MGT 3150 Final

feedforward control

most desirable type of control, prevents problems because it takes place before the actual activity

forming stage

2 phases

Basic Leadership Styles (Kurt Lewin, University of Iowa)

Autocratic. A leader who centralizes authority, dictates work methods, makes unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation. Democratic. A leader who involves employees in decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals, and uses feedback to coach employees.The democratic style can be further classified in two ways: consultative and participative. A democratic-consultative leader seeks input from employees but makes the final decision himself; a democratic-participative leader often allows employees to have a say in the final decision. Laissez-faire. A leader who gives employees complete freedom to make decisions and to decide on work methods A laissez-faire leader might simply provide necessary materials and answer questions. Consistent with Douglas McGregor's Theory X, Theory Y conclusions--> Laissez-faire: Ineffective considering every performance metric Autocratic/Democratic: Equally effective in producing quantity of work Democratic: Most effective in terms of producing quality work and group satisfaction Authoritarian leaders, also known autocratic leaders, provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. This style of leadership is strongly focused on both command by the leader and control of the followers. There is also a clear division between the leader and the followers. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from the rest of the group. Researchers found that decision-making was less creative under authoritarian leadership. Lewin also found that it is more difficult to move from an authoritarian style to a democratic style than vice versa. Abuse of this style is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and dictatorial. Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group. The autocratic approach can be a good thing when decisive and rapid decisions are needed. However, it tends to create dysfunctional and even hostile environments where the followers are often pitted against the domineering leader. Lewin's study found that participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is generally the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from other group members. In Lewin's study, children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but their contributions were of a much higher quality. Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say over the decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and are more motivated and creative. Democratic leaders tend to make followers feel like they are an important part of the team, which helps foster commitment to the goals of the group. Researchers found that children under delegative leadership, also known as laissez-fair leadership, were the least productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made more demands on the leader, showed little cooperation and were unable to work independently. Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to group members. While this style can be effective in situations where group members are highly qualified in an area of expertise, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation. Lewin noted that laissez-faire leadership tended to lead to groups that lacked direction where members blamed each other for mistakes, refused to accept personality responsibility, and produced a lack of progress and work.

Internally attributed

By ourselves- (success, positive outcome, accomplishment) By others-(success, positive outcome, accomplishment) and (failure, negative outcome,)

Externally attributed

By ourselves=(failure, negative outcome,)

range of variation

critical to determine an acceptable amount of variation

a healthy work environment

example of SAFETY need in Maslow's hierarchy

vicarious learning

observational learning (role models)

When employees perceive an inequity they may

(Over-rewarded) Increase the inputs on their job if they are perceived to be low relative to the other person. Increasing either the quantity produced, the product quality, or both (Under-rewarded) Reduce inputs if they are high relative to the other person reducing either the quantity produced, the quality, or both (Under-rewarded). Request a pay increase; increase absenteeism, quit the job Workers who perceive an inequity will react in one of the six following ways: change inputs, change outcomes, distort perceptions of self, distort perceptions of others, choose a different referent, or leave the field

leader-participation model

1973 developed by Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton, related leadership behavior and participation to decision making

group

2 or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve specific goals Groups will exert pressure upon members to bring their behavior into conformity with the standards of the group. Since members desire acceptance by the group, they are susceptible to these conformity pressures.

control process

3-step process of 1)measuring actual performance, 2) comparing actual performance against a standard, and 3) taking managerial action to correct deviations or to address inadequate standards

performing stage

4th stage

Blake and Mouton's theory

5,5-->middle of the road manager

Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

A questionnaire that measures whether a leader was task or relationship oriented

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Social Learning occurs all the time as we continuously learn from our experiences

attribution theory

A theory based on the premise that we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior Internally caused behavior is believed to be under the control of the individual (a trait or some characteristic of the individual). Externally caused behavior results from outside causes; that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation. when we observe behavior, we classify it as either internally or externally motivated Unusual/unique behavior (to the individual) = external (situation) Common/typical behavior (to the individual) = internal (traits) Common to a population = external (situation) Unusual within a population = internal (trait of the individual) This depends on three factors: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency.

hierarchy of needs theory

Abraham Maslow There is a hierarchy of five human needs; as each need becomes satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. Higher order/growth/satisfied internally- Self-Actualization Self-Esteem Lower order/deficiency/generally satisfied externally - Social Safety Physiological Physiological needs such as food, drink, shelter, sex, and other physical requirements Safety needs such as security and protection from physical and emotional harm as well as assurance that physical needs will continue to be met Social needs including affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship Esteem needs, which include internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention; and Self-actualization needs that include growth and achieving one's potential. Managers use Maslow's hierarchy to motivate employees by satisfying employees' needs. Because the theory says that once a need is substantially satisfied, the individual is no longer motivated to satisfy that need. Therefore, managers need to understand the need levels of their employees and focus on satisfying needs at or above those levels. the lowest level unsatisfied need prompting behavior. Lower order needs are satisfied extrinsically; higher order needs intrinsically

norms

Acceptable standards of group behavior that are shared by the group's members (performance and effort, loyalty, dress, relationships with other groups) influence the group's behavior with a minimum of external controls.

reinforcement approach

BF Skinner positive reinforcement--> desired behavior-->positive consequence--> behavior strengthened negative reinforcement--> desire behavior--> avoidance of negative consequence--> behavior strengthened extinction--> undesired behavior--> no positive consequence--> behavior weakened punshment--> undesired behavior--> negative consequence--> behavior weakened

2 Factor Theory

Based on his findings, Hertzberg proposed the existence of a dual continuum: the opposite of "satisfaction" is "no satisfaction," and the opposite of "dissatisfaction" is "no dissatisfaction." Herzberg also believed the data suggested that the opposite of satisfaction was not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally assumed. He stated that removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job would not necessarily make that job more satisfying (or motivating). Herzberg believed that the factors that led to job satisfaction were separate and distinct from those that led to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who sought to eliminate factors that created job dissatisfaction could keep people from being dissatisfied, but this would not necessarily lead to satisfaction and motivation. To motivate people, Herzberg suggested emphasizing motivators, the intrinsic factors having to do with the job itself. Frederick Hertzberg Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction Hygiene factors (physical and psychological environment) Policies and administration, supervision, Working conditions, interpersonal Relations, money, and security Motivators (job itself) Achievement, recognition, challenging work, increased responsibilities, opportunities for advancement personal growth Frederick Herzberg asked workers to describe situations in which they felt either good or bad about their jobs. His findings are called motivation-hygiene theory. Herzberg asserted that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction whereas extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. So, he called company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary hygiene factors. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; however, they will not be satisfied either. He believed that achievement, recognition, the work itself, growth, and responsibility are motivators because people find them intrinsically rewarding. states that not all job factors can motivate employees. The presence or absences of "hygiene" factors can only placate employees. Factors that people find "intrinsically" rewarding act as motivators. Hertzberg's theory are consistent with latter theories on job design. Job enrichment is an organizational design technique that creates jobs that have the potential to be intrinsically motivating redesigning jobs doesn't reduce dissatisfaction, it increases satisfaction

transactional vs. transformational leaders

Beginning in the 1970s, a number of leadership theories emerged that focused on the importance of a leader's charisma to leadership effectiveness. Included within this class of theories are House's theory of charismatic leadership, Bass's transformational leadership theory, and Conger and Kanungo's charismatic leadership theory. These theories have much in common. They all focus on attempting to explain how leaders can accomplish extraordinary things against the odds, such as turning around a failing company, founding a successful company, or achieving great military success against incredible odds. The theories also emphasize the importance of leaders' inspiring subordinates' admiration, dedication, and unquestioned loyalty through articulating a clear and compelling vision. Transformational leadership theory differentiates between the transactional and the transformational leader. Transactional leadership focuses on role and task requirements and utilizes rewards contingent on performance. By contrast, transformational leadership focuses on developing mutual trust, fostering the leadership abilities of others, and setting goals that go beyond the short-term needs of the work group. Bass's transformational leadership theory identifies four aspects of effective leadership, which include charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and consideration. A leader who exhibits these qualities will inspire subordinates to be high achievers and put the long-term interest of the organization ahead of their own short-term interest, according to the theory. Empirical research has supported many of the theory's propositions. The extent to which a leader is transformational, is measured first, in terms of his influence on the followers. The followers of such a leader feel trust, admiration, loyalty and respect for the leader and because of the qualities of the transformational leader are willing to work harder than originally expected. These outcomes occur because the transformational leader offers followers something more than just working for self gain; they provide followers with an inspiring mission and vision and give them an identity. The leader transforms and motivates followers through his or her idealized influence (earlier referred to as charisma), intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. In addition, this leader encourages followers to come up with new and unique ways to challenge the status quo and to alter the environment to support being successful. Finally, in contrast to Burns, Bass suggested that leadership can simultaneously display both transformational and transactional leadership. Transformational leaders - create significant change in the lives of people and organizations. Change followers values, perceptions, expectations, and aspirations. Individualized Consideration: attends to each followers needs Intellectual Stimulation: challenges assumptions, takes risks, stimulate and encourage creativity Inspirational Motivation: articulate a vision that is appealing, inspiring. Followers feel a strong sxense of purpose Idealized Influence: Role modles; live the vision and values

leadership in terms of behavior

Behaviors tended to be clustered into two separate and independent factors. McGregor: Theory X/Theory Y Lewin: Autocratic/Demographic (Laissez faire was leadership abdication) Ohio State: Initiating Structure/Consideration Michigan: Production Oriented/Employee Oriented Blake and Mouton: Managerial Grid Tannenbaum/Schmidt: Boss Centered/Employee Centered Continuum

Five Principles of Goal Setting

Clarity. Challenge. Commitment. Feedback. Task complexity. 1. Clarity Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous. When a goal is clear and specific, with a definite time set for completion, there is less misunderstanding about what behaviors will be rewarded. You know what's expected, and you can use the specific result as a source of motivation. When a goal is vague - or when it's expressed as a general instruction, like "Take initiative" - it has limited motivational value. 2. Challenge One of the most important characteristics of goals is the level of challenge. People are often motivated by achievement, and they'll judge a goal based on the significance of the anticipated accomplishment. When you know that what you do will be well received, there's a natural motivation to do a good job. Rewards typically increase for more difficult goals. If you believe you'll be well compensated or otherwise rewarded for achieving a challenging goal, that will boost your enthusiasm and your drive to get it done. When setting goals, make each goal a challenge. If an assignment is easy and not viewed as very important - and if you or your employee doesn't expect the accomplishment to be significant - then the effort may not be impressive. It's important to strike an appropriate balance between a challenging goal and a realistic goal. Setting a goal that you'll fail to achieve is possibly more de-motivating than setting a goal that's too easy. The need for success and achievement is strong, therefore people are best motivated by challenging, but realistic, goals. 3. Commitment Goals must be understood and agreed upon if they are to be effective. Employees are more likely to "buy into" a goal if they feel they were part of creating that goal. The notion of participative management rests on this idea of involving employees in setting goals and making decisions. This doesn't mean that every goal has to be negotiated with and approved by employees. It does mean that goals should be consistent and in line with previous expectations and organizational concerns. As long as the employee believes that the goal is consistent with the goals of the company, and believes the person assigning the goal is credible, then the commitment should be there. Interestingly, goal commitment and difficulty often work together. The harder the goal, the more commitment is required. If you have an easy goal, you don't need a lot of motivation to get it done. When you're working on a difficult assignment, you will likely encounter challenges that require a deeper source of inspiration and incentive. As you use goal setting in your workplace, make an appropriate effort to include people in their own goal setting. Encourage employees to develop their own goals, and keep them informed about what's happening elsewhere in the organization. This way, they can be sure that their goals are consistent with the overall vision and purpose that the company seeks. 4. Feedback In addition to selecting the right type of goal, an effective goal program must also include feedback. Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition. It's important to provide benchmark opportunities or targets, so individuals can determine for themselves how they're doing. These regular progress reports, which measure specific success along the way, are particularly important where it's going to take a long time to reach a goal. In these cases, break down the goals into smaller chunks, and link feedback to these intermediate milestones. With all your goal setting efforts, make sure that you build in time for providing formal feedback. Certainly, informal check-ins are important, and they provide a means of giving regular encouragement and recognition. However, taking the time to sit down and discuss goal performance is a necessary factor in long-term performance improvement. 5. Task Complexity The last factor in goal setting theory introduces two more requirements for success. For goals or assignments that are highly complex, take special care to ensure that the work doesn't become too overwhelming. People who work in complicated and demanding roles probably have a high level of motivation already. However, they can often push themselves too hard if measures aren't built into the goal expectations to account for the complexity of the task. It's therefore important to do the following: Give the person sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance. Provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and required for success. The whole point of goal setting is to facilitate success. Therefore, you want to make sure that the conditions surrounding the goals don't frustrate or inhibit people from accomplishing their objectives

cohesiveness and effectiveness

Cohesiveness and Goal Alignment Hi/hi- strong increase in productivity hi/low-decrease in productivity low/high-moderate increase in productivity low/low- no effect on productivity

examples of (formal) work groups

Command groups are determined by the organization chart and composed of individuals who report directly to a given manager. Task groups are often temporary and are composed of individuals brought together to complete a specific job task. existence is often temporary because when the tas is complete the group disbands Cross-functional teams bring together the knowledge and skills of individuals from various work areas, or are groups whose members have been trained to do each other's jobs. Self-managed teams are essentially independent. In addition to their own tasks, they take on traditional managerial responsibilities such as hiring, planning and scheduling, and evaluating performance.

The Ohio State Study

Consideration. Showing concern for individual group member and satisfying their needs (considerate of the followers ideas and feelings Initiation Structure. Structuring the work of group members and directing the group towards attainment of group goals Beginning with more than 1,000 dimensions, the researchers narrowed the list down to two categories that accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by employees: initiating structure and consideration. The Ohio State studies utilized the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), administering it to samples of individuals in the military, manufacturing companies, college administrators, and student leaders. Answers to the questionnaire were factor-analyzed to determine if common leader behaviors emerged across samples. The conclusion was that there were two distinct aspects of leadership that describe how leaders carry out their role. Two factors, termed consideration and initiating structure, consistently appeared. Initiating structure, sometimes called task-oriented behavior, involves planning, organizing, and coordinating the work of subordinates. Consideration involves showing concern for subordinates, being supportive, recognizing subordinates' accomplishments, and providing for subordinates' welfare. Initiating structure refers to the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and the roles of employees in order to attain a goal. It includes behavior that organizes work, work relationships, and goals. For example, a leader who is characterized as high in initiating structure assigns group members to particular tasks, expects workers to maintain definite standards of performance, and emphasizes meeting deadlines. Consideration is defined as the extent to which a leader's job relationships are characterized by mutual trust and respect for employees' ideas and feelings. A leader who is high in consideration helps employees with personal problems, is friendly and approachable, and treats all employees as equals. Further research found that a leader who is high in initiating structure and in consideration (that is, a high-high leader) achieved high employee performance and satisfaction more frequently than one who rated low on either initiating structure, consideration, or both. However, the high-high style did not always yield positive results for workers performing routine tasks. Other studies found that high consideration was negatively related to performance ratings by the leader's manager. The Ohio State studies ultimately suggested that the high-high style generally produced positive outcomes, but enough exceptions were found to indicate that situational factors needed to be integrated into the theory. Findings--> No consistent relationship between initiating structure and leader effectiveness (effectiveness was group dependent). Leaders that scored high on consideration tend to have more satisfied subordinates, but there was no consistent relationship between consideration and effectiveness (group dependent). Hi-Hi's achieved high employee satisfaction and high performance more frequently than the other style combinations

situational leadership theory four stages of follower readiness

D1: Unable and Unwilling. Supporters generally lack the specific skills required for the job in hand. However, they are eager to learn and willing to take direction. D2: Unable and Willing Supporters may have some relevant skills, but won't be able to do the job without help. The task or the situation may be new to them. D3: Able and Unwilling - Supporters are experienced and capable, but may lack the confidence to go it alone, or the motivation to do it well or quickly. D4: Able and Willing - Supporters are experienced at the job, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They may even be more skilled than the leader. SLT essentially views the leader-follower relationship like that of a parent and a child, in which a parent needs to relinquish control when a child becomes more mature and responsible. As followers reach higher levels of readiness, the leader responds not only by decreasing control over their activities but also by decreasing relationship behaviors. The leadership style (S1 - S4) of the leader must correspond to the development level (D1 - D4) of the follower. Furthermore it is the leader who must adapt, not the follower

cohesiveness

Degree to which members are attracted to each other and share goals. Typically a function of size, prior success, status, stability of membership, goal congruency

path-goal theory leadership behaviors

Directive leader -- Lets employees know what is expected of them, schedules work, and gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks. Supportive leader -- Is friendly and shows concern for the needs of employees. Participative leader -- Consults with employees and uses their suggestions before making a decision). Achievement-oriented leader -- Sets challenging goals and expects employees to perform at their highest levels. Path-Goal Theory assumes that the leader can adjust the leader's style to adapt to the situation at hand. According to the path-goal model of leadership the leader assists his or her followers to set and attain goals that are compatible with organizational objectives. Workers accept a leader's behavior to the degree that they believe that it will lead to future satisfaction. Workers are motivated by a leader's behavior to the degree that it (1) makes the satisfaction of their needs contingent on effective performance and (2) provides the coaching, guidance, support, and rewards that are necessary for effective performance.

University of Michigan

Employee Oriented. A leader who emphasizes interpersonal relations, takes a personal interest in the needs of employees, and accepts individual differences. Production Oriented. A leader who emphasizes technical or task aspects of a job, is concerned mainly with accomplishing tasks, and regards group members as a means to accomplishing goals. Findings: The Michigan study was performed in the home office of the Prudential Insurance Company using 24 managers and 419 non- managers. Employee oriented leaders were found to be associated with higher group productivity and higher job satisfaction. The Michigan leadership studies took place at about the same time as those at Ohio State. Under the general direction of Rensis Likert, the focus of the Michigan studies was to determine the principles and methods of leadership that led to productivity and job satisfaction. The studies resulted in two general leadership behaviors or orientations: an employee orientation and a production orientation. Leaders with an employee orientation showed genuine concern for interpersonal relations. Those with a production orientation focused on the task or technical aspects of the job. The Michigan group also found two dimensions of leadership behavior: Employee-oriented leaders emphasized interpersonal relations, took a personal interest in the needs of their employees, and accepted individual differences among members. Production-oriented leaders, in contrast, tended to emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job, were concerned mainly with accomplishing their group's tasks, and regarded group members as a means to that end. The conclusion of the Michigan studies was that an employee orientation and general instead of close supervision yielded better results. Likert eventually developed four "systems" of management based on these studies; he advocated System 4 (the participative-group system, which was the most participatory set of leader behaviors) as resulting in the most positive outcomes. The assumption of the leader behavior approach was that there were certain behaviors that would be universally effective for leaders. Unfortunately, empirical research has not demonstrated consistent relationships between task-oriented or person-oriented leader behaviors and leader effectiveness. Like trait research, leader behavior research did not consider situational influences that might moderate the relationship between leader behaviors and leader effectiveness

formal work group (and Teams)

Established by management and part of organization design Designated assignments and responsibilities Behaviors stipulated and directed towards organizational goals Examples: project teams, quality circles, planning committees, functional work groups

social loafing

Individual productivity of each group member declines as the group expands reducing effort because dispersion of responsibility encourages individuals to slack off When a group's results can't be attributed to any single person, individuals may be tempted to become "free riders" and coast on the group's efforts because they think their contributions can't be measured.

new patterns of management (1961)

Exploitative Authoritative Benevolent Authoritative (paternalistic) Consultative Participative Exploitative authoritative (I) Exploitative Authoritative is rooted in classical theory. In this system, managers tend to use threats, fear, and punishment to motivate their workers. Managers at the top of the hierarchy make all of the decisions and are usually unaware of the problems faced by those in the lower levels of the organization. Decisions are imposed on subordinates, and motivation is characterized by threats. [5]The orders issue from the top make up the goals for the organization. As a result, workers tend to be hostile toward organizational goals and may engage in behavior that is counter to those goals. Benevolent authoritative (II) Less controlling than the exploitative authoritative system, under this system motivation is based on the potential for punishment and partially on rewards. The decision making arena is expanded by allowing lower-level employees to be involved in policy making but is limited by the framework given to them from upper-level management. Major policy decisions are still left to those at the top, who have some awareness of the problems that occur at lower levels. This creates mainly downward communication with little upward communication, causing subordinates to be somewhat suspicious of communication coming from the top. The managers at the top feel more responsibility towards organizational goals than those at the bottom, who feel very little responsibility. This contrast in feelings toward responsibility can result in a conflict and positive attitude with the organizations goals. Subordinates in this system can become hostile towards each other because of the competition that is created between them. Satisfaction among workers is low to moderately-low and productivity is measured at fair to good. Consultative System (III) This theory is very closely related to the Human Relations theory. Motivation of workers is gained through rewards, occasional punishments, and very little involvement in making decisions and goals. Lower-level employees, in this system, have the freedom to make specific decisions that will affect their work. Upper-management still has control over policies and general decisions that affect an organization. Managers will talk to their subordinates about problems and action plans before they set organizational goals. Communication in this system flows both downward and upward, though upward is more limited. This promotes a more positive affect on employee relationships and allows them to more cooperative. Lower-level employees are seen as consultants to decisions that were made and are more willing to accept them because of their involvement. Satisfaction in this system improves from benevolent authoritative as does productivity. Participative System (IV) Likert argued that the participative system was the most effective form of management. This system coincides with Human Resources theory. This system promotes genuine participation in making decisions and setting goals through free-flowing horizontal communication and tapping into the creativity and skills of workers. Managers are fully aware of the problems that go on in the lower-levels of the organization. All organizational goals are accepted by everyone because they were set through group participation. There is a high level of responsibility and accountability of the organizational goals in all of the employees. Managers motivate employees through a system that produces monetary awards and participation in goal setting. Satisfaction among employees is the highest out of the four systems as is production.

extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome (provided by the environment), whether or not that activity is also intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money) or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Relates to job environment, Hertzberg's hygiene factors, theory X

influence goal performance

Goal commitment (most likely when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned.) Adequate self-efficacy (an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. In difficult situations, we find that people with low self-efficacy are likely to reduce their effort or give up altogether, whereas those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master the challenge. Also, individuals with high self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, whereas those with low self-efficacy are likely to reduce their effort.) , and National culture (It's well adapted to North American countries because its main ideas align reasonably well with those cultures. It assumes that subordinates will be reasonably independent (not a high score on power distance), that people will seek challenging goals (low in uncertainty avoidance), and that performance is considered important by both managers and subordinates (high in assertiveness). Managers cannot expect goal setting to lead to higher employee performance in countries with cultural characteristics different from these.)

situational leadership theory

Hersey and Blanchard Leaders should adjust their leadership styles in accordance with the readiness (maturity) of their followers. The focus here is on the followers. Acceptance: Leader effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leader. Readiness: a follower's ability and willingness to perform. At higher levels of readiness, leaders respond by reducing control over and involvement with employees. The situational leadership theory was initially introduced in 1969 and revised in 1977 by Hersey and Blanchard. The theory suggests that the key contingency factor affecting leaders' choice of leadership style is the task-related maturity of the subordinates. Subordinate maturity is defined in terms of the ability of subordinates to accept responsibility for their own task-related behavior. The theory classifies leader behaviors into the two broad classes of task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors. The major proposition of situational leadership theory is that the effectiveness of task and relationship-oriented leadership depends upon the maturity of a leader's subordinates. Situational leadership theory has been criticized on both theoretical and methodological grounds. However, it remains one of the better-known contingency theories of leadership and offers important insights into the interaction between subordinate ability and leadership style. The situational leadership model developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard reflects how leaders should adjust their leadership styles according to the readiness of their followers. As a reflection of how willing and able a follower is to complete a task, Hersey and Blanchard have identified four stages of readiness: 1. A follower is both unable and unwilling to do a job. 2. A follower is unable to do the job but willing to perform  necessary tasks. 3. A follower is able to do the job but unwilling to be told what to do. A follower is both able and willing to do the job. The Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) is a contingency theory that focuses on followers' readiness. It was developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard and enjoys a strong following among management development specialists. Let's stop here to clarify two points: (1) why a leadership theory focuses on the followers, and (2) what is meant by the term readiness. The emphasis on the followers reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leader, regardless of what the leader does, so the group's effectiveness depends on the actions of the followers. Readiness, as defined by Hersey and Blanchard, refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. SLT uses the same two leadership dimensions that Fiedler identified—task and relationship behaviors—but takes it a step further by considering each as either high or low and then combining them into these four specific leadership styles: Telling (high task-low relationship), in which the leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks; Selling (high task-high relationship), in which the leader provides both directive and supportive behavior; Participating (low task-high relationship), in which the leader and followers share in decision making and the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating; Delegating (low task-low relationship), in which the leader provides little direction or support. The final component in the model is the four stages of follower readiness: R1: People are both unable and unwilling to take responsibility for doing something. Followers aren't competent or confident. R2: People are unable but willing to do the necessary job tasks. Followers are motivated but lack the appropriate skills. R3: People are able but unwilling to do what the leader wants. Followers are competent but don't want to do something. R4: People are both able and willing to do what is asked of them. SLT essentially views the leader-follower relationship like that of a parent and a child, in which a parent needs to relinquish control when a child becomes more mature and responsible. As followers reach higher levels of readiness, the leader responds not only by decreasing control over their activities but also by decreasing relationship behaviors. Therefore, the SLT says: If followers are at R1 (unable and unwilling to do a task), the leader needs to use the Telling style and give clear and specific directions. If followers are at R2 (unable and willing), the leader needs to use the Selling style and display high task orientation to compensate for the followers' lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get followers to "buy into" the leader's desires. If followers are at R3 (able and unwilling), the leader needs to use the Participating style to gain their support. If employees are at R4 (both able and willing), the leader should use the Delegating style. Thus far, efforts to test and support SLT have been disappointing, perhaps due to internal inconsistencies in the model or due to research methodology. NOT IOWA

four elements of transformational leadership

Individualized Consideration - the degree to which the leader attends to each follower's needs, acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens to the follower's concerns and needs. The leader gives empathy and support, keeps communication open and places challenges before the followers. This also encompasses the need for respect and celebrates the individual contribution that each follower can make to the team. The followers have a will and aspirations for self development and have intrinsic motivation for their tasks. Intellectual Stimulation - the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this style stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers. They nurture and develop people who think independently. For such a leader, learning is a value and unexpected situations are seen as opportunities to learn. The followers ask questions, think deeply about things and figure out better ways to execute their tasks. work with flair, innovate Inspirational Motivation - the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act. Purpose and meaning provide the energy that drives a group forward. The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by communication skills that make the vision understandable, precise, powerful and engaging. The followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks, they are encouraged and optimistic about the future and believe in their abilities. Idealized Influence - Provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, gains respect and trust. As a development tool, transformational leadership has spread already in all sectors of western societies, including governmental organizations. Act with authenticity and honesty

group vs. individual behavior

Individuals act differently in groups than they do when alone

Motivation scenario

Internal rewards are obtained when an employee learns (knowledge of results) through (feedback) that he or she personally (experienced responsibility through autonomy of work) has performed well on a task that he or she cares about (experienced meaningfulness through skill variety, task identity, and/or task significance). internal rewards are obtained when an employee learns that he or she personally has performed well on a task that he or she cares about the links between the job dimensions and the outcomes are moderated by the strength of the individual's growth need (that is, the person's desire for self-esteem and self-actualization). Individuals with a high growth need are more likely to experience the critical psychological states and respond positively when their jobs include the core dimensions than individuals with a low growth need are. This distinction may explain the mixed results with job enrichment, the vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluation responsibilities. Individuals with low growth need don't tend to achieve high performance or satisfaction by having their jobs enriched.

intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. People who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities (relates to factors such as job design (meaningful, important work), growth opportunities, needs for achievement, theory Y, Maslow higher order needs, Hertzberg 's motivators) does not mean, however, that a person will not seek rewards. It just means that such external rewards are not enough to keep a person motivated an internal drive to perform a task due to the enjoyment of doing the task itself (interest, curiosity, desire for mastery)

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton

Jane Mouton studied pure mathematics and physics at the University of Texas and received an M.A. in psychology from Florida State University in 1951 and a Ph.D. from the University of Texas in 1957. Blake and Mouton developed the concept of the Managerial Grid while working together at the University of Texas, and their ideas were tested and developed through the implementation of an organizational development program in the American oil corporation Exxon. In 1955, Blake and Mouton founded Scientific Methods Inc. to provide consultancy services based on the workplace application of ideas from behavioral science. The company was formally incorporated in 1961, and grew to offer Grid-based Organization Development and consultancy programs in the areas of individual learning, team development, conflict resolution and strategic modeling in over 30 countries worldwide. Blake and Mouton's collaboration continued until Jane Mouton's death in 1987. Numerous studies converge around two dimensions. The task dimension refers to stressing the accomplishment of group goals, defining and structuring work assignments, and emphasizing deadlines. The people dimension includes developing good interpersonal relationships, being approachable, and being concerned with workers' personal problems. The managerial grid depicts a manager's "concern for people" and "concern for production" on separate axes. The grid has nine possible positions along each axis, creating eighty-one positions in which a leader's style may fall. Proponents of this two-dimensional view focus on the extremes of the grid and claim that effective leaders use a (9,9) management style: that is, work accomplished from committed people and interdependence through a "common style" in organization purpose leads to trust and respect. The extreme styles are as follows: (1,9) Management. Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relationship leads to a comfortable, friendly atmosphere and work tempo. (9,1) Management. Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree. (1,1) Management. Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership. (5,5) Management. Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at at satisfactory level. According to the prescriptions of the grid, team management was the best leadership approach. The Managerial Grid became a major consulting tool and was the basis for a considerable amount of leadership training in the corporate world. The assumption of the leader behavior approach was that there were certain behaviors that would be universally effective for leaders. Unfortunately, empirical research has not demonstrated consistent relationships between task-oriented or person-oriented leader behaviors and leader effectiveness. Like trait research, leader behavior research did not consider situational influences that might moderate the relationship between leader behaviors and leader effectiveness.

influencing group cohesiveness and conformity

Keep groups small (5 to 7) if possible. As groups get incrementally larger the contribution of individual group members typically lessen Select group members carefully; Find a good personality fit between new and older employees; people who identify with the individual and group goals Develop a work layout that enhances communication Reward groups rather than individuals Inspire inter-group competition Isolate groups from each other

University of Iowa

Kurt Lewin, Basic Leadership Styles

Fiedler's Three Contingency Dimensions

Leader-member relations (Good - Poor) the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader Task structure (High - Low) the degree to which job assignments were formalized and structured Position power (Strong - Weak) the degree of influence a leader had over activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases

Situational Leadership theory four specific leadership styles

S1: Directing/Telling Leaders define the roles and tasks of the follower, and supervise them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one way. S2: Coaching/Selling Leaders still define roles and tasks, but seek ideas and suggestions from the follower. Decisions remain the leader's prerogative, but communication is much more two way. The leader provide both directive and supportive behavior S3: Supporting/Participating Leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower. The leader communicates, facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is with the follower. S4: Delegating Leaders are still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with the follower. The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved. The leader provides little direction or support

Fiedler Contingency Model

Leadership theory that proposes that effective group performance depends on the proper match between a leader's style and the degree to which the situation allowed the leader to control and influence Introduced in 1967, Fiedler's contingency theory was the first to specify how situational factors interact with leader traits and behavior to influence leadership effectiveness. The theory suggests that the "favorability" of the situation determines the effectiveness of task- and person-oriented leader behavior. Favorability is determined by (1) the respect and trust that followers have for the leader; (2) the extent to which subordinates' responsibilities can be structured and performance measured; and (3) the control the leader has over subordinates' rewards. The situation is most favorable when followers respect and trust the leader, the task is highly structured, and the leader has control over rewards and punishments. Fiedler's research indicated that task-oriented leaders were more effective when the situation was either highly favorable or highly unfavorable, but that person-oriented leaders were more effective in the moderately favorable or unfavorable situations. The theory did not necessarily propose that leaders could adapt their leadership styles to different situations, but that leaders with different leadership styles would be more effective when placed in situations that matched their preferred style. Fiedler's contingency theory has been criticized on both conceptual and methodological grounds. However, empirical research has supported many of the specific propositions of the theory, and it remains an important contribution to the understanding of leadership effectiveness. The first comprehensive contingency model for leadership was developed by Fred Fiedler and was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective across all different types of situations. Fiedler proposed that a key factor in leadership success was an individual's basic leadership style, which could be categorized as either task oriented or relationship oriented. To measure a leader's style, Fiedler developed the least-preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire. This questionnaire contained 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives—such as pleasant-unpleasant and boring-interesting. Respondents were asked to think of all the coworkers they had ever had and to describe that one person with whom they least enjoyed working by rating him or her on a scale of 1 to 8 for each of the sets of adjectives. If the leader described the least preferred coworker in relatively positive terms, then the leader was primarily interested in good personal relations with coworkers and the style would be described as relationship oriented. In contrast, if the leader saw the least preferred coworker in relatively unfavorable terms, then that leader was primarily interested in productivity and his or her style would be labeled as task oriented. Fiedler did acknowledge that a small number of people might fall between these two extremes, but he also assumed a person's leadership style was fixed regardless of the situational factors. Fiedler's contingency theory has been criticized on both conceptual and methodological grounds. However, empirical research has supported many of the specific propositions of the theory, and it remains an important contribution to the understanding of leadership effectiveness. Each leadership situation was evaluated in terms of these three contingency variables, which, when combined, produced eight possible situations that were either favorable or unfavorable for the leader. Situations I, II, and III were classified as highly favorable for the leader. Situations IV, V, and VI were moderately favorable for the leader. Situations VII and VIII were described as highly unfavorable for the leader. Introduced in 1967, Fiedler's contingency theory was the first to specify how situational factors interact with leader traits and behavior to influence leadership effectiveness. The theory suggests that the "favorability" of the situation determines the effectiveness of task- and person-oriented leader behavior. Favorability is determined by (1) the respect and trust that followers have for the leader; (2) the extent to which subordinates' responsibilities can be structured and performance measured; and (3) the control the leader has over subordinates' rewards. The situation is most favorable when followers respect and trust the leader, the task is highly structured, and the leader has control over rewards and punishments. Once Fiedler had described the leader variables and the situational variables, he could define the specific contingencies for leadership effectiveness. To do so, he studied 1,200 groups to compare relationship-oriented versus task-oriented leadership styles in each of the eight situational categories. He concluded that task-oriented leaders performed better in very favorable and in very unfavorable situations. Fiedler's research indicated that task-oriented leaders were more effective when the situation was either highly favorable or highly unfavorable, but that person-oriented leaders were more effective in the moderately favorable or unfavorable situations. The theory did not necessarily propose that leaders could adapt their leadership styles to different situations, but that leaders with different leadership styles would be more effective when placed in situations that matched their preferred style. Research testing the overall validity of Fiedler's model has shown considerable evidence to support it. However, its major criticisms include: It's unrealistic to assume that a person can't change his or her leadership style to fit the situation; The LPC wasn't very practical; and The situation variables were difficult to assess. Major criticism-- failed to recognize that effective leaders can change leadership styles

relationship between patterns of leadership behavior successful performance

Lewin believed that democratic leadership resulted in more satisfied employees (followers); both Ohio State and Michigan studies had similar findings, but Michigan found a productivity correlation as well (with employee oriented). Tannenbaum/Schmidt believed that over time leaders should move up the continuum from autocratic to democratic and that certain situation variables would moderate leadership styles

Famous Servant Leaders

Lincoln Harriet Tubman Susan B. Anthony Clara Barton Martin Luther King Mother Teresa Truit Cathy Herb Kelleher Dalai Lama Nelson Mandela

characteristics of high-performing teams

Members have the relevant technical skills and abilities Effective Leadership High Mutual Trust and Loyalty Clear Understanding of and Commitment to Team Goals Good Communication (quickly and effectively share ideas and feelings) Supportive Climate believe that the goal is worthwhile or important enough to redirect energy away from personal concerns and toward team goals. These teams are made up of competent individuals who have relevant technical skills, can work well with others, and can readjust their skills—called job-morphing—to fit the needs of the team. Effective teams are also characterized by high mutual trust among members who have made a unified commitment to be intensely loyal and dedicated to the team. Good communication is essential for high-performance teams. Members use verbal and nonverbal techniques to convey messages clearly. High-performance teams tend to be flexible and continually make adjustments. Therefore, team members need effective negotiating skills to confront and reconcile differences. Because they can clarify goals and increase self-confidence in team members, effective leaders are essential to successful teams. The best leaders are not directive or controlling; rather, they are coaches or facilitators. Finally, effective teamwork is promoted by a supportive environment: for example, one that values openness, honesty, collaboration, and employee involvement and autonomy.

informal work group

Natural formations (voluntary) Tend to form around friendships and interests Shared sense of values and group loyalty Work is a social endeavor and employees need social contact social nature

shortcut methods in judging others

Selectivity Assumed similarity Stereotyping Halo effect Self-fulfilling prophecy

Larry Spears Definition of Servant Leadership, 1995

Non-hierarchical Non-autocratic Focused on growing people Focused quality and caring Teamwork-oriented Community-oriented Ethical behavior Servant leadership encourages collaboration, trust, foresight, listening, ethics, and influence We are beginning to see that traditional autocratic and hierarchical modes of leadership slowly yielding to a newer model; one that attempts to simultaneously enhance the personal growth of workers and improve the quality and caring of our many institutions through a combination of teamwork and community, personal involvement in decision making, and ethical and caring behavior. This emerging approach to leadership and service is called servant-leadership. put their people and their organizations before themselves. They don't view employees as a means to an end; rather employees' happiness and satisfaction is the end Servant leadership is enjoying renewed currency now--which makes sense, given the tight labor markets and widespread mistrust of chief executives ) It is also the natural model for the growing number of companies that compete for human capital. Still, adopting servant leadership is a tough psychological adjustment for many entrepreneurs. Just how tough depends, in part, on the entrepreneur's motivation. People who start companies out of passion for a product or the desire to create opportunities for others adapt well Servant leaders also often do things that seem less than leaderish Servant-leaders may or may not hold formal leadership positions. Servant leadership is a practice that supports people who choose to serve first, and then lead as a way of expanding service to individuals and institutions.

Stage 3: After Conditioning

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR).

what influences perception

Our Own Personal Characteristics Life Experiences Education Personalities Interests Attitudes Characteristics/Context of the Target Relationship to background Tendency to group similar things together Target characteristics

behavioral theories

People can choose to become leaders. People can learn leadership skills. This is the Behavioral Theory. Leadership can be LEARNED. Behavioral Theory stresses behaviors can differentiate effective leaders from ineffective leaders. What a leader does regardless of the group being led. How the leader interacted with his or her group members

status

Prestige ranking within a group. Anything can have status if it is valued by the group

Needs

The motivation process begins with needs. internal states (usually a deficiency) that make certain outcomes appear attractive

motivating professionals

Professionals have a strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise, they need to keep current and regularly update their knowledge, and, because of their commitment to their profession, they work beyond a 40-hour week. Money and promotions tend to be low motivators for professionals, but job challenge tends to rank high. Professionals' chief reward is the work itself but they value support and want others to think that what they'reworking on is important. Professionals tend to be focused on their work as their central life interest, whereas nonprofessionals typically have outside interests that can compensate for needs not met on the job. There's no simple solution for motivating contingent employees—temporary part-time and contract workers who don't have security or stability, don't identify with the organization, don't display the commitment that other employees do, and receive few or no benefits such as health care or pensions. For the most part, temporary employees are not temporary by choice. Therefore, an involuntarily temporary employee might be motivated by the opportunity to become a permanent employee or an opportunity for training. Financial compensation and promotions typically are low on the priority list for motivating professionals. Professionals tend to be well paid and enjoy what they do. In contrast, job challenge for professionals tends to be ranked high. They like to tackle problems and find solutions. Their chief reward in their job is the work itself. Professionals also want others to think that what they are working on is important. That may be true for all employees, but professionals tend to be focused on work as a central life interest

Stages of team development

Research shows that groups develop through the five stages shown here The forming stage has two phases. The first phase is when people first join the group and the second phase is when they define the group's purpose, structure, and leadership. The latter phase involves a great deal of uncertainty as members "test the waters" to determine acceptable behaviors and is complete when members begin to think of themselves as part of a group. The storming stage is named because it is the period of intragroup conflict about who will control the group and what the group needs to be doing. This stage is complete when a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership and agreement on the group's direction is evident. The norming stage is one in which close relationships develop and the group becomes cohesive. During this phase the group demonstrates a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. This stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations (or norms) regarding member behavior. The fourth stage is the performing stage. The group structure is in place and accepted by group members. Their energies have moved from getting to know and understand each other to working on the group's task. This is the last stage of development for permanent work groups. However, for temporary groups—such as project teams, task forces, or similar groups that have a limited task to do—the final stage is the adjourning stage in which the group prepares to disband. Attention is focused on wrapping up activities instead of task performance. groups don't always proceed sequentially from one stage to the next. Don't assume that all groups precisely follow this process or that performing is always the most preferable stage. Instead, think of this model as a general framework that underscores the fact that groups are dynamic entities and managers need to know the stage a group is in so they can understand the problems and issues that are most likely to surface.

Core Job Dimensions of Enriched Job Design

Skill Variety - worker uses a number of skills and talents Task Identity - requires completion of whole and identifiable work Task Significance - product/output affects the lives of other people Autonomy - freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling/carrying out the work Feedback - direct and clear information regarding job performance

trait theory

Some physical and personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles. Leaders are BORN. Theory stresses what a leader is like rather than what the leader did. Researchers attempted to isolate characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders. (Examples :Physical traits (height) personality traits (extraversion, drive, risk tolerance,), social traits (tact, patience) and intelligence. Leader traits or characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders, dominated early leadership research efforts. However, researchers weren't able to identify a set of traits that would always differentiate a leader from a nonleader—that is, a set of consistent and unique traits that would apply universally to all effective leaders, no matter what organization they led.

A Charismatic leader influences followers by

Stating a (uplifting, compelling) vision that provides a sense of community Communicating high expectations and expressing confidence that followers can attain them. Conveying, through words and actions, a new set of values (modeling the way) Making self-sacrifices and engaging in unconventional behavior (take risks to achieve the vision) Creating a strong emotional bond with the followers. Demonstrate behaviors that are out of the ordinary Key Characteristics: Exceptional Self-confidence, Vision, Ability to articulate the vision, Strong Convictions in the moral righteousness of their beliefs, extraordinary behavior, perceived as agents

performance evaluation and reward system

Team members have to be accountable both individually and jointly. Therefore, in addition to evaluating and rewarding employees for their individual contributions, managers should consider group-based appraisals, profit-sharing, and other approaches that reinforce team effort and commitment.

University of Iowa vs. ohio state studies

The University of Iowa study identified three leadership styles: democratic, which means involving subordinates, delegating authority, and encouraging participation; autocratic, which means dictating work methods, centralizing decision making, and limiting participation; and laissez-faire, which means giving a group freedom to make decisions and to complete work. This study concluded that the democratic style of leadership was most effective, although later studies showed mixed results. The Ohio State study identified two factors, consideration, which involves being considerate of followers' ideas and feelings; and initiating structure, which involves structuring work and work relationships to meet job goals. The study concluded that a high-high leader (high in consideration and high in initiating structure) achieved high subordinate performance and satisfaction, but not in all situations.

theory Y

The assumption that employees are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction a positive view that assumes employees enjoy work, seek out and accept responsibility, and exercise self-direction. McGregor believed that Theory Y assumptions should guide management practice and proposed that participation in decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations would maximize employee motivation. Positive (Theory Y - higher needs motivate employees). The Theory Y worker is ambitious, intrinsically motivated. Productivity is greater if employees are given the freedom to perform.

Theory X

The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform Douglas McGregor from the MIT Sloan School of Management a negative view of people that assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled to work effectively. negative-lower needs motivate employees. The Theory X worker has to be closely supervised with comprehensive control systems (mechanistic)). It's the managers job to energize the employee

conformity

The degree to which members accept and follow group norms. Group think occurs when members lose their ability to think as individuals and conform at the expense of their better judgment The Asch study provides managers with considerable insight into group behaviors. To diminish the negative aspects of conformity, managers should create a climate of openness in which employees are free to discuss problems without fear of retaliation.

negative reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is 'rewarding' to the animal. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

leadership traits

The seven traits associated with effective leadership are: drive, desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and extraversion. Next, researchers recognized that the identification of effective leaders needed to include interactions of leaders with their group members, as well as situational factors. Possessing the appropriate traits only made it more likely that an individual would be an effective leader. Therefore, leadership research from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s turned to finding the preferred behavioral styles that leaders demonstrated. Researchers wondered whether there was something unique in the behavior of effective leaders.

scientific management and motivation

Tied Production to Compensation Jobs Had to Be Designed in Ways to Establish Standards of Performance Scientifically Once the Standard Was Reached a Significantly Higher Rate was Paid For All Units Produced

situational leadership theory (SLT)

contingency theory that focuses on follower's readiness

expectancy theory

Victor Vroom, most comprehensive explanation of how employees are motivated A belief that there is a positive correlation between effort and performance Favorable performance will result in a desired reward The reward will satisfy an important need The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile an employee will be motivated to produce more when he or she believes that the effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards; and that the rewards will satisfy the employee's personal goals. an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. This theory includes three variables or relationships Expectancy or effort-performance linkage is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance. Instrumentality or performance-reward linkage is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level is instrumental to attaining the desired outcome. Valence or attractiveness of reward is the importance that the individual places on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job. Valence considers both the goals and needs of the individual. Whether you are motivated to work hard at any given time depends on your goals and your perception of whether a certain level of performance is necessary to attain those goals. The key to expectancy theory is understanding an individual's goals and the links between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and between rewards and individual goal satisfaction. Individuals who feel they are under-rewarded will be de-motivated (reduce inputs) or attempt to have their outputs (for example pay) increased. Individual must have an expectation that effort translates into performance, that performance will be recognized and rewarded, and that the rewards are relevant to the individuals goals (and needs).

Servant Leadership

Wanting to serve others Non-materialistic Not focused on power and control Focused on growing people Desire to give the underprivileged a voice and help them succeed This approach to leadership reflects a philosophy that leaders should be servants first. It suggests that leaders must place the needs of subordinates, customers, and the community ahead of their own interests in order to be effective. Characteristics of servant leaders include empathy, stewardship, and commitment to the personal, professional, and spiritual growth of their subordinates. Servant leadership has not been subjected to extensive empirical testing but has generated considerable interest among both leadership scholars and practitioners. Leadership continues to be one of the most written about topics in the social sciences. Although much has been learned about leadership since the 1930s, many avenues of research still remain to be explored as we enter the twenty-first century. The servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. He or she is sharply different from the person who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions. For such it will be a later choice to serve after leadership is established. The leader-first and the servant-first are two extreme types. Between them there are shadings and blends that are part of the infinite variety of human nature. The difference manifest itself in the care taken by the servant-first to make sure that other people's highest priority needs are being served Robert Greenleaf

being fair

When distributing rewards, make sure you pay attention to different contribution levels of employees. Treating everyone equally could be unfair if they participated and contributed at different levels. People who are more qualified, skilled, or those who did more than others expect to receive a greater share of rewards. Sometimes you may have to disregard people's contributions to distribute certain rewards. Some rewards or privileges may be better distributed equally (e.g., health insurance) or based on the particular employee's needs (such as unpaid leave for health reasons). Pay attention to how you make decisions. Before making a decision, ask people to give you their opinions if possible. Explain your decisions to people who are affected by it. Before implementing a change, give people advance notice. Enforce rules consistently among employees. Pay attention to how you talk to people. Treat others the way you want to be treated. Be kind, courteous, and considerate of their feelings. Remember that justice is in the eye of the beholder. Even when you feel you are being fair, others may not feel the same way, and it is their perception that counts. Therefore, pay attention to being perceived as fair. People do not care only about their own justice level. They also pay attention to how others are treated as well. Therefore, in addition to paying attention to how specific employees feel, creating a sense of justice in the entire organization is important.

immediate corrective actions

corrects problems at once to get performance back on track

stereotyping

When managers judge someone based on their perception of a group to which he or she belongs To the degree that the stereotype is based on fact, it may produce accurate judgments—but many stereotypes aren't factual and distort our judgment. Example: Frederic tells himself that Carol's consistent lateness to work is to be expected since she's a single mom

halo effect

When they base their impressions of an individual on a single characteristic, such as intelligence or appearance

perception

a process by which we give meaning to our environment by organizing and interpreting sensory impressions. how he or she organizes and interprets sensory impressions can be shaped or distorted by a number of factors that reside in the perceiver, in the object or target being perceived, or in the context of the situation in which the perception is made. the relationship of a target to its background also influences perception—as seen above—as does our tendency to group close things and similar things together. The context, time, and other situational factors in which we see objects or events is also important.

role

a set of expected behavior patterns that are attributed to occupying a given position in a social unit. Role research has concluded the following: 1. People play multiple roles. 2. People learn roles from the stimuli around them. 3. People shift roles rapidly according to situational demands. 4. People experience conflict when one role contradicts another.

Stage 2: During Conditioning

a stimulus which produces no response (i.e. neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). Often during this stage the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. However, one trail learning can happen on certain occasions when it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time

team leadership and structure

a team needs to agree on the specifics of work and how all the team members' individual skills fit together can come from the organization or from the team itself. Even in self-managed teams, a manager's job is to be a coach supporting the team's efforts and managing outside (rather than inside) the team.

Self-serving bias

a tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

Fundamental attribution error

a tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors on others "negative" behaviors or failures (to blame)

visionary leadership

ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves on the present situation

charismatic leader

an enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways The most comprehensive analysis of charismatic leaders identified the following five personal characteristics they share: They have a vision; The have the ability to articulate that vision They are willing to take risks to achieve that vision; They are sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs; and They demonstrate behaviors that are out of the ordinary. An increasing body of evidence shows impressive correlations between charismatic leadership and high performance and satisfaction among followers. Although a small number of experts still think that charisma can't be learned, most believe that individuals can be trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors.

employee theft

any unauthorized taking of company property by employees for their personal use

open-book management

approach used by many organizations

operant conditioning

behavior is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don't want voluntary Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood that it will be repeated. B.F. Skinner Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike's puzzle box. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior. • Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. • Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

social learning

behavior is to be determined from without—that is, learned—rather than from within—that is, reflexive or unlearned B. F. Skinner argued that people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so, and rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response. In addition, behavior that isn't rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated. The theory that people can learn through observation and direct experience; by modeling the behavior of others. behavior is a function of consequences and recognizes that perception is important to learning.

trust

belief in the integrity, character and ability of a leader facilitates cooperation, reduces the need to monitor each other's behavior, and bonds members around the belief that others on the team won't take advantage of them.

norming stage

close relationships develop and group becomes cohesive

readiness

defined by Hersey and Blanchard refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task

self-reinforcement

desired outcomes that people can give to themselves for good performance

least-preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire

developed by Fiedler to measure a leader's style

job characteristics model (JCM)

developed by J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham core job dimensions--> skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback not a core job dimension-->job goals job design is critical in motivating workers

equity theory

developed by J. Stacey Adams, proposes that employees compare what they get from a job (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others If they perceive their ratio to be equal to that of relevant others, a state of equity exists otherwise inequity proposes that inequity creates tension, and that this tension can cause an employee to seek fairness. Workers compare their job inputs and outcomes with others. There are three possible perceptions: 1. Inequity due to being under-rewarded. 2. Equity 3. Inequity due to being over-rewarded. When inequities occur, employees attempt to do something about it. The result might be lower or higher productivity, improved or reduced quality of output, increased absenteeism, or voluntary resignation. Originally, equity theory focused on distributive justice, which is the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals and which has a greater influence on employee satisfaction. More recent research has focused on issues of procedural justice, which is the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards and tends to affect an employee's organizational commitment, trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit. Based on the evidence, managers should consider openly sharing information on how allocation decisions are made, follow consistent and unbiased procedures, and engage in similar practices to increase the perception of procedural justice.

adjourning stage

final stage for temporary groups (project teams, task forces, or similar groups that have a limited task to do)

self-managed work teams

formal group of employees who operate without a manager and are responsible for a complete work process or segment

four specific theories of motivation

formulated during 1950s and 1960s the hierarchy of needs theory, Theories X and Y, the two-factor theory, and three-needs theory these early theories are important because: (1) They represent the foundation from which contemporary theories grew and (2) practicing managers regularly use these theories and their terminology in explaining employee motivation. 3 needs theory--> most closely relates to the "more contemporary" goal-setting theory of motivation

work teams

groups whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills

Low self-monitors

have a high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene theory

highly motivated because person has responsibilities, gets positive feedback and recognition about work, and continually learns new things at work an opportunity to show what you can do is considered a motivator hygiene factors--> benefits, supervision, regulations not autonomous decision-making job pays well but is very easy --> hygiene factors more important than motivators

credibility

his or her honesty, competence, and ability to inspire

self-fulfilling prophecy / the Pygmalion effect

how a manager perceives others and how those persons behave in ways that are consistent with the manager's expectations

consensus

if everyone faced with a similar situation responds in the same way. If consensus is high, you would be expected to give an external attribution to the behavior. But if only one person responds that way, you would conclude the reason to be internal.

empowerment

increasing the decision-making discretion of workers

self-efficacy

individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

storming stage

intragroup conflict

Classical Conditioning

involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. There are three stages to classical conditioning. In each stage the stimuli and responses are given special scientific terms

leader-member exchange (LMX) theory

leaders create in-groups and out-groups and those in the in-group will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction

transactional leaders

leaders who lead primarily by using social exchanges (or transactions) those leaders that guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals. Leaders engage in a "bargaining relationship" with their followers (Behavioral Theories)

basic corrective action

looks at how and why performance deviated before correcting the source of deviation

benefits of using teams

lower costs, quality improvements, speed not lower productivity

high risk-takers

make more rapid decisions, and don't require more information

control

management function that involves monitoring activities to ensure that they're being accomplished as planned and correcting any deviations

assumed similarity ("like-me effect")

manager's perceptions of others are influenced more by their own characteristics than by those of the person observed It's easy to judge others if we assume that they're similar to us

consistency in an employee's actions

more consistent the behavior, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it to internal causes.

Maslow vs. Hertzberg

motivational (self-actualization, self-esteem)-->work itself, achievement, possibility of growth, advancement, recognition, status maintenance (social, safety, physiological)--> interpersonal relations, company policy and administration, job security, working conditions, salary, personal life

Team effectiveness

objective measures of a team's productivity, managers' ratings of the team's performance, and aggregate measures of member satisfaction (1) Teams differ in form and structure and (2) this model assumes that managers have already determined that teamwork is preferable to individual work. the four key components of effective teams include: Context Team's composition Work design, and Process variables. Four contextual factors that appear to be most significantly related to team performance are adequate resources, leadership and structure, a climate of trust, and performance evaluation and reward systems.

referent

other persons, systems, or selves individuals compare themselves against in order to assess equity

distributive justice

perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals

procedural justice

perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards the degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used to arrive at a decision. People do not care only about reward fairness. They also expect decision-making processes to be fair. In fact, research shows that employees care about the procedural justice of many organizational decisions, including layoffs, employee selection, surveillance of employees, performance appraisals, and pay decisions. [8] People also tend to care more about procedural justice in situations in which they do not get the outcome they feel they deserve When people do not get the rewards they want, they tend to hold management responsible if procedures are not fair First, people tend to believe that fairness is an end in itself and it is the right thing to do. Second, fair processes guarantee future rewards If the procedures are fair, you are more likely to believe that things will work out in the future. Third, fairness communicates that the organization values its employees and cares about their well-being. giving employees advance notice before laying them off, firing them, or disciplining them is perceived as fair. [12] Advance notice helps employees get ready for the changes facing them or gives them an opportunity to change their behavior before it is too late. Allowing employees voice in decision making is also important. [13] When designing a performance-appraisal system or implementing a reorganization, it may be a good idea to ask people for their input because it increases perceptions of fairness. Even when it is not possible to have employees participate, providing explanations to employees is helpful in fostering procedural justice. [14] Finally, people expect consistency in treatment. [15] If one person is given extra time when taking a test while another is not, individuals would perceive decision making as unfair.

employee recognition programs

personal attention and expressions of interest, approval, and appreciation for a job well done

what can managers do to fulfill hierarchy of needs theory

physiological- Provide a level of pay that provides for fundamental lifestyle needs (food, cloths, shelter, etc) safety-Provide job security, adequate medical benefits, and safe working conditions social-Promote good inter-personal relations and organizing social functions such as company picnics self-esteem-Grant promotions and recognizing accomplishments self-actualization-Give people the opportunity to use their skills and abilities to the fullest extent possible

problem-solving teams

popular first, teams from the same department or functional area involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific problems

Four ways to shape behavior

positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, or extinction. When a behavior isn't reinforced, it gradually disappears. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning because they strengthen a desired response and increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction also result in learning; however, they weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency.

motivation

process by which a person's efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal Individuals differ in motivational drive and their overall motivation varies from situation to situation. is not a personal trait that some people have and others don't. Motivation has three key elements: energy, direction, and persistence. The energy element is a measure of intensity or drive where the quality of the effort is considered along with its intensity. High levels of effort lead to favorable job performance when the effort is directed toward, and consistent with, organizational goals. Finally, motivation includes a persistence dimension where employees keep putting forth effort to achieve those goals. activates human behavior function of the interaction between the individual and the situation he/she faces Motivation begins with an unsatisfied need (which can be physical or psychological) An individual can have high motivation for one task and low motivation for another task motivation is a result of an interaction between a person and a situation

Fiedler contingency model

proposed that effective group performance on properly matching the leader's style and the amount of control and influence in the situation

Reasons why people voluntarily join groups

security, status, self-esteem, affiliation, power, or goal achievement. Security reflects a strength in numbers. Status indicates a prestige that comes from belonging to a particular group. Self-esteem conveys people's feelings of self worth. Affiliation with groups can fulfill one's social needs through social interaction. Groups represent the power to achieve actions that are not possible for individuals and they offer protection from the unreasonable demands of others. Finally, people may join a group for goal achievement when it takes more than one person's talents, skills, and abilities to do the job.

group size and group effectiveness

small group- better at completing tasks faster large group (a dozen or more members)- better at problem solving, gaining diverse input, collecting and communicating facts

leader

someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority

goal-setting theory

specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals Managers cannot constantly drive motivation, or keep track of an employee's work on a continuous basis. Goals are therefore an important tool for managers, since goals have the ability to function as a self-regulatory mechanism that helps employees prioritize tasks (1) Working toward a goal is a major source of job motivation and (2) specific and challenging goals are superior motivating forces. The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus Interestingly, setting one's own goals sometimes elicited superior performance; in other cases, individuals performed better when their manager assigned goals. However, when employees might resist accepting difficult challenges, participation in goal setting is probably more effective than assigning goals. Lastly, people do better if they get feedback on how well they're progressing toward their goals because it helps identify discrepancies between what they've done and what they want to do.

motivation-hygiene

specifically address the issues on which job enrichment focuses

transformational leaders

stimulates and inspires (transforms) followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes those leaders that inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization and is capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on his or her followers. Leaders cultivate follower acceptance. Transformational leadership theories focuses on attempting to explain how leaders can accomplish extraordinary things against the odds, such as turning around a failing company, founding a successful company, or achieving great military success against incredible odds. (Behavioral + Trait Theories) How has the leader influenced the followers. Are the followers working for more than just personal gain Do the followers identify with the leaders vision for change and understand how they fit into that future state Have the followers grown intellectually, or in creativity, or have developed their own leadership abilities

postive reinforcement

strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding

adequate resources

the team's ability to perform its job effectively is reduced. Resources can include timely information, proper equipment, encouragement, adequate staffing, and administrative assistance.

feedback control

takes place after the activity is done

concurrent control

takes place while a work activity is in progress

virtual team

team that uses technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal

Tannenbaum and Schmidt Leadership Style continuum

test whether managers should always exhibit a democratic style of leadership. Tannenbaum and Schmidt developed a continuum of leader behaviors, ranging from boss centered (autocratic) to employee centered (laissez-faire). In deciding which leader behavior from the continuum to use, Tannenbaum and Schmidt proposed that managers look at forces within themselves (such as comfort level with the chosen leadership style), forces within the employees (such as readiness to assume responsibility), and forces within the situation (such as time pressures). They suggested that managers should move toward more employee-centered styles in the long run because such behavior would increase employees' motivation, decision quality, teamwork, morale, and development. Tannenbaum and Schmidt attempted to answer that question by developing a continuum of leader behaviors. According to their research, leadership behaviors range all the way from boss-centered (autocratic) to employee-centered (democratic) to Laissez-faire. Appropriate leadership behavior depends on several variables (see next slide): 1. Forces within the leader, such as comfort level with the chosen leadership style) 2. Forces within the employees (such as readiness to assume responsibility) Forces within the situation (such as time pressures). Tannenbaum and Schmidt proposed that managers should move toward more employee-centered styles in the long run because of the positive influence such behavior would have of the following: the motivation, decision quality, teamwork, morale, and development of employees. Moderating variables: Individual comfort level with a style Employee readiness Time pressure, the "problem" itself

visionary leader

the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation. This vision effectively "jump-starts" the future by calling forth the skills, talents, and resources to make it happen. An organization's vision should offer clear and compelling imagery that taps into members' emotions and inspires enthusiasm to pursue the organization's goals. It should generate possibilities that are inspirational and unique and offer new ways of doing things that are clearly better for the organization and its members. Important here is the ability to articulate the vision in a way with strong imagery so followers can visual personally how their lives will be improved. Often linked with charismatic leadership

equity

the concept of fairness and comparable treatment when compared with others who behave in similar ways. There's considerable evidence that employees compare themselves to others and that inequities influence how much effort they exert.

interactional justice

the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions. We expect to be treated with dignity by our peers, supervisors, and customers. When the opposite happens, we feel angry. Even when faced with negative outcomes such as a pay cut, being treated with dignity and respect serves as a buffer and alleviates our stress.

path-goal theory

the leader's job is to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the goals of the group of organization Robert House Clarify the path between effort and outcome Make the journey easier by providing coaching, guidance, support, and rewards that are NECESSARY for effective performance The leader's behavior must be acceptable in that it should not be redundant or Inconsistent with the characteristics of the subordinates Path-goal theory was first presented in a 1971 Administrative Science Quarterly article by Robert House. Path-goal theory proposes that subordinates' characteristics and characteristics of the work environment determine which leader behaviors will be more effective. Key characteristics of subordinates identified by the theory are locus of control, work experience, ability, and the need for affiliation. Important environmental characteristics named by the theory are the nature of the task, the formal authority system, and the nature of the work group. The theory includes four different leader behaviors, which include directive leadership, supportive leadership, participative leadership, and achievement-oriented leadership. According to the theory, leader behavior should reduce barriers to subordinates' goal attainment, strengthen subordinates' expectancies that improved performance will lead to valued rewards, and provide coaching to make the path to payoffs easier for subordinates. Path-goal theory suggests that the leader behavior that will accomplish these tasks depends upon the subordinate and environmental contingency factors. Path-goal theory has been criticized because it does not consider interactions among the contingency factors and also because of the complexity of its underlying theoretical model, expectancy theory. Empirical research has provided some support for the theory's propositions, primarily as they relate to directive and supportive leader behaviors. theory proposes two situational (or contingency) variables that moderate the leadership behavior-outcome relationship: Those in the environment that are outside the control of the follower (such as task structure, formal authority system, and the work group); and Those that are part of the personal characteristics of the follower (which include locus of control, experience, and perceived ability). Environmental factors determine the type of leadership behavior required to maximize subordinate outcomes. Personal characteristics of the follower determine how to interpret the environment and leadership behavior. For example, some predictions from path-goal theory are that: Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous/confusing or stressful and followers aren't sure what to do. Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when subordinates are performing structured tasks; and Subordinates with an internal locus of control will be more satisfied with a participative style of leadership. Research findings on the path-goal model have been mixed due to the number of variables to examine. However, evidence does show that an employee's performance and satisfaction are likely to be positively influenced when the leader chooses a leadership style that compensates for shortcomings in either the employee or the work setting.

punishment

the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someone's pocket money to punish undesirable behavior. Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

Stage 1: Before Conditioning

the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism. In basic terms this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e. unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been taught. In this respect no new behavior has been learned yet This stage also involves another stimulus which has no affect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

job design

the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs

High levels of effort

unlikely to lead to favorable job performance unless quality of effort is also considered

pay-for-performance programs

variable compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure

job enrichment

vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluation responsibilities

leadership

what leaders do an influence process; therefore, leaders are people who, by their actions, encourage a group of people to move toward a common or shared goal. A leader is an individual; leadership is the function that the individual performs. Individuals within an organization who have authority are often referred to as leaders, regardless of how they act in their jobs. But, just because someone is supposed to be a formal leader in an organization, he or she may or may not exercise leadership. In fact, informal or emergent leaders can exhibit leadership even though they do not hold formal leadership positions. Harvard's John Kotter compares management and leadership. Management, he says, is about dealing with complexity: drawing formal plans, designing organizational structures, and monitoring outcomes. Leadership, in contrast, is about coping with change. Leaders establish direction by developing a vision; then they communicate this vision to people and inspire them to overcome obstacles. Robert House of the Wharton School of Business concurs and says that mangers use formal authority to obtain compliance from organizational members. Management consists of implementing the vision and strategy provided by leaders, coordinating and staffing the organization, and handling day-to-day problems. While both management and leadership promote organizational effectiveness, most companies are over-managed and under-led. A leader is someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority. Leadership is what leaders do—that is, the process of leading a group and influencing that group to achieve its goals. Because leading is one of the four management functions, ideally all managers should be leaders drive, desire to lead, intelligence, honesty and integrity

selectivity

what they perceive is selectively chosen depending on their interests, backgrounds, experiences, and attitudes allows us to "speed read" others but not without the risk of drawing an inaccurate picture

management by walking around (MBWA)

when a manager is out in the work area, interacting directly with employees, and exchanging information about what's going on

distinctiveness

whether an individual displays a behavior in many situations or whether it is particular to one situation If this action is not unique, it will probably be judged as internal.

directive leadership style

will work either in very favorable or very unfavorable situations

importance of teams

work group=individual goals teams=group goals Teams typically outperform individuals when tasks require multiple skills, judgment, and experience. The flexibility and responsiveness of teams is essential in a changing environment (teams can be assembled quickly, focused on specific objectives, then disbanded) Empowered teams increase job satisfaction and morale, and enhance employee involvement and promoting work force diversity. Teams can create positive synergy: collective performance individual and team accountability complementary skills better way to utilize the talents of employees. Also, superior work teams are fundamental to TQM.

cross-functional team

work team composed of individuals from various specialties