Mgt 764 Ch. 5

Equity theory offers managers three message

First, everyone in the organization needs to understand the basis for rewards. If people are to be rewarded more for the quality of work rather than for quantity of work Second, people tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible. Finally, people base their actions on their perceptions of reality. If two people make exactly the same salary but each thinks the other makes more, each will base his or her experience of equity on the perception, not the reality.

4 step process to form perceptions of equity

First, they evaluate how they are being treated by the firm Second, they form a perception of how a "comparison-other" is being treated. The comparison-other might be a person in the same workgroup, someone in another part of the organization, or even a composite of several people scattered throughout the organization. Third, they compare their own circumstances with those of the comparison-other and then use this comparison as the basis for forming an impression of either equity or inequity. Fourth, depending on the strength of this feeling, the person may choose to pursue one or more of the alternatives discussed in the next section.

3 conditions for successful managers with a high need for power

First, they must seek power for the betterment of the organization rather than for their own interests. Second, they must have a fairly low need for affiliation because fulfilling a personal need for power may well alienate others in the workplace. Third, they need plenty of self-control to curb their desire for power when it threatens to interfere with effective organizational or interpersonal relationships.

Equity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an input-to-outcome ratio

Inputs are an individual's contributions to the organization—such factors as education, experience, effort, and loyalty. Outcomes are what the person receives in return—pay, recognition, social relationships, intrinsic rewards, and similar things.

performance results in two kinds of rewards

Intrinsic rewards are intangible—a feeling of accomplishment, a sense of achievement, and so forth. Extrinsic rewards are tangible outcomes such as pay and promotion.

3 task specfic self-efficacy's

Magnitude: beliefs about how difficult a specific task can be accomplished Strength: beliefs about how confident the person is that the specific task can be accomplished Generality: beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be accomplished.

Performance-to-outcome instrumentality (also known as performance-to-outcome expectancy

The individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes If a person thinks a high performer is certain to get a pay raise, this instrumentality is close to 1.0. At the other extreme, a person who believes raises are entirely independent of performance has an instrumentality close to 0.

need for affiliation

The need for human companionship. individuals with a high need tend to want reassurance and approval from others and usually are genuinely concerned about others' feelings. They are likely to act and think as they believe others want them to, especially those with whom they strongly identify and desire friendship.

self-actualization

These involve a person's realizing his or her full potential and becoming all that he or she can be. the hardest to understand and the most difficult to satisfy

To motivate the right behavior, an expert in behavior modification would identify the desired behaviors and then carefully reinforce them. This process involves five steps:Footnote

To motivate the right behavior, an expert in behavior modification would identify the desired behaviors and then carefully reinforce them. This process involves five steps:Footnote

hygiene factors

Are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security The respondents suggested that pay, job security, supervisors, and working conditions, if seen as inadequate, could lead to feelings of dissatisfaction. When these factors were considered acceptable, however, the person still was not necessarily satisfied; rather, he or she was simply not dissatisfied According to the theory, once a state of no dissatisfaction exists, trying to improve motivation further through hygiene factors is a waste of time

Motivation Factors

Are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition. such as achievement, recognition, and the opportunity to plan and control their own work were often cited by people as primary causes of satisfaction and motivation

hierarchy of needs

Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s,

Reinforcement Theory (also known as operant conditioning)

Based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences associated with the work of B. F. Skinner

acquired needs framework

Centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power David McClelland and centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power (these needs are also sometimes referred to as manifest needs) A key differentiating element of this framework is the argument that these needs are acquired, or learned, from cultural, societal, and family influences.

more fundamental guidelines for expectancy theory

Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants. Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals. Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible. Link desired outcomes and desired performance. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies and instrumentalities. Make sure the rewards are large enough. Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.Footnote

Need based theory

assume that need deficiencies cause behavior

human resource approach

assumes that people want to contribute and are able to make genuine contributions. began to emerge in the 1950s, assumes that the contributions themselves are valuable to both individuals and organizations. It assumes that people want to contribute and are able to make genuine contributions.

Process-based perspectives

focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs (regardless of the needs themselves) and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals.

Equity theory

focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity

Why do managers motivate?

getting them to work hard, to come to work regularly, and to make positive contributions to the organization's mission.

A continuous reinforcement schedule

in which the desired behavior is reinforced each time that it occurs.

how to start understanding motivation

look at need deficiencies and goal-directed behaviors

To reach high levels of performance, an employee must want to do the job well (motivation); must be able to do the job effectively (ability); and must have the materials, resources, equipment, and information required to do the job (environment).

motivation is the most difficult to manage.

physiological needs

need for food, sex and air. easiest for most businesses to evaluate and meet.

esteem needs

need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others

Belongingness needs

needs at the third level of Maslow's hierarchy: friendship, closeness with another. primarily social. Examples include the need for love and affection and the need to be accepted by peers

Social learning (or also known as social cognitive theory_

occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result Social learning theory, then, suggests that individual behavior is determined by a person's cognitions and social environment. More specifically, people are presumed to learn behaviors and attitudes at least partly in response to what others expect of them After watching a coworker get in trouble for deviating from the call center script while handling a customer, you decide to always say exactly what the company wants you to when speaking with customers.

frustration-regression component

of ERG theory suggests that a person who is frustrated by trying to satisfy a higher level of needs eventually will regress to the preceding level.Footnote

contemporary learning theory

views learning as a cognitive process; that is, it assumes that people are conscious, active participants in how they learn.

partial reinforcement schedule

which the desired behavior is reinforced only part of the time.

Motivation

the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal From the manager's viewpoint, the objective is to motivate people to behave in ways that are in the organization's best interest.

security needs

things that offer safety and security, such as adequate housing and clothing and freedom from worry and anxiety

Relatedness needs

those involving the need to relate to others—are similar to Maslow's belongingness and esteem needs

Existence needs

those necessary for basic human survival—roughly correspond to the physiological and security needs of Maslow's hierarchy.

Cognitive view of learning

1st - people draw on their experiences and use past learning as a basis for their present behavior 2nd- people make choices about their behavior 3rd - poeple recognize the consequences of their choices 4th- people evaluate those consequences and add them to prior learning, which affects future choices.

Task-specific self-efficacy

A person's beliefs in his or her capabilities to do what is required to accomplish a specific task

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience

The Two Factor Theory of Motivation

A theory that identifies two sets of factors that influence job satisfaction: hygiene factors and motivators

According to expectancy theory, people will not engage in motivated behavior unless three things are true.

(1) value the expected rewards. effort-to-performance expectancy must be well above zero. That is, the worker must reasonably expect that exerting effort will produce high levels of performance. (2) believe their efforts will lead to performance the performance-to-outcome instrumentalities must be well above zero. In other words, the person must believe that performance will realistically result in valued outcomes (3) believe their performance will result in the desired rewards.the sum of all the valences for the potential outcomes relevant to the person must be positive. One or more valences may be negative as long as the positives outweigh the negatives.

six common methods to reduce inequity

1 - change our own inputs. may put more of less effort into the job 2- may change our own outcomes. demand a raise, seek add avenue 3 - more complex response is to alter our perceptions of ourselves and our behavior 4 - we may alter our perception of the comparison-other's inputs or outcomes 5 - we may change the object of comparison. We may conclude, for instance, that the current comparison-other is the boss's personal favorite, is unusually lucky, or has special skills and abilitie 6-as a last resort, we may simply leave the situation

Conditions must be met to produce an appropriate environment for social learning

1, the behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple 2.social learning usually involves observed and imitated behavior that is concrete, not intellectual 3, for social learning to occur, we must possess the physical ability to imitate the behavior observed (Most of us, even if we watch televised baseball games or tennis matches every weekend, cannot hit a fastball like Miguel Cabrera or execute a backhand like Serena Williams.)

ERG Theory

Describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs developed by Yale psychologist Clayton Alderfer.The E, R, and G stand for three basic need categories: existence, relatedness, and growth

There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules

Fixed-ratio: Desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct responses—for example, receiving pay bonuses for every ten error-free pieces made per hour.produce a high, consistent rate of responding with desired behaviors but with fast extinction when the reinforcement stops Fixed-interval: Desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed—for example, receiving weekly paychecks.produce high performance near the end of the interval, but lower performance immediately after the reinforcement occurs. Variable-ratio: Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors—for example, a supervisor praises a call center representative after the third call, then the seventh call after that, and then the fourth call after that.produce a high, steady rate of responding with desired behaviors and the behaviors are difficult to extinguish. Variable-interval: Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed—for example, not knowing when a regional supervisor will visit your location for an inspection.the behavior of the individual does not influence the availability of reinforcement so it has a minimal effect on motivation.

two-factor theory (also called dual-structure theory)

Identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction Frederick Herzberg and his associates developed the two-factor theory in the late 1950s and early 1960s. For example, a person who indicated "low pay" as a source of dissatisfaction would not necessarily identify "high pay" as a source of satisfaction and motivation. Instead, people associated entirely different causes, such as recognition or achievement, with satisfaction and motivation. The findings led Herzberg to conclude that the prevailing thinking about satisfaction and motivation was incorrect.

Types of Reinforcers

Individual behavior can be affected when stimulus is either presented or removed after a particular behavior. This is also dependent on whether the stimulus is positive or negative

human relations approach

Suggests that fostering a sense of employees' inclusion in decision making will result in positive employee attitudes and motivation to work hard

expectancy theory (also VIE Theory)

Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it Victor Vroom is generally credited with first applying the theory to motivation in the workplace.

behavior modification

The application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings One of your subordinates is very inconsiderate and often leaves his empty coffee cups around the office when he is done rather than throwing them out. You start paying attention to when he throws out his trash and comment on how much this is appreciated and keeps the office looking nice.

equity

The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others

Valence

The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person Pay raises, promotions, and recognition might all have positive valences, whereas fatigue, stress, and less time to rest might all have negative valences.

need for achievement

The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past. Individuals who have a high need for achievement tend to set moderately difficult goals and to make moderately risky decisions. High need-achievers also want immediate, specific feedback on their performance Preoccupation with work is another characteristic of high need-achievers. They think about it on their way to the workplace, during lunch, and at home. They find it difficult to put their work aside, and they become frustrated when they must stop working on a partly completed project. they derive a feeling of accomplishment when they have done more work than their peers without the assistance of others.

need for power

The desire to control the resources in one's environment including financial, material, informational, and human resources

Research suggests that the fastest way to get someone to learn is to use continuous reinforcement and reinforce the desired behavior every time it occurs

The downside to this approach is that as soon as the reward is stopped, the desired behavior decreases in frequency (extinction).

Effort-to-performance expectancy

a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance if we believe our effort will lead to higher performance, this expectancy is very strong, perhaps approaching a probability of 1.0, where 1.0 equals absolute certainty that the outcome will occur If we believe our performance will be the same no matter how much effort we make, our expectancy is very low—perhaps as low as 0, meaning that there is no probability that the outcome will occur.

classical conditioning

a simple form of learning in which one stimulus calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus Ivan Pavlov in his famous experiments with dogs. relies on simple cause-and-effect relationships between one stimulus and one response; it cannot deal with the more complex forms of learned behavior that typify human beings Every time the HR representative comes to work dressed in a suit, layoff notices seem to be distributed. You and your colleagues start worrying whenever you see the HR representative dressed up for work.

Porter-Lawler Model

a theory where the relationship between job satisfaction and performance is mediated by work-related rewards

Job performance depends on:

ability and environment as well as motivation. This relationship can be stated as follows: P=MxAxE P=performance M=motivation A=ability E=environment

need

anything an individual requires or wants

outcome

anything that results from performing a particular behavior high-level performance conceivably might produce such outcomes as a pay raise, a promotion, recognition from the boss, fatigue, stress, or less time to rest, among others.

growth needs

are analogous to Maslow's needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.

Scientific Management

developed by Fredrick Taylor. approach to motivation that assumes that employees are motivated by money

4 types of reinforcers

positive reinforcement-involves the use of rewards to increase the likelihood that a desired behavior—high performance, for instance—will be repeated. Negative reinforcement is based on the removal of current or future unpleasant consequences to increase the likelihood that someone will repeat a behavior. In other words, avoidance or removal of something undesirable can be motivating. Every time the new machine is turned on it beeps loudly until the operator runs a full safety check on it. After the safety check is complete, the beeping stops. Punishment is the application of negative outcomes to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. For example, a manager might reduce the work hours of low-performing employees. extinction involves the removal of other reinforcement (positive or negative) following the incidence of the behavior to be extinguished to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. Your colleague likes to tell inappropriate jokes before meetings and this makes you and the rest of your team uncomfortable. You and your teammates start ignoring the comments instead of smiling politely when the jokes are told to help eliminate the behavior.

satisfaction-progression concept

suggests that after satisfying one category of needs, a person progresses to the next level. On this point, the need hierarchy and ERG theory agree. The need hierarchy, however, assumes that the individual remains at the next level until the needs at that level are satisfied.