mgt110 6,7,8,9

Goal Setting and Behavior Modification

SMART Goals Reinforcement theory and Behavior Modification

Vroom's expectancy theory

effort -> performance -> outcomes When Albert Einstein was asked how he would save the world in one hour, he replied that the first 55 minutes should be spent defining the problem and the last five minutes solving it. Einstein's point is that problem identification is not just the first step in decision making; it is arguably the most important step. But problems and opportunities are not clearly labeled objects that appear on our desks. Instead, they are conclusions that we form from ambiguous and conflicting information. Opportunity exists when decision makers discover that some choices may produce better results than current goals or expectations.

Servant Leadership

"The servant-leader is servant first...It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. That person is sharply different from one who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions." Robert Greenleaf Servant leadership dates back to the 1970s when Robert Greenleaf was inspired about leadership while reading Herman Hesse's Journey to the East. In this novel, a group of men undertake a long journey. A servant named Leo sings to them and inspires them while doing his tasks. Leo disappears along the way, and the group falls into chaos and cannot complete their journey. The basic idea is that followers are first rather than leaders.

Job performance consists of two major components Task performance

Core substantive or technical tasks essential to the job Before we discuss the details of the performance management process, it's important to understand the nature of performance itself. In fact, when asked "what is it that managers manage?" the short answer is simply job performance.

Leading Others Leadership behaviors Critique of behavioral approaches

Critique of behavioral approaches This research gave us a starting point Although this information is useful, it does not tell us what behaviors to engage in at different times in different contexts when dealing with different individuals. Next, we go over different approaches to understanding leadership that help us to shed light on these questions. It appears that what matters is behavioral flexibility and knowing when to engage in the right behavior at the right time. Ability to switch leadership behaviors when needed is highlighted in the contingency approaches to leadership

3 critical job attitudes

Job Satisfaction Organizational Commitment Organizational Cynicism

4 Dimensions of Authentic Leadership

4 Dimensions of Authentic Leadership Self-awareness - Seeks feedback to improve interaction with others Relational transparency - Says exactly what he or she means Internalized moral perspective - Demonstrates beliefs that are consistent with actions Balanced processing - Solicits views that challenge his or her deeply held positions.

Job Satisfaction: How someone feels about his or her job

Can be a global assessment or about specific facets (e.g., pay, coworkers, etc.) of one's job Associated with turnover, performance, and customer satisfaction/loyalty.

Goal Setting Why does goal setting work?

Goal setting improves performance in two ways: By amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort and By giving employees clearer role perceptions so their effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work performance.

Job Characteristics Model Core job characteristics

Skill variety: Use of different skills and talents to complete a variety of work activities Task identity: Degree to which job requires completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work Task significance: Degree to which the job affects the organization and/or larger society. Autonomy: Degree of freedom, independence, and discretion in determining how to complete work Job feedback: Degree to which employees can tell how well they are doing

Performance Management Providing Effective Feedback Critical elements of effective feedback

Be specific: Use direct examples of behavior/performance Focus on the problem rather than the person: Avoid personalizing negative feedback Maximize absolute feedback; minimize relative feedback: Focus on whether employee is meeting her performance goals, not how she's doing compared to others Avoid absolutes: Don't say always or never (you probably don't see all of their performance) Be timely: Provide feedback close in time to actual behavior Focus on the future: Focus on solutions and how to improve

6 Transformational Behaviors Providing intellectual stimulation.

Behavior on the part of the leader that challenges followers to reexamine assumptions about their work and rethink how it can be performed. Don't accept "that's the way we've always done it," or "that's not my job" Make it safe for others to experiment; encourage new ideas; honor risk takers

Dependence and Networks

Dependence The extent to which we are reliant on others for what we need. Dependence leads people to do things they may not otherwise do E.g., "Anne controls my raises, so I will pay close attention to what she says." Power is based on dependence. Understanding relational dependencies is key to understanding your own power and the power of others.

Leading Others Are we born leaders?

Leadership is multidimensional It involves personal characteristics and learned behaviors. Leadership can be learned As far as personal characteristics, we need to understand the personal traits of importance, become more self aware, and put ourselves in positions where we're likely to be successful. As far as behaviors, we need to learn and practice behaviors that lead to positive transactions and transform people to go above expectations.

Job performance consists of two major components

Task performance Contextual performance Before we discuss the details of the performance management process, it's important to understand the nature of performance itself. In fact, when asked "what is it that managers manage?" the short answer is simply job performance.

The Role of Transactional Leadership Behaviors

The Role of Transactional Leadership Behaviors Transactional behaviors play an important role in effective leadership in at least three ways: Establish credibility, trust, and respect for one's manager. When a manager makes a promise and keeps it, the employee learns to trust his/her manager. They build a foundation upon which other effective behaviors are built (i.e., once trust is built, employees can take more risk as they better understand what is acceptable and the consequences). Establish fairness in the workplace. E.g., When expectations are not met, addressing the problem quickly and fairly is vital to establishing and maintaining a sense of fairness.

Power and Influence

Power Ability to exert influence to control others or events, and the capacity to defend against the influence of others. Who has power in organizations? What are the sources of power? What specific tactics yield the most influence? How can we influence people when we lack formal authority?

Job Characteristics Model

Suggests that core job characteristics impact important work outcomes through critical psychological states.

Transactional Leadership

Transactional Leadership Behaviors that motivate followers and promote compliance through rewards and corrections Unlike transformational leaders, transactional leaders are generally not trying to change the future (simply seeking status quo) They are concerned about the status quo and day-to-day progress toward goals. Leaders don't spend all or most of their time transforming the organization or work unit. They also engage in transactional leadership - focusing on daily activities that support and guide the performance and well-being of individual employees and the work unit toward current objectives and practices. Transformational leaders work to enhance the motivation and engagement of followers by directing their behavior toward a shared vision.

Contingencies of reinforcement

(tends to work best)Positive reinforcement: When a behavior is linked to a consequence the employee considers pleasant (e.g., praise will likely increase the behavior). Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence as a response to a person's behavior (e.g., being demoted). Extinction: Behavior followed by no response (e.g., performance tends to decline when our managers stop congratulating us for good work). Negative reinforcement: Removing an aversive consequence (e.g., you can stop doing your least favorite work activity if you increase sales by 20%) In most situations, Positive reinforcement should follow desired behaviors, and extinction (do nothing) should follow undesirable behaviors. Positive reinforcement is preferred because it leverages the power of positive organizational behavior; focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-being. In contrast, punishment and negative reinforcement generate negative emotions and attitudes toward the punisher and organization. However, punishment (e.g., dismissal, suspension, demotion, etc.) may be necessary for extreme behaviors, such as deliberately hurting a coworker or stealing inventory. Indeed, research suggests that under some conditions, punishment maintains a sense of fairness among those affected by or are aware of the employee's indiscretion. The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks is continuous reinforcement - providing positive reinforcement after every occurrence of desired behavior. Aside from learning, the best schedule for motivating people is a variable ratio schedule in which employee behavior is reinforced after a variable number of times. Salespeople experience variable ratio reinforcement because they make a successful sale (the reinforcer) after varying number of client calls. The variable ratio schedule makes behavior highly resistant to extinction because the reinforcer is never expected at a particular time or after a fixed number of accomplishments.

Social Influence Weapons 6 Social Influence Weapons

6 Social Influence Weapons Friendship/Liking Commitment and Consistency Scarcity Reciprocity Social Proof Appeals to Authority To better understand how people are able to influence without authority, the work of Robert Cialdini is considered to be "state of the art." Cialdini has summarized more than 50 years of research to better understand the basic principles of influence. And the best news is that these principles can be taught, learned, and applied. Cialdini's six principles include those listed above.

6 Transformational Behaviors Articulating a vision

6 Transformational Behaviors Articulating a vision Behavior that allows the leader to identify new opportunities for his or her group and talk positively about what that means for them. Vision should be in alignment from front-line supervisors to CEO 40% of employees in a study of 1,062 participants stated that they don't understand their company's vision or have never seen it. A vision statement is forward looking and creates a mental image of the ideal future state that the organization wishes to achieve. It is inspirational and aspirational, and should challenge employees. Questions to consider when drafting vision statements might include: What problem are we seeking to solve? Where are we headed? If we achieved all strategic goals, what would we look like 10 years from now? Involves identifying new opportunities for his or her unit and developing, articulating and inspiring others with his or her vision of the future.

6 Transformational Behaviors

6 Transformational Behaviors Articulating a vision Providing an appropriate model Fostering the acceptance of group goals Communicating high-performance expectations Providing individualized support Providing intellectual stimulation

7 Dimensions of Servant Leadership

7 Dimensions of Servant Leadership Emotional healing Creating value for the community Conceptual skills (i.e., work with abstract concepts) Empowering Helping subordinates grow and succeed Putting subordinates first Behaving ethically Servant leaders facilitate team confidence, affirming the strength and potential of the team and providing developmental support. This developmental support is also characteristic of humble leadership, where a leader's humility allows them to show followers how to grow as a result of work. This leads followers to believe that their own developmental journeys are legitimate in the workplace.

Behavior modification (reinforcement theory)

A theory that explains employee behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior. People tend to engage in behavior that gets rewarded and avoid behavior that gets punished. For most of the first half of the 1900s, the dominant paradigm about managing individual behavior was behaviorism, which argues that a good theory should rely exclusively on behavior and the environment and ignore nonobservable cognitions and emotions. Although behaviorists didn't deny the existence of human thoughts and attitudes, they are unobservable and, therefore, irrelevant to scientific study. A variation of this paradigm, called organizational behavior modification (OB MOD), eventually entered organizational studies of motivation and learning. We can change behavior by managing its antecedents and consequences.

Dependence and Networks Network

A web of social relationships and interactions. Much of culture and nature is structured as networks - from brains (e.g., neural networks) and organisms (e.g., circulatory systems) to organizations (e.g., who reports to whom) Network position determines the constraints and opportunities Understanding relational dependencies is key to understanding your own power Brass defines network as a set of notes (actors) and ties representing some relationship, or lack of relationship, between the nodes. To be effective in your use of power and influence, it is important for you to understand patterns of dependence in an organization. It can also help you to understand and navigate an organization's political landscape.

Organizational Commitment: An attitude representing the extent to which an employee identifies with the organization and desires to remain a member.

Affective commitment: An emotional attachment to the organization Normative commitment: Feeling of obligation to stay with the organization Continuance commitment: A desire to stay because the costs of leaving outweigh the benefits Organizational commitment is related to absenteeism, turnover, and performance. Continuance commitment is less about commitment and more about a feeling of being handcuffed to the organization. Not surprisingly then, research shows that individuals who possess higher continuance commitment are less likely to quit but more likely to be be lower performers. That is, when people feel like they have no other choice than to remain with the organization, their performance suffers.

Job performance consists of two major components Contextual performance

Also called organizational citizenship behaviors Behaviors that contribute to org. effectiveness but are not formally required in the employee's core tasks

Dependence and Networks How can we diagnose interdependence?

Ask the following questions: Whose cooperation will I need to accomplish what I am attempting? Whose support will be necessary to get the appropriate decisions made and implemented? Whose opposition could delay or derail what I'm trying to do? Who will be impacted by what I am trying to accomplish? More specifically, will anything change regarding (a) their power or status, (b) how they are evaluated or rewarded, or (c) how they do their job? Who are the friends and allies of the people I have identified as influential?

Job Attitudes

Attitudes Appraisals or evaluations of people, objects, or events. Play a key role in withdrawal behaviors (e.g., absence, tardiness, turnover) Attitude data typically collected anonymously, often by a third party

Authentic Leadership

Authentic Leadership Involves knowing oneself and behaving in a way that is consistent with what is intuitively right. Authentic leaders are most effective when they develop an effective vision that relates to the shared interests of their team. Servant leadership dates back to the 1970s when Robert Greenleaf was inspired about leadership while reading Herman Hesse's Journey to the East. In this novel, a group of men undertake a long journey. A servant named Leo sings to them and inspires them while doing his tasks. Leo disappears along the way, and the group falls into chaos and cannot complete their journey. The basic idea is that followers are first rather than leaders.

Authority vs. Influence

Authority The type of power a person possesses due to his position. E.g., A supervisor has the authority to discipline subordinates. Influence The capacity to impact another person through their behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions. A means by which managers gain and exercise power How do you attempt to influence others (e.g., by being charismatic, a trusted expert, etc.)? Authority is one type of power. Not to be confused with influence, which is the act of exerting power over others.

6 Transformational Behaviors Fostering the acceptance of group goals

Behavior aimed at promoting cooperation among employees and getting them to work together toward a common goal Set a goal that requires people to cooperate Make sure that the goal is SMART Encourage people to work together by moving them closer together and encouraging informal contact (e.g., group lunches, after-work gatherings, etc.) Continually remind people that everyone is "in it together" and that success depends on the group. The most common example of this behavior is the setting of a superordinate goal. These are achievable only when all group members exert effort; individual effort will not result in goal achievement. Group goals provide a sense of purpose, a rallying point, and common objectives

6 Transformational Behaviors Communicating high-performance expectations

Behavior that demonstrates the leader's expectations for excellence, quality, and high performance on the part of the followers. Set high standards Communicate them and your confidence in their ability to achieve them Let people know you are there to help them (provide resources) to meet goals Encourage workers to seek you out for help Based on the self-fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effect We form certain expectations of people We communicate those expectations through behavioral cues People tend to respond to these behavioral cues by adjusting their behavior to match them The result is that the original expectation comes true

6 Transformational Behaviors Providing an appropriate model

Behavior that sets an example for employees to follow that is consistent with the values the leader espouses. Be clear about your expectations of others Hold yourself to the same standards and expectations to which you hold others Be consistent in your display of the desired behavior Remember that even small indiscretions have major consequences (e.g., driving cost savings initiatives while staying at 5-star hotels) Perform desirable behaviors where they can be observed as well Role modeling sets an environmental cue in the mind of a person that this behavior is important and should be emulated. Do what you said you'll do.

Organizational Cynicism: An attitude resulting from a critical appraisal of the motives, actions, and values of one's organization

Belief that the organization lacks integrity Negative affect toward the organization Tendencies disparaging and critical behaviors toward the organization that are consistent with these beliefs and affect. Deal with the past (admit mistakes), involve cynics in change efforts, don't make future promises you can't keep, over-communicate, involve cynical converts. An attitude of contempt, frustration, and distrust toward something "an attitude resulting from a critical appraisal of the motives, actions, and values of one's employing organization.

Leading Others Leadership behaviors Breakdown of leadership behaviors

Breakdown of leadership behaviors Initiating structure: 3 task oriented behavior directed toward the accomplishment of shared objectives Enhancing understanding Strengthening motivation Facilitating implementation (i.e., helping subordinates put their plans into action) Consideration: 3 relation-oriented behaviors that support the coordinated engagement of team members Fostering coordination Promoting cooperation Activating resources Great leadership is more about what one does than who one is. The basic "doing" of effective leadership involves two primary behaviors A Meta0analytic review of over 150 studies found that both consideration and initiating structure have moderately strong relationships with outcomes. Consideration was more strongly related to follower satisfaction (with the leader and job), motivation, and leader effectiveness. Initiating structure was slightly more strongly related to leader job and group performance.

What if we have to punish? 4 Characteristics of Effective Punishment

Clear expectations: Employees know what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior) Consistent: Any time someone violates a certain rule, they are punished (regardless of who it is) Timely: Immediate feedback Powerful: Punishment is sufficiently jarring.

Performance Management Using Multiple Sources of Data or People 360 Degree Feedback

Collect data from peers, subordinates, supervisors, customers, and the focal employee. Give weight to each source based on their ability to observe focal person's performance Consider any biases they may have e.g., Halo Effect, Leniency/Severity, Central Tendency, Recency/Primacy, Similarity/Contrast

Performance Management Providing Effective Feedback Principles of good feedback

Compliment Sandwich: Family Guy Go through objectives one by one, not in order of met or not met

Norms and Conformity Conformity

Conformity The tendency to believe, behave, and perceive in ways that are consistent with group norms. Enables us to feel like we fit in and to feel comfortable Conformity in action: In an experimental condition, individuals were asked say which line was the same length as another line displayed. All but one person were actors The unwitting participants conformed to the groups response in 32% of trials and 74% conformed at least once. In another study by Solomon Asch, several people were seated around a table and all but one were actually in on the experiment. The group was shown a display of vertical lines of different lengths, and each participant was asked to say which line was the same length as another displayed line. One after another, the confederate participants chose the same (but wrong) line as that which was identical in length to the other displayed line. The only real participant sat in the next to last seat, and in repeated trials of the experiment, the real participants frequently picked the same incorrect line as the confederates, even though it was clearly wrong. In fact, the unwitting participants conformed to the groups response in 32% of trials and 74% conformed at least once.

Job Performance Task Performance

Effectiveness The results an employee achieves Efficiency The amount of resources dedicated to attain the results Managers must deal with the inherent tension in balancing these two aspects of task performance Typically, managers are concerned with how effective and efficient employees are in accomplishing their critical job tasks.

Human need theories

Equity theory McClelland's Model of Learned Needs

Performance Management Observing and Assessing Performance

Evaluation plays a critical role in improving and sustaining employee performance Both employees and managers often dislike performance evaluations Employees typically don't have enough feedback to know how they're doing Managers don't usually like giving negative feedback Uncertainty and unwillingness regarding feedback causes undue stress Establish a mutual performance contract to stipulate performance expectations (e.g., performance appraisal system). It should cover: Critical job tasks Performance goals Professional conduct Developmental goals

The Sources of Power and Influence Bases of Power

French and Raven's model of the five power bases Most widely known and accepted classification of power. Types of power: Reward: Ability to provide others with rewards they desire in exchange for work you need accomplished. Legitimate (authority): Power that is inherent in one's position (e.g., police offer) Power is derived from the position, not the person. Not necessarily under your control. Referent: Stems from another person either admiring you or wanting to be like you. Power is derived from the person, not the position. Can be increased by building, trust, respect, charisma, etc. Expert: Derived from possessing knowledge or skills that others require. Coercive: The power to force someone to do something against their will. Often involves verbal or physical threats (e.g., bullies, dictators). Using this often reduces referent power. The most widely known and accepted classification of power is French and Raven's model of the five power bases, first introduced more than 40 years ago.

Leading Others Personal Characteristics of Leaders Great Man theory (A.K.A. the trait approach)

Great Man theory (A.K.A. the trait approach) Early approach to leadership (early 1900's) Based on the premise that leaders were both more capable and possessed a different set of personality traits than followers Idea that leaders are born, not made Interestingly, this approach was popularized by Sir Francis Galton, Charles Darwin's cousin. Today, this approach remains quite popular in main stream media. However ,evidence shows that the association between traits and leadership effectiveness is quite weak. Further, there is no magic set of traits that everyone must have.

McClelland's Model of Learned Needs Need profiles and Leadership

High need for achievement tends to be associated with good leadership Although such leaders have a tendency to demand too much High need for power can produce strong work ethic but these individuals might lack flexibility and people-centered skills High need for affiliation can be problematic for managers In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that an individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power. David C. McClelland found that people would do well to learn the predominant needs in themselves and in others in order to find those roles and situations where success is most likely.10 McClelland focused specifically on three needs or motives: achievement, affiliation, and power. Although we all have these needs, McClelland noted that people tend to have one need that is most dominant. We can use McClelland's simple framework to provide some structure around the questions of "What do I need from work?" and "What motivates others?" Whether the focus is on you or others, the three basic needs remain the same: the need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power (Figure 6.4).

Power and Influence Myths

It is inherently corrupt Rationality is the best way to influence It is a zero sum game Comes solely from your position Skip 5:14 to 6:53 Philip ZimbardoZimbardo in 2017 BornPhilip George ZimbardoMarch 23, 1933 (age 85)New York City, New York, U.S.NationalityAmericanAlma materBrooklyn CollegeYale UniversityKnown forStanford prison experimentThe Time paradoxThe Lucifer EffectAbu Ghraib analysistime perspective therapysocial intensity syndromeSpouse(s)Christina MaslachPhilip George Zimbardo (/zɪmˈbɑːrdoʊ/; born March 23, 1933) is an American psychologist and a professor emeritus at Stanford University.[1] He became known for his 1971 Stanford prison experiment and has since authored various introductory psychology books, textbooks for college students, and other notable works, including The Lucifer Effect, The Time Paradox and The Time Cure. He is also the founder and president of the Heroic Imagination Project.[2]

Motivation

Motivation: Refers to the forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior. Motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of effort (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction). Performance = F(Motivation X Ability X Opportunity) Motivation comes form the Latin word for movement (movere). It has been defined as what a person does (direction), how hard a person works (intensity), and how long a person works (persistence).

Norms and Conformity Norms

Norms Code of conduct about what constitutes acceptable behavior Some are strictly adhered to while others permit a wide range of behavior. Sanctions (e.g., disapproval from the group) are usually applied in the case of deviations from the norm. Norms are frequently associated with clothing, language (cursing), openness in expressing feelings, promptness, challenging leaders, volunteering, avoiding conflict, etc. Another subtle but very powerful form of influence is found in behavioral norms. Want to know what it feels like to break a norm? Next time you're in an elevator with only one other person, stand next to them (don't actually do this)

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors Contextual Performance

OCBs are strongly related to increased performance, productivity, and profitability. They include: Volunteering to work on a project that is not part of one's job Helping a co-worker learn a new task Following organizational rules and procedures

Expectancy theory

One of the most influential approaches to motivation in the 20th century Based on three principles: Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to desired performance level Instrumentality: Belief that a given performance level will lead to a specific outcome Valence: Value placed on that future outcome Valence-instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) theory was one of the most influential approaches to motivation in the 20th century. A review of research on expectancy theory noted the following: "Expectancy theory has become a standard in motivation, as reflected by its incorporation as a general framework for a wide variety of research." The expectancy theory of motivation has received mixed research support but does provide insight into the process of motivation. It is because of the multidimensional and complex nature of motivation that an organizing theory is so important in framing and diagnosing motivational situations. The best available theory of motivation for this type of practical diagnosis is expectancy theory. (See Figure 6.1.) Expectancy theory serves as both our starting point for diagnosing and framing motivational challenges and our structure for integrating a variety of other motivational models and concepts. Expectancy theory is based on three specific employee beliefs: • Expectancy • Instrumentality • Valence Based on three principles: Employees decide to put forth effort when they believe that their effort will lead to good performance. (E -> P expectancy) Employee's performance will be evaluated accurately and will lead to rewards (e.g., pay raises, bonuses) (P -> O instrumentality) Employees value the rewards offered by the organization (valence)

Social Influence Weapons

One of the most potent forms of political skill behavior involves methods for influencing without direct authority - a concept known as social influence. When used appropriately, social influence can help an individual achieve positive and ethical outcomes in organizations. In the following slides, I describe the most important social influence behaviors.

Performance Management Myths

People are naturally good observers of behavior It is mostly common sense Feedback is always effective It is only for low performers It's HR's responsibility

Closing thoughts on equity theory

Perceptions are important. Two people may perceive the same thing differently Managers should frequently gauge employee perceptions of equity Treating people equitably does not meet treating them equally (rewards should not be distributed based on performance). Remember that... Perceptions are important... two people may perceive the same thing differently Managers should frequently gauge employee perceptions of equity Treating people equitably does not mean treating them equally.

Performance Management Managing Perceptions of Fairness in Performance Management

Perceptions of fairness are significantly related to satisfaction with the performance evaluation: Procedural justice: Use a clearly defined and transparent process. Seek your employees input and agreement Interactional justice: Treat employees with respect and dignity (practice empathy) Distributive justice: Allocate resources based on contributions (unless unionized)

Performance Management Setting expectations

Performance expectations and your employees' actual performance should never be unclear or a surprise Establish a mutual performance contract (e.g., performance appraisal system) that covers: Critical job tasks Performance goals Professional conduct Developmental goals Establish a mutual performance contract to stipulate performance expectations (e.g., performance appraisal system). It should cover: Critical job tasks Performance goals Professional conduct Developmental goals

Performance Management Defining Job Performance Criteria: Behavior and Results

Performance should be appraised based on results and behavior Define effective behaviors and desirable results Looking at results alone may hide important behaviors (e.g., stealing a coworkers' clients) Try to avoid looking at personality or other personal characteristics E.g., dependability is vague, days absent or late is an objective criteria Establish a mutual performance contract to stipulate performance expectations (e.g., performance appraisal system). It should cover: Critical job tasks Performance goals Professional conduct Developmental goals

Performance Management:

Process of evaluating the quality of your employees' work and discussing your assessment with them. Answers to main questions What is expected of me? How well am I meeting those expectations? Purpose: Tells your employee how she can meet her goals and help you understand what she needs Both the recipient and the reviewer then have the chance to discuss opportunities for growth, strategize how to correct course if problems exist, and collaborate on new yearly targets so the employee can move forward in her job and career.

6 Transformational Behaviors Providing individualized support

Providing individualized support Behavior that indicates the leader respects followers and is concerned about their personal feelings and needs. Work to build positive relationships with others so they feel comfortable coming to you Determine how much support and what type of support each person needs Do your best to show you care about your employees Research shows that providing individualized support can actually serve as a major buffer to employee stress and burnout. IT is also associated with organizational citizenship behaviors, increased job satisfaction, enhanced organizational commitment, and improved job performance.

Organizational Cynicism leads to:

Reduced OCBs, commitment, satisfaction, motivation Increased turnover Often toxic to others Deal with the past (admit mistakes), involve cynics in change efforts, don't make future promises you can't keep, over-communicate, involve cynical converts. An attitude of contempt, frustration, and distrust toward something

Leading Others Personal Characteristics of Leaders Research:

Research: Although these traits influence others' perceptions of who would be a good leader, there is no magic combination of traits that make an excellent leader. In fact, those exhibiting these traits are not noticeably better at leadership than those who don't possess them. What matters then, is leader behaviors, not necessarily traits. People who possess certain traits may be more likely to be perceived as a leaders by others, but these people are no more likely to be effective in a managerial role. Possession of these traits, however, seems to be linked to who will ultimately attain a managerial role and who will not.

Leading Others Personal Characteristics of Leaders Research:

Research: The relationship between traits and leader effectiveness is weak The relationships between traits and leader emergence is stronger Leader emergence = Traits that impact others' perceptions of leaders People who possess certain traits may be more likely to be perceived as a leaders by others, but these people are no more likely to be effective in a managerial role. Possession of these traits, however, seems to be linked to who will ultimately attain a managerial role and who will not.

Influencing Without Authority Outcomes of influence techniques

Resistance The influence target is opposed to carrying out requests and will resist accomplishing what is being requested. Compliance The target is willing to do what the influencer asks, but is not enthusiastic about it. Compliance is characterized by doing only that which is required by a request - and nothing more. Commitment The target agrees with a request or decision from the agent and strives to carry out the request or implement the decision with energy and engagement (goes above and beyond). The relative effectiveness of tactics can be defined as the reaction of the influence target in one of three ways: resistance, compliance, or commitment.

Goal Setting Good goals are SMART:

Specific: State what needs to be accomplished & how, where, when, and with whom. Measurable: How much (quantity), how well (quality), and at what cost Achievable: Sufficiently, but not overly challenging. Relevant: Relevant to the job and within individual's control Timely: Goals need a due date.

Performance Management Providing Effective Feedback Basic feedback process

State the behavior you observed Describe the impact on self or others Provide information for improvement or explore improvement with the employee Example of bad feedback: Your presentation of the data was disorganized. Example of good feedback: Using charts with a different format from the rest of the team can create confusion when interpreting the data. Instead, focus on setting up your proposal using our standard template (then explain template).

Dependence and Networks The Strength of Weak Ties

Strong ties (friends): Time, emotional intensity, intimacy, and reciprocal services Weak ties (acquaintances): Known indirectly (friends of friends) Our strong ties are likely to be connected, our weak ties are not. Weak ties tend to bridge many different unconnected cliques and provide non-redundant information. Is it better to have strong or weak ties? Both are beneficial, but people tend to get new jobs more through weak ties The strength of a tie is a combination of the amount of time, emotional intensity, intimacy (mutual confiding), and reciprocation of services that characterize the relationship.

McClelland's Model of Learned Needs

Suggests that individuals are motivated by the following needs (with one being dominant): Need for achievement Thrive on pursuing and attaining goals Need for power Like to have control over others Need for affiliation Desire friendly and close relationships In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that an individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power. David C. McClelland found that people would do well to learn the predominant needs in themselves and in others in order to find those roles and situations where success is most likely.10 McClelland focused specifically on three needs or motives: achievement, affiliation, and power. Although we all have these needs, McClelland noted that people tend to have one need that is most dominant. We can use McClelland's simple framework to provide some structure around the questions of "What do I need from work?" and "What motivates others?" Whether the focus is on you or others, the three basic needs remain the same: the need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power (Figure 6.4).

The Performance Management Cycle

The essential elements of performance management can be concisely framed in a simple diagram of the performance management cycle. Generally stated, the primary role of a manager is to establish expectations, assess performance, and provide feedback and development. Primary role of a manager Set clear expectations Assess performance Provide feedback

Dependence and Networks Social Capital

The idea that one's social contacts convey benefits that create opportunities for competitive success for individuals and for the groups in which they are members High centrality tends to bring about social capital. For example: Having a high number (degree) of ties Closeness in ties (# of links it takes to reach everyone else in a network) Betweenness, the extent to which an individual falls between any other two individuals in a network (structural holes) Centrality brings about power (Burkhardt & Brass, 1990)

Performance Management Ensuring goal commitment

The mutual contract discussion is the perfect time to start enhancing commitment to goals: Make it public: Helps hold the employee accountable Be supportive: Express confidence that employee can accomplish goal Tie to vision/mission: Goals become meaningful when clearly relevant to org. mission Set goals, not actions: Helps increase autonomy Track progress and give feedback: Feedback allows employees to know how they're doing and what good performance looks like Ensure resources: Gives employees a sense that they have what they need to accomplish goal Remove obstacles: Advocate for employee and remove unnecessary barriers to success. Establish a mutual performance contract to stipulate performance expectations (e.g., performance appraisal system). It should cover: Critical job tasks Performance goals Professional conduct Developmental goals

Goal Setting

The process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives. Specific, difficult but attainable goals lead to higher performance than do no goals or "do your best" goals

Leading Others Leadership Approaches Transformational leadership

Transformational leadership A leadership perspective that explains how leaders change teams or organizations by creating, communicating, and modeling a vision for the organization or work unit and inspiring employees to strive for that vision. When leaders engage in transformational leadership behaviors, employees are: More satisfied More optimistic about the future Less likely to leave their jobs More likely to trust their leader By far the most popular leadership approach today Leaders viewed as change agents; essentially it refers to a set of behaviors that leads people through a change process

Two Most Effective Transactional Leadership Behaviors

Two Most Effective Transactional Leadership Behaviors Management-by-exception: Identifies work errors and takes corrective action. Contingent reward: Promising or delivering rewards to followers contingent on their performance (i.e., rewarding employees for doing a good job). These behaviors help to clarify exactly what is wanted and what behavior is desired or not desired by the manager.

Leading Others Leadership behaviors Two categories of leaders behaviors

Two categories of leaders behaviors Study at Ohio State in late 1950s Researchers asked followers to describe what their leaders did and created a list of over 1,000 leader behaviors that were ultimately categorized into: Initiating structure: Refers to defining tasks for employees and focusing on goals i.e., behaviors focused on the task at hand. Consideration: is the degree to which the leaders shows trust, respect, and sensitivity to employees' feelings i.e., behaviors focused on the relationship between leaders and follower. Great leadership is more about what one does than who one is. The basic "doing" of effective leadership involves two primary behaviors A Meta0analytic review of over 150 studies found that both consideration and initiating structure have moderately strong relationships with outcomes. Consideration was more strongly related to follower satisfaction (with the leader and job), motivation, and leader effectiveness. Initiating structure was slightly more strongly related to leader job and group performance.

Leading Others Leadership Approaches Two main approaches

Two main approaches Transformational leadership Transactional leadership

Two theories of leadership that emphasize morality

Two theories of leadership that emphasize morality Servant Leadership Authentic Leadership Servant leadership dates back to the 1970s when Robert Greenleaf was inspired about leadership while reading Herman Hesse's Journey to the East. In this novel, a group of men undertake a long journey. A servant named Leo sings to them and inspires them while doing his tasks. Leo disappears along the way, and the group falls into chaos and cannot complete their journey. The basic idea is that followers are first rather than leaders.

Performance Management Using Multiple Methods to Assess Behavior and Results

Use different types of assessments Objective assessment includes methods based on results or impartial performance outcomes (e.g., sales) Subjective assessment includes methods that involve human judgement of performance. Absolute subjective assessment: Involves comparing an employee's performance to that of a "model" described in a performance statement (e.g., BARS) Relative subjective assessment: Compares an employee's performance with another employee's performance (e.g., Ranking & Forced Distribution) Establish a mutual performance contract to stipulate performance expectations (e.g., performance appraisal system). It should cover: Critical job tasks Performance goals Professional conduct Developmental goals

Limitations of behavior modification Views behavior as learned only through personal interaction with the environment.

View is no longer accepted Experts recognize that people also learn and are motivated by observing others and inferring possible consequences of their action. Human thoughts and attitudes outside of consequences impact behavior

Influencing Without Authority Frequency and effectiveness of different influence tactics

What are the most common influence techniques? Rational persuasion: Using logical arguments to persuade Pressure: Using demands or threats Personal appeal: Appealing to someone's loyalty or friendship Exchange: Offering an exchange of favors Ingratiation: Using praise or flattery Coalition: Seeking the help of other people to get someone to do something Legitimizing: Establishing the legitimacy of a request by showing that it is consistent with norms Consultation: Seeking participation from a person whose buy-in you will need Inspirational appeal: Arousing enthusiasm by appealing to values, ideals, and aspirations Thus far, we have focused on understanding what power and influence are, where they come from, and how to develop then. The applied managerial skill, however, is how to use influence to get real and positive things accomplished through others, particularly in those cases where you have no legitimate power from your position. In short, how do we influence people without authority?

Influencing Without Authority Frequency and effectiveness of different influence tactics What are the most effective influence techniques?

What are the most effective influence techniques? Personal appeal: Appealing to someone's loyalty or friendship Consultation: Seeking participation from a person whose buy-in you will need Inspirational appeal: Arousing enthusiasm by appealing to values, ideals, and aspirations Rational persuasion, pressure, ingratiation, and coalition are all linked most frequently to resistance Note the disconnect to the most frequently (i.e., rational persuasion & pressure) and the most effective. Most people are heavily persuaded by emotional appeals for at least two reasons. First, emotional appeals establish a sense of urgency and help bring people together. Second, it is generally believed that thoughts emotions are closely interrelated, and sometimes they may be in conflict. . When there is a strong relationship between rational and emotional components, impacting the emotions will usually bring the rational elements into line (people convince themselves that something is a good idea and then justify it with data). If, however, thoughts and emotions are not in full agreement, appealing only to rational issues leaves the possibility open that people will reject the change based on an emotional objection. - something which cannot easily be overcome by data.

Leading Others What is leadership?

What is leadership? Process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives. Effective leadership is one of the best sources of sustainable competitive advantage Leadership is a subset of effective management Not all leaders are managers, but effective managers are leaders Churchill's definition: "Leadership is taking people in a direction they would not otherwise go."

When is Transactional Leadership appropriate?

When is Transactional Leadership appropriate? There are times when a manager must use this approach. For example: If they have a low-performing employee, a leader may need to employee the management-by-exception approach Effective in crisis and emergency situations However, it is not likely that transactional leader behaviors will deliver performance beyond typical expectations - which is why we rely on transformational leadership as well.

When is transformational leadership appropriate?

When is transformational leadership appropriate? When organizations need to continuously adapt to a rapidly changing external environment (vs. when it is stable). Evidence suggests that transformational leadership is relevant across cultures However, there may be specific elements of transformational leadership, such as the way visions are communicated and modeled that are more appropriate in North America. More research is needed

Equity theory

Workers' perceptions of fairness of outcomes they receive on the job Equity judgements are social comparisons by which people compare their job inputs (e.g., time, expertise) and outcomes (e.g., pay, recognition) Importance of referent others When people perceive inequity, they are motivated to restore balance Focuses on distributive justice (what people receive as a result of their knowledge, skills, and effort on the job) Employees determine feelings of equity by comparing their own outcome - input ratio to the outcome - input ratio of some other person.

Leading Others Personal Characteristics of Leaders What traits matter?

relevant traits self-confidence self-monitoring sociability high energy dominance intelligence tolerance for ambiguity All of these traits do a pretty good job of predicting who will rise to a formal leadership position. Although these influence others' perceptions of who would be a good leader, there is no magic combination of traits that make an excellent leader. In fact, those exhibiting these traits are not noticeably better at leadership than those who don't possess them.