential better economic outcomes Cooperation between the two negotiators trust more satisfaction with the negotiation
Strategies for managing & manipulating QCE during negotiation
(3) Enhance the comfort level of the negotiators , e.g.: Friendly and non-contentious atmosphere and interaction When there is more Comfort... Negotiators are more likely to be willing to spend time & effort on the negotiation and search for agreements that are highly acceptable to both parties better economic outcomes & more satisfaction with the negotiation Low comfort Increase tendency of premature closure lower economic gains Less trust Less satisfaction with negotiation process and outcomes Ok lets do some more Negotiation!
Three Levels of Culture
1. Artifacts and creations 2. Values Espoused -- spoken Enacted -- behaviors 3. Assumptions
three ways
1. First, there are direct effects where the employee is the target of a coworker's deviant act. 2. There are indirect effects, or vicarious impact, in which an employee is affected by learning of another coworker's deviant behaviors. 3. There can also be ambient impact in which collective deviant behavior creates a hostile working environment.
It describes a society's reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of the future
A lower degree in this index shows more acceptance of differing thoughts or ideas. Society tends to impose fewer regulations, ambiguity is more accustomed to, and the environment is more free-flowing Uncertainty-accepting societies are more innovative than uncertainty avoiding societies
What culture is not....
A roadmap to the way an individual will (or should) behave Why? Assumptions about culture in the US.... 80% of variation in cultural values reside within countries Countries ≠ Cultures
Culture Shock
A series of phases a person goes through when immersed in new culture. Occurs during: Cross-cultural adjustment processes for expatriates Repatriation
Cultural Values - Masculinity vs. Femininity
According to Hofstede, masculinity implies dominant values in a society that stress assertiveness and being tough, the acquisition of money and material objects, and not caring for others In feminine cultures, values such as warm social relationships, quality of life, and care of the weak are stressed GLOBE measured these aspects of masculinity separately, and labeled them as ''gender egalitarianism,'' ''assertiveness,'' ''performance orientation,'' and ''humane orientation''
However, four consistent elements of organizational culture found around the world:
Adaptability Involvement Mission Consistency
Gender & Negotiation (Advocacy)
Amanatullah and Tinsley (2013) found that a key factor in determining whether women will ask for what they want in negotiation is whether they are self-advocating or advocating for others
Socialization 3-stage process:
Anticipatory socialization Organizational entry and assimilation Metamorphosis
4. Identify your "BATNA""
Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement = an alternative way to satisfy a set of interests A good BATNA strengthens your negotiation power. BATNAs tell you when to accept and when to reject an agreement: When a proposal is better than your BATNA: ACCEPT IT! When a proposal is worse than your BATNA: REJECT IT!
Biculturals
Biculturals are defined as "people who have internalized more than one cultural profile" (Thomas, 2010) Have greater integrative complexity
This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future
China scores 87 in this dimension, which means that it is a very pragmatic culture. Scoring high suggests an ability to adapt traditions easily to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results.
Which countries have the most power distance?
China, Angola, Guatemala, Fiji
Clarity
Clarity refers to the cognitive aspect of the communication experience, which we define as the degree of comprehension of the meaning being communicated. Meaning encompasses not only factual information but also ideas, emotions, and values that are conveyed via symbolization and demonstration.
Culture Creates Climate
Climates can interact with one another to produce behavior. Climate also influences the habits people adopt.
Cultural Intelligence (CQ)--has been defined as individual's capabilities to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings.
Cognitive (and metacognitive) Motivational Behavioral
Comfort
Comfort experienced by communicators reflects the affective aspect, which we define as a condition of positive affect of ease and pleasantness when interacting with each other.
Developing Global Mindset Developed through improving three skills:
Cultural intelligence Cultural retooling Integrative acculturation (becoming bicultural)
Cultural retooling follows three distinct phases:
Cultural retooling follows three distinct phases:
Culture as an Asset
Culture can significantly contribute to an organization's bottom line in many ways.
Cultural Values - Individualism vs. collectivism
Cultures characterized by individualism can be seen as loosely knit social frameworks in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and look after their own interests and those of their close family only Conversely, A tight social framework with strong and cohesive in-groups that are opposed to out-groups is a key characteristic of high collectivism In collectivist cultures people expect their ingroup to look after them and are loyal to it in return Collectivists tend to have a stronger attachment to their organizations and tend to be more willing to subordinate their individual goals to group goals However, controlling for income, human rights, social equality, and heterogeneity, individualism has been more positively related to subjective well-being than collectivism
Which countries have the least power distance?
Denmark, New Zealand, Austria
Explain why culture is important for understanding organizational behavior (OB).
Despite the high level of research interest and management application of these cultural values, the Hofstede model has been criticized for relevancy (i.e., the values and measures were developed in 1980). Other criticisms are that it is not possible to characterize all people in one culture the same way. Also, the use of nations for the study is a limitation of the research (i.e., the US and Canada are similar). The Hofstede studies also lacked attention to political influences on the data collected in the 1980s and the use of only one company (IBM) for the original research. Some scholars believe that culture is complex and cannot be captured in only four or five dimensions. Hofstede's measures and statistical analyses have been criticized for their lack of validity and rigor. Another criticism is that most research does not adopt a multiple levels perspective and analyze the effects of national culture on organizations and teams. One review points out some strengths of Hofstede's work: The study was published when there was little work on culture and spurred a great deal of research interest, his approach was systematic and rigorous for the time, and other studies have generally confirmed the initial results. A meta-analysis of research covering 30 years on the Hofstede cultural values analyzed 598 studies (and over 200,000 employees and managers). Hofstede's original four cultural value dimensions and work outcomes were equally important. Five cultural values (with the exception of indulgence which was added later) were significantly and positively related to organizational commitment, identification, citizenship behavior, team-related attitudes, and feedback seeking. However, personality and demographics were better predictors of performance, absenteeism, and turnover than cultural values.
How to determine your BATNA?
Develop a list of possible alternative actions to negotiation. Convert the more promising ideas into practical actions. Select the best option.
Stage One: Preparation
Develop profiles of counterparts - Predict (or better yet know) their negotiating styles and expectations Find out their likely demands, team composition, and authority, etc Gear your own strategy to obtain your best outcome from the other side Choose a negotiation site Understand your own negotiating style and how it likely differs from others' Even more about preparation later....
Low-context cultures
Do not rely on situational cues Expect the message alone to convey meaning
Top Management
Establish norms of behavior. Tool #1: Recruit and select people for culture fit Tool #2: Manage culture through socialization and training Tool #3: Manage culture through the reward system
Workforce Diversity
Everybody brings differences to an organization where they work. These differences can create energy and excitement in the workplace, but they can also cause conflict. So it is important that we have an understanding of how diversity works in organizations. When we look at the workplace we can recognize two levels of diversity. Surface-level diversity represents the characteristics that are easily observed such as race, gender, age etc. Deep-level diversity represents the aspects that are more difficult to see at first glance such as values, personality, and work preferences.
What do I mean by negotiating style?
Examples You would like me to change the points I assigned for your case presentation You would like another team member who you are working to change the section they have written You are trying to buy a car Do you negotiate all of these situations the same way?
Language
Finally, many organizations and subunits within them use language to help members identify with the culture, attest to their acceptance of it, and help preserve it. Unique terms describe equipment, officers, key individuals, suppliers, customers, or products that relate to the business. New employees may at first be overwhelmed by acronyms and jargon that, once assimilated, act as a common denominator to unite members of a given culture or subculture.
Attempt to determine their BATNA
Follow the same steps as for determining your own BATNA Knowing your BATNA and theirs tells you the strength of your own position.
For example,
For example, one study found that employees who watched their supervisors abuse customers were more likely to have intentions to leave their jobs. Poor supervision is a root cause of stress at the workplace. This occurs for two primary reasons: Abusive supervisors place additional job demands on employees, and they don't provide support to help employees cope. To address the problem of abusive supervision, organizations are encouraged to set up confidential (or even anonymous) reporting "hotlines" so that supervisory abuse can be reported. Also, training that focuses on appropriate supervisory behaviors may alleviate stress and improve employee well-being.
Culture creation Occurs in three ways:
Founders hire employees who think and feel the way they do. Employees are indoctrinated and socialized into the founders' way of thinking. Founders' own behavior encourages employees to identify with them and internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions.
Stage Two: Relationship Building
Getting to know one's contacts and building mutual trust How? Social events, tours, ceremonies Nontask sounding (nemawashi). Use an intermediary (no skin in the game)
Integrative Game Plan (Collaborative)
Goal: Maximize size of pie and joint gain Typical game: Exchanges of comparative information non-contentious actions Strategy: Be "firm but conciliatory" set realistically high aspirations share information (develop trust) communicate clearly create options meeting both parties' interests if necessary, lower aspirations then continue search
Culture versus Formalization
High formalization creates predictability, orderliness, and consistency. Formalization and culture are two different roads to the same destination.
Power distance can be defined as - "the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally."
High power distance indicates that hierarchy is clearly established and executed in society, without doubt or reason Low power distance signifies that people question authority and attempt to distribute power
Signs of Problems within A Culture
High turnover and low morale Ongoing inconsistency Lack of focus on the external environment Short-term thinking Rise of destructive subcultures Undermining the success of others Increased cynicism
Culture as Context
High-context cultures Low-context cultures In high context cultures there is more under the 'iceberg'
Hofstede & The Globe studies Hofstede
Hofstede founded the personnel research department of IBM Europe Between 1967 and 1973, he executed a large survey study regarding national values differences across IBM worldwide 117,000 IBM matched employees samples on the same attitude survey in different countries Analysis identified systematic differences in national cultures on four primary dimensions
Abusive Supervision
Hostile behaviors Root cause of stress in the workplace
Selection
Identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully. Two-way street.
First (and subsequent) employment contracts Major purchases (Homes, rentals, cars) Mediations Contracts
Identify interests & priorities Identify resources & capabilities Identify objectives Identify your BATNA
Avoiding
In the avoiding style, a person is low on their own concerns and the concerns of others. This approach reflects an inability to deal with conflict, and the person withdraws from the conflict situation. This approach sidesteps the issues, which may be important, but there is no attempt to confront and resolve them. This style might be appropriate for trivial decisions or when the possibility of unproductive conflict is so high that it is better to avoid discussion rather than risk performance. The weakness of this approach is that by pretending conflict does not exist it rarely goes away and it may be a temporary fix and the conflict will return in the future.
Gender & Negotiation
Inconclusive debate about whether there are gender differences in negotiation goals and behavior. But some research suggests... Women are less likely to initiate negotiations than men Women make less aggressive offers Women are more likely to be disadvantaged in weak situations that are high in ambiguity than in strong, unambiguous situations
Seven primary characteristics that capture the essence of an organization's culture:
Innovation and risk taking Attention to detail Outcome orientation People orientation Team orientation Aggressiveness Stability
Culture as a Liability
Institutionalization Barriers to Change Barriers to Diversity Barriers to Acquisitions and Mergers
Before engaging in facilitation, leaders should ask the following questions when they are attempting to resolve a conflict:
Is intervention necessary or appropriate? If so, what type of intervention is most appropriate? Is the leader the appropriate person to intervene? If not, should the services of an independent resource person be provided? If so, how might the leader make use of the resource person?
Culture is
Is shared by almost all members of a social group, Older members of the group pass on to younger members Shapes behavior, or structures perceptions of the world (e.g., morals, laws, and customs)
Third-Party Interventions
Is the intervention necessary or appropriate If so, what type of intervention is most appropriate Is the manager the appropriate person to intervene If not, should the services of an independent resource person be provided If so, how might the manager make use of the resource person
It differs from job satisfaction :
Job satisfaction is evaluative. Organizational culture is descriptive.
What's a good outcome??
Joint criteria equal/balanced benefits satisfied respective interests amicably reached "wise" (fair, durable..) Individual criteria attain highest aspirations meet objectives satisfy interests exceed BATNA
How Organizations can Manage Diversity Effectively
Knowing that people are different is not enough for organizations to operate effectively with differences. Managers must work to develop strategies to develop ways to utilize differences to achieve work outcomes. Managers start by attracting, selecting, developing, and retaining employees who can operate and excel in a workplace with diverse individuals, viewpoints, and ideas. Gaining a diverse workforce through the selection process and developing that workforce through organizational training and development programs will help to provide for an environment that fosters creativity and effectiveness by tapping into the potential of all employees. More and more organizations are requiring employees to work in groups. Diversity can aid in group effectiveness and it can diminish it. Organizations must provide the tools to leverage the differences to obtain superior performance. Effective workforce programs that encourage diversity contain three components. Let's look more closely at these.
Facilitation
Leader intervenes to resolve a conflict Leader plays role of impartial mediator
National and organizational culture
Leader values, founder values, and national culture influence organizational culture However, four consistent elements of organizational culture found around the world:
Workplace Violence
Leading cause of workplace fatalities Disgruntled coworkers difficult to profile Conflict resolution
Cross Cultural Negotiation
Many problems in negotiation are caused by differences in culture, language, and environment Across cultures we have different norms. These ways of doing things become more pronounced in negotiations
Exchanging Task-related Information:
Mexicans tendency to be suspicious and indirect. The French enjoy debate and conflict. The Chinese ask many questions, but provide ambiguous information in return.
Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures?
Most organizations have a dominant culture and numerous sets of subcultures. The dominant culture expresses the core values a majority of members share and that give the organization distinct personality.
Stage One: Preparation in depth
Most problems in negotiation are caused by differences in culture, language, and environment. As such, it is important to spend time learning about your counterparts' negotiating styles and expectations in addition to developing your own tactical strategy. Part of this preparation entails understanding your own negotiating style and how it likely differs from others'. Skilled negotiators develop profiles of their counterparts so they have some idea of what to expect, how to prepare, and how to act. For example, a negotiator might want to consider how the counterpart was chosen as the negotiator, the kind of issues likely to be emphasized, the complexity of the communicative context, the kinds of persuasive tactics likely to be used, the motivations of the counterpart, the bases of trust, the counterpart's risk-taking propensity, the attitude toward time, how decisions are likely to be made, and what constitutes a satisfactory agreement. After managers have found out what to expect from the other side—culturally and strategically—they can gear their own strategy to the other side. This includes deciding what roles different members will take, what concessions will be offered, and preparing an alternative action plan in case a solution is not reached. Sometimes, the entire negotiation process is something that must be learned from scratch. For instance, Newport Mining Corporation of Denver found themselves at a standstill when negotiating a joint venture with Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan officials had never negotiated a business contract and did not know how to proceed. After the initial preparation, decisions are made about where the negotiation will actually take place. Compromising on location can signal a cooperative strategy. For instance, when negotiating the tunnel under the English Channel, meetings were held alternatively in Paris and London. In each location, local norms were followed and the local language was used.
Explain why culture is important for understanding organizational behavior (OB).
National culture is an elusive concept in terms of definition. Definitions typically employed in OB have their roots in sociology or anthropology.
2. Identify Resources & Capabilities
Negotiation is not just a matter of what a negotiator wants, but also what a negotiator has to offer. Benefits of identifying your own resources & capabilities: Allows you to know exactly you have to offer to your counterpart. Reduces the chance that you may miss out on offering something that your counterpart desires, and would be willing to give you attractive concessions in return. Prevents you from offering something that you can't deliver. Benefit of identifying your counterpart's resources & capabilities: Allows you to know if what your counterpart has is what you want.
Benefits of having objectives
Objectives motivate you to perform better (results) provide instant measure during active negotiating protect you from making too many concessions (and limit counterpart's flexibility) but easily lead to competitive, positional bargaining and to atomizing rather than bundling the issues
Rituals and ceremonies
Office Christmas party Friday afternoon drinks Conferences Bonuses Rewards
Alternative dispute resolution
Ombudsmen Peer review Mediation Arbitration
Alternative Dispute Resolution--Methods to resolve conflict that both parties agree to without involving litigation
Ombudsperson Peer Review
Organizational Subcultures
Operators Engineers Executives
Culture as a Descriptive Term
Organizational culture is concerned with employees' perceptions of the characteristics of the culture, not whether they like them.
"Toxic" Workplaces
Organizational hierarchy Organizational politics
Participation
Participants are actively involved in the decision making process. By participating, it may be found that simple misunderstandings are at the heart of a dispute.
Steps in mediation:
Participation Representation/reparation Validation/reintegration
What is Organizational Culture?
Pattern of assumptions developed to cope with problems of external adaptation and internal integration
GLOBE Studies of Cross-Cultural Leadership
Power distance Uncertainty avoidance Humane orientation Institutional collectivism In-group collectivism Assertiveness Gender egalitarianism Future orientation Performance orientation
Cultural Values - Power Distance
Power distance can be defined as - "the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally." In cultures with large differences in power between individuals, organizations will typically have more layers and the chain of command is felt to be more important The use of the various bases of power would be affected by the cultural power distance
Hofstede's Cultural Values:
Power distance--deference to authority (e.g., the United States is low, China is high) Collectivism-individualism--group orientation (e.g., the United States is low, Russia is high) Uncertainty avoidance--risk aversion (e.g., the United States is low, France is high) Relationship orientation (masculinity-femininity)--a focus on people over material things (e.g., the United States is low and the Netherlands is high on femininity/relationship orientation) Confucian dynamism (long-term orientation)--a focus on the future rather than the past and present (e.g., the United States is low, Japan is high) Indulgence--how much each individual lacks control of their desires and impulses compared with its opposite of restraint (being repressed) (e.g., China is low, the United States is high).
Stories and slogans
Ray Kroc Henry Ford The Few. The Proud. The Marines Just Do It The best a man can get
Is Conflict Always Bad?
Viewed negatively and discussed with such terms violence, destruction, and irrationality. OB research has recognized that there are some situations where conflict may have a positive effect on performance. There is a difference between unproductive (dysfunctional) organizational conflict and functional (productive) conflict. Conflict may be productive if it aligns with the goals of the organization and improves performance. Dysfunctional conflict can harm relationships between leaders and followers and among teammates and ultimately harms performance.
Workplace incivility is
"low intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect. Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others." Workplace incivility may even extend to the classroom. Research has examined student perceptions of incivility of professors. Students' perceptions of incivility fall into two areas: a professor's competence and interest as well as respect for the individualism of students. Workplace incivility appears to be on the rise (refer to the boxed insert). In some cases, incivility may escalate to aggression or even workplace violence.
Note that conflict is a perception.
. Perceptions don't always line up with reality. However, they do influence behavior and they can be changed, which is essential for leaders to keep in mind as they approach conflict resolution in organizations.
Negotiation is ...
... a process of discussion by which two or more parties aim for mutually acceptable agreement. Aims to resolve points of difference, to gain advantages for an individual or collective, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests
Negotiator's "Interest"
= what a negotiator (party) really cares about a basic concern, an underlying need for a buyer, staying within budget (job promotion, etc.) for a consultant, client satisfaction (steady fees, golden reputation, etc.) Not just: "What does A want?" But: "Why does A want it?" "What will getting it do for A?" *It is also very important to know the priorities of the interests. Types: - tangible Examples: improving profitability, customer satisfaction - intangible (e.g., process, relationship, principles) Examples: trust, fair play
Employees lower in the hierarchy of bureaucratic organizations experience more frustration and anger compared to managers.
A study found that employees who had jobs at lower levels in an organization's hierarchy felt more powerless and had less control over their work. They also report more emotional distress, medication use, cardiovascular disturbance, gastrointestinal disturbance, and allergy respiratory disturbance. A study of engineers found frustration was associated with anger reactions, latent hostility, job dissatisfaction, and work-related anxiety. Toxic workplaces may be exacerbated by organizational politics. Political behavior may increase during times of organizational turmoil and this represents an additional source of stress.
The Relationship Between Conflict and Performance.
A useful way to think about the relationship between conflict and performance is shown in Figure 11.2 above. As shown in Figure 11.2, on the left-hand side, if conflict is too low, there may be apathy and a lack of constructive discussion regarding important issues that need to be addressed. People may even be avoiding conflict, which is dysfunctional. As the level of conflict increases, performance increases as long as the conflict is aligned with the goals of the organization and does not become personal.
Explain how third-party interventions can reduce conflict.
Addressing conflict when working with a person from another culture requires knowledge of cultural differences. Well-managed conflict contributes significantly to successful leadership in China. Research conducted on 409 expatriates suggests the following guidelines for resolving cross-cultural conflict (ranked in order of importance):
Affective conflict.
Affective conflict. This is conflict that engenders strong emotions such as anger or disgust. This may be due to personality differences or arguments. For example, two individuals in the organization escalate an argument to the level of shouting (it happens). This form of conflict may be highly disruptive to both parties and may even create stress for other members of the work group.
Rudeness spreads
An workplace study found experiencing incivility earlier in the day reduced one's levels of self-control, which in turn resulted in increased instigated incivility later in the day.
Integrative Negotiation
Attempts to create value in the course of the negotiation ("expand the pie") Reframes negotiating issues (conflict) in such a way that both parties benefit ("win-win" negotiation) Individuals often cannot achieve their maximum individual gain, but integrative negotiation provides a more optimal gain for all parties Focuses on the underlying interests of the parties rather than their starting positions Integrative negotiation is also called interest-based, merit-based, or principled negotiation Difficult to do. There needs to be a higher degree of trust and the formation of a relationship to work
Research conducted on 409 expatriates suggests the following guidelines for resolving cross-cultural conflict (ranked in order of importance):
Be a good listener Be sensitive to the needs of others Be cooperative, rather than overly competitive Advocate inclusive (participative) leadership Compromise rather than dominate Build rapport through conversations Be compassionate and understanding Avoid conflict by emphasizing harmony Nurture others (develop and mentor)
Resolving Conflicts Across Cultures
Be a good listener Be sensitive to the needs of others Be cooperative, rather than overly competitive (equal with skill above) Advocate inclusive (participative) leadership Compromise rather than dominate Build rapport through conversations Be compassionate and understanding Avoid conflict by emphasizing harmony Nurture others (develop and mentor)
Integrating
Both parties confront the issue directly and discuss alternative courses of action. The strength of this approach is that it should provide a mutual benefits (win-win) solution and results in the conflict being resolved for the long term. The major drawback to this approach is that it is time consuming. This approach is the most appropriate for complex problems, strategic planning, and innovation.
What Is Conflict?
Conflict is defined as "the process that begins when one party perceives that the other has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that he or she cares about."
Another poll conducted by Stanford University and the Miles Group asked CEOs two questions: What skills are you working on? What skills do you think you need more development for?They also asked their boards of directors what skills CEOs need development in.
Conflict management skills were the most mentioned skill that CEOs believed they needed development in (42.9% reported needing to develop this skill). What is also interesting about these poll results is that CEOs also reported that they were working on skills related to conflict management such as listening (32.1%) and persuasion (14.3%). The results of this poll underscore the importance of the ability to manage conflict since it was mentioned as the number one skill needing development by top executives.
Two-Dimensional Model of the Styles of Handling Interpersonal Conflict.
Conflict resolution can be seen as two dimensions in a space that reflect possible outcomes for handling interpersonal conflict., First, a person involved in a conflict is concerned with the satisfaction of their own concerns in a dispute. Second, the person may or may not also be concerned with the satisfaction of the other party's concerns. This may be represented by two dimensions, thus combining concern for self and others. This conceptualization was refined, and a measure of conflict-handling styles called the Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory (ROCI-II) was developed. This framework is shown in Figure 11.3 above, depicting "concern for self" on the horizontal axis from high to low and "concern for others" on the vertical axis from low to high. By combining these two concerns, different approaches toward resolving conflicts result: integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding, and compromising. While some early research suggested that the integrative style is best, later research suggests that the right conflict resolution style may depend upon the situation., It is important to first correctly diagnose the conflict situation before selecting an intervention strategy. Generally, integrating is best for complex and strategic decisions, with compromise as a second option. The other styles may be effective to resolve smaller problems that occur on a day-to-day basis in the organization.
Explain how team conflict affects team performance.
Conflict within teams produces stress and arguments that distract the team from working on the task and thus harms performance. All types of conflict (task, relationship, and process) are detrimental to member satisfaction., However, moderate levels of task conflict actually improve team performance because this stimulates information exchange among team members. Task conflict and differences of opinion may improve decision quality by forcing members to see other viewpoints and think creatively.,, Effective teamwork results in higher performance when task conflict exists, and this is especially the case when team members trust one another.
Persuasion tactics:
Different culture favor different methods
Stage Three: Exchanging negotiation-related Information
Each side typically makes a presentation/ representation of its position. Then, there is a question-and-answer period, and alternatives are discussed. Shows understanding of the others sides viewpoint Did we see this in the Jobs clip? What about the Arbitrage clip?
Workplace Incivility
Employees likely face at least one instance of incivility a week Spiral effect
Third-Party Interventions
Facilitation by the leader Alternative dispute resolution
Facilitation
Facilitation is when a leader intervenes to resolve a conflict. Leaders essentially play the role of an impartial mediator and engage in the following behaviors: taking the time to understand the employees' point of view, recognizing the employees' needs, taking the time to gain information on the conflict's context, giving employees a chance to express their emotions, showing understanding of what employees are going through, getting employees to understand other perspectives, encouraging the parties to propose solutions, getting employees to agree on concrete actions, does not take sides, and remains unbiased.
What types of major negotiations will you be involved in the future?
First (and subsequent) employment contracts Major purchases (Homes, rentals, cars) Mediations Contracts
For example
For example, alcohol use or a history of aggression may combine with perceived organizational injustice to evoke a violent response. The term going postal denotes the situation in which organizational members suddenly become extremely violent, derived after several incidents in the U.S. Postal Service in the late 1980s involving workplace homicides. Another incident reported in the media was a Connecticut Lottery Corporation accountant who searched for and then killed the corporation's president and three of his supervisors before killing himself.
Distributive Game Plan (Competitive)
Goal: Maximize own share of pie Typical game: Demands decline rapidly, then slowly concessions are reciprocated Strategy: Be "tough" make an extreme initial offer do not concede first argue forcefully for own positions conceal information make few concessions, exaggerate their value
Rudeness Might have a Very negative influence on Performance
In a study of Medical Team Performance rudeness had adverse consequences on diagnostics, intervention parameters and team processes (such as information and workload sharing, helping and communication) central to patient care
Obliging
In this approach, Figure 11.3 indicates that a person's concern for themselves is low but their concern for others is high. A person with a predisposition toward obliging "gives in" to the demands of others and may neglect his own concerns. It might be the best approach if the person is not sure they are right about a preferred course of action or it is politically best because the matter is so important to the other party. If used as a strategy, the person should consider requesting a reciprocated exchange in the future because they gave in the first time. It is not the best for complex problems and may result in a short-term solution. If it becomes a pattern, the obliging person may become resentful over time. The weakness of this strategy is that it is temporary, but its strength is that it will resolve the problem rather quickly.
Dominating
In this approach, the individual is high with respect to his or her own concerns but low with respect to the concerns of others. People adopting this approach take a win-lose approach to problem solving, and their focus is on winning their position at the expense of others. The person using this approach may use their formal position to force others to comply (i.e., "do it because I am the boss"). It may be appropriate, however, for small decisions, or when the person knows the decision will be unpopular and discussion will not bring others on board. It may also be used when there is time pressure to make a decision, such as in a crisis situation. The primary strength of this approach is that it is quick and relatively easy. However, this style may breed resentment among those affected by decisions. If this becomes an overall pattern, it may breed even more resentment and attributions of a leader being an autocrat.
Stage Four: Persuasion in depth
In this phase, both parties try to persuade the other to accept more of one position and give up some of the other. Managers may find bargaining and making concessions to be fraught with difficulties because of different uses and interpretations of verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Dirty tricks include efforts to deliberately mislead opponents—e.g., by giving wrong or distorted factual information and using ambiguous authority. Other techniques are intended to place opponents in physically or psychologically stressful situations so that they will give in. It is important to keep in mind, though, that what is a "dirty trick" to Americans may be accepted conduct in other cultures. It also is important to recognize the relevance of nonverbal behaviors. Nonverbal cues often are ingrained in our behavior, and we do not change them for the purposes of negotiation. The latter is important because different cultures have different nonverbal behaviors. For example, Brazilians interrupt more often and use more touching than Japanese or Americans. The Japanese use more silent periods. Though persuasion is treated here as a distinct stage, it often underlies all stages of negotiation.
Stage Three: Exchanging negotiation-related Information in depth
In this stage, each side typically makes a presentation and states its position. Then, there is a question-and-answer period, and alternatives are discussed. To Americans, this phase is straightforward, objective, efficient, and understandable. Negotiators from other countries, however, may continue to be indirect during this stage. Adler suggests the most effective negotiators practice role reversal to show understanding of their counterpart's viewpoint. Doing so may open up a wider range of alternative solutions.
Process conflict.
Process conflict. At times, people disagree on what course of action to pursue or the best way to operate even after a decision has been made. For example, team members may disagree on what aspects of a project should be assigned to specific individuals. This type of conflict reduces team performance.
Benefits of Knowing about Interests & Priorities
Opens up a range of options. Increases the probability of finding common ground between parties (facilitates agreement). Leads to greater satisfaction with negotiation process and outcome (real concerns are met).
Representation/reparation
Parties are allowed to express their perspective and how they feel about what has occurred. One of the most powerful forms of reparation is an apology (research on apologies at work has found them to be effective in certain circumstances).
Validation/reintegration
Parties work to solve a dispute in a cooperative and respectful way. For example, in restorative justice, balance is achieved through forgiveness as the parties are reintegrated back into the original "community" (the team or organization they work for).
Distributive Negotiation
Positional or hard-bargaining negotiation Attempts to distribute a "fixed pie" of benefits Parties tend to regard each other more as an adversary than a partner Each side often adopts an extreme or fixed position Each side tries to relinquish as little as possible before reaching a deal By treating any negotiation as distributive it means you see it as a zero-sum game Distributive bargains are more likely to be struck in one-off encounters where lasting relationships do not obtain are more likely to produce distributive negotiations
Conflict resolution is best understood through the negotiation process. The grid in this slide outlines the steps:
Preparation and planning, definition of ground rules, clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving and closure and implementation
Substantive conflict.
Substantive conflict. This occurs because people have different opinions on important issues in the organization that affect them. For example, there may be differences of opinion about which advertising campaign would best promote a new product. Such conflict can result in better decisions because both sides have to defend their position.
task vs relationship conflict
Team leadership may buffer the effects of conflict on the team. A study conducted in a large, Mexican-based distributor of pharmaceutical products found that task conflict reduces job satisfaction, but this effect is weaker at higher levels of transformational leadership. Leaders should first diagnose the type of conflict (task or relationship) and then provide coaching on how to manage the conflict. When task conflicts emerge, team performance may benefit but only when the conflict is managed constructively by the leader. When relationship conflicts occur, performance and satisfaction may suffer and intervention is necessary. A study of head nurse-nurse relationships in 56 units of two major hospitals found that head nurses who had in-groups and out-groups experienced more relationship conflict in their units. The relationship conflict had a negative effect on customer service. This may be due to out-group members experiencing envy of the in-group. Another study found that relationship conflict exacerbated the effect of envy on team members undermining others on their team, which in turn related to lower job performance. So leaders should pay attention to the potential downside of having better relationships with some followers than others. In considering the potential for conflict to be productive, active conflict management by the leader to develop a climate of openness and trust is essential or conflict may harm performance. In addition, helping followers feel passion and regulating negative emotions also helps focus the conflict on the task and not personal relationships.
Leadership Implications: Perspective Taking
The ability to see things from another person's perspective when they hold a view that conflicts with your own Fosters empathy and more positive attributions in conflict resolution and negotiation
Distributive vs. Integrative
The difference in the usage of the two types depends on the mindset of the negotiator but also on the situation
: Negative Outcomes of Workplace Conflict.
The inability for managers to effectively manage conflict and bring about positive resolution is costing them nearly one full day of productivity per month - about two and a half weeks per year. Also, the study found that 70% believe managing conflict is a critically important leadership skill. And 54 percent of employees believe managers could handle disputes more effectively by addressing underlying tensions immediately when they surface
Stage Two: Relationship Building in depth
The process of relationship building is usually regarded with more significance in other countries than it is in the US—where negotiators typically want to get down to business as quickly as possible. In many countries, personal commitment, rather than the legal system, form the basis of contract enforcement. Relationship building may entail social events, tours, ceremonies, and non-task sounding—general polite conversation and informal communication before the meeting. It usually is recommended that managers new to a given scenario use an intermediary—someone who already has the trust of the foreign managers and, thus, acts as a "relationship bridge."
The Interaction of Task Conflict and Relationship Conflict in Predicting Team Performance.
The relationship of team conflict to performance appears to hold in other cultures. A test of the inverted-U relationship was conducted in two separate studies of work teams in Taiwan and Indonesia. This study found the relationship between task conflict and team effectiveness outcomes varies as a function of the level of relationship conflict in the team. For team performance, the curvilinear relationship (inverted U) holds when relationship conflict is low but that task conflict is negatively related to performance when relationship conflict is high as shown in Figure 11.4 above. The authors concluded the following: "Team members who have high relationship conflict and interpersonal tensions are more likely to bicker so intensely that the slightest task conflict is associated with performance declines." Therefore, both task and relationship conflict matter in terms of understanding the impact of conflict on team performance.
The U.S. Department of Labor reports that every year, two million people in the United States are victims of nonfatal violence at the workplace.
They cite data from the U.S. Department of Justice, which found violence to be a leading cause of fatal injuries at work with about 1,000 workplace homicides per year. This violence occurs in a variety of situations, including robberies and other crimes, actions by dissatisfied clients or customers, and acts perpetrated by disgruntled coworkers or coworkers who have been fired. It is difficult to profile the type of employee who may commit workplace violence, but a combination of personal and workplace factors must be considered.
A study of 57 self-managed work teams found teams that improve or maintain top performance over time engage in three conflict resolution strategies:
They focus on the content of interactions rather than delivery style. They explicitly discuss reasons behind any decisions in distributing work assignments. They assign work to members who have the relevant task expertise rather than assigning by other common means such as volunteering, default, or convenience.
Compromising
This approach reflects a moderate level of concern for the self and for others. It is a give-and-take approach to conflict in which concessions are made in exchange for getting some aspects of the desired outcome. It is appropriate when parties have strongly opposing views and there is little hope of an integrative solution. It may also be the only possible approach when both parties have equivalent influence in the organization (e.g., two equally powerful vice presidents competing for resources). However, this approach may result in suboptimal or even strange solutions, which try to include disparate views. The main strength is that everyone gets something in a compromise; however, it is important to keep in mind that no one is completely satisfied with the outcome. For this reason, it can be unproductive and worse that even the dominating or obliging styles. Also, with compromise, there is not creative problem solving or an attempt to come up with a win-win solution as in the integrating style.
Stage Four: Persuasion
Though persuasion is treated here as a distinct stage, it often underlies all stages of negotiation Give me what I want. Give up what you want. Dirty tricks are in the eye of the beholder False information - But it cost me four sheckles Ambiguous authority - Let me talk this over with my manager Uncomfortable rooms - Wait right here Rudeness, threats - I'll walk away now Calculated delays - I'll be right back with the paper work
Why negotiate?
To advance one's "interests". To obtain from someone else what you cannot provide for yourself as well or at all. We cannot negotiate with those who say, "What's mine is mine and what's yours is negotiable." ~ John Fitzgerald Kennedy
Arbitration
both parties agree in advance to accept the decision, and it is made by a neutral third party. The decision of the arbitrator is legally binding on the parties. Mediation and arbitration are the most expensive, and thus, many organizations have ombudspersons or peer review available if the leader cannot resolve the conflict through facilitation or conciliation.
Despite attempts by leaders to facilitate conflict resolution, at times, conflict can
continue for a long period of time and become complicated. There are situations where a third party must be called in to help resolve the conflict. This is sometimes done to avoid costly litigation. There are a number of options for resolving conflict using a third party.
Research has shown that
leaders can reduce the exposure of their followers to workplace aggression and the strain it causes by directly or indirectly helping employees prevent aggression (e.g., stepping in to resolve disputes between employees before they escalate into aggressive incidents). Therefore, one important way that a leader can avoid escalation of conflict into workplace incivility or aggression is to engage in effective conflict resolution.
Task Conflict-
may focus on task-related issues or around relationship issues., Disagreements about resource allocation, policies, or even interpretation of data are known as task conflict. A meta-analysis of the relationships of task and relationship conflict with team performance and satisfaction found strong negative associations between relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction. This study also found strong negative correlations between task conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction. The number of people in team that experience task conflict may make a difference. Task conflict may be positively related to team performance when a majority of members perceive lower levels of task conflict in the group while a minority perceives higher levels of task conflict. Relationship conflict involves personality clashes or differences in values.
Relationship Conflict-
may have some benefits in certain circumstances. Experimental studies found that relationship conflict increased group creativity because it increased persistence. Relationship conflict was also lower when followers reported that they had tenacity, and passion for work. Passion is the willingness to engage in activities with the team that team members love and value (and thus find important), and in which they invest time and efforts together. The more that team members identify with the goals of the team, the less relationship conflict they experience. These studies on passion supports research that found emotions play an important role in linking task and relationship conflict. Group emotional intelligence (EI), good working relationships, and norms for suppressing negative emotions decrease the relationship between task and relationship conflict. In other words, regulating emotions may keep the conflict focused on the task so that it is not perceived as a personal attack on others.
Negotiations generally proceed in five stages
preparation, relationship building, exchanging task-related information, persuasion, and concessions and agreement. In reality, these stages may overlap and negotiators may temporarily revert back to a previous stage.
You should determine your BATNA and that of the other party before proceeding with negotiations. BATNA represents
the Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement or the lowest acceptable value you will take for a negotiated agreement. Than anything above your BATNA is a good negotiated outcome.
There are a variety of techniques available,
which range from the leader bringing in a third party to restore damaged relationships to legally binding arbitration. The most commonly used alternative dispute resolution approaches used by organizations follow. For example, your university may have an ombudsperson, who works for the university but hears grievances from students on an informal basis and attempts to resolve them. Your university may also have an honor code council, which is an example of a peer review process (or dispute resolution panel) for resolving cases of alleged cheating by students. In organizations, a leader may call in a neutral third party (e.g., another manager) to attempt to resolve the conflict (known as conciliation). Private sector organizations including General Electric, Prudential, Johnson and Johnson, and Alcoa have in-house mediators, arbitrators, ombudspersons, and other conflict resolution specialists. Large federal agencies such as the US Postal Service, the Department of the Interior, and the Departments of the Navy and Air Force have trained many of their own employees to become conflict resolution specialists.
Coworker deviant behavior is considered a
workplace demand and creates stress for the target. Being mistreated by one's coworkers creates emotional strain, which leads to lower morale and turnover. Ambient effects may build and create what are known as "toxic" workplaces. Deviant, dysfunctional, and counterproductive behavior of a coworker affects others in three ways: