Middle and Late Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development

autism spectrum disorders (ASD)

A condition characterized by impaired social skills; verbal and nonverbal communication difficulties; and narrow, obsessive interests or repetitive behaviors.

Reading

A current debate in reading focuses on the phonics approach versus the whole-language approach. The phonics approach advocates phonetics instruction and giving children simplified materials. The whole-language approach stresses that reading instruction should parallel children's natural language learning and that children should be given whole-language materials such as books and poems. Three key processes in learning to read a printed word are being aware of sound units in words, decoding words, and accessing word meaning.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

cultural-familial intellectual disability

mild intellectual disability that may be caused largely by environmental influences

David Wechsler

researcher that worked with troubled kids in the 1930's in NYC. He observed that many of these kids demonstrated a type of intelligence that was much different than the type of intelligence needed to succeed in the school system (STREET SMARTS). He created tests to measure more than verbal ability.

mental age (MA)

The average age at which normal (average) individuals achieve a particular score.

dyslexia

impairment of the ability to read

metacognition

"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task

Alfred Binet

1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French)

Lewis Terman

1877-1956; Field: testing; Contributions: revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children

normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

least restrictive environment (LRE)

A legal term from the IDEA that specifies that students with disabilities must be educated as close to the same environment as their typical (nondisabled) peers. It is this provision on which inclusion is based.

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Teresa Amabile

A psychologist who found that children's creativity was affected by the kind of motivation for which they worked. Extrinsic motivation decreased the degree of creativity shown in an experimental group's artwork when compared to the creativity levels of the children in an intrinsically motivated control group.

autistic disorder

A severe autism spectrum disorder that has its onset in the first three years of life and includes deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior.

Asperger syndrome

A specific type of autistic spectrum disorder characterized by extreme attention to details and deficient social understanding.

Theophile Simon

A student of Alfred Binet, who helped him develop an intelligence test to fulfill the request of the French Ministry of Education

individualized education plan (IEP)

A written statement that spells out a program specifically tailored to a child with a disability.

Writing

Advances in children's language and cognitive development provide the underpinnings for improved writing. Major concerns are increasingly being voiced about children's writing competence. Teachers play a key role in improving children's writing skills.

dyscalculia

Also known as developmental arithmetic disorder; a learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation.

whole-language approach

An approach to reading instruction based on the idea that instruction should parallel children's natural language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful.

The Scope of Disabilities

Approximately 14 percent of U.S. children from 3 to 21 years of age receive special education or related services. A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling. A learning disability also may involve difficulty in doing mathematics. To be classified as a learning disability, the learning problem is not primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual disabilities; emotional disorders; or due to environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Dyslexia is a category of learning disabilities that involves a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell. Dysgraphia is a learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting. Dyscalculia is a learning disability that involves difficulties in math computation. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disability in which individuals consistently show problems in one or more of these areas: (1) inattention, (2) hyperactivity, and (3) impulsivity. ADHD has been increasingly diagnosed. Emotional and behavioral disorders consist of serious, persistent problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, fears associated with personal or school matters, as well as other inappropriate socioemotional characteristics. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD), also called pervasive developmental disorders, range from autistic disorder, a severe developmental disorder, to Asperger syndrome, a relatively mild autism spectrum disorder. The current consensus is that autism is a brain dysfunction involving abnormalities in brain structure and neurotransmitters. Children with autism spectrum disorders are characterized by problems in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors.

seriation

Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.

Ellen Winner

Asserts that moderately gifted children (IQ 130-150) are very different from profoundly gifted children (IQ 180+). She argues that profoundly gifted children are often introverted and socially inept, and are more likely to have emotional problems.

The Brain

Changes in the brain in middle and late childhood include advances in functioning in the prefrontal cortex, which are reflected in improved attention, reasoning, and cognitive control. During middle and late childhood, less diffusion and more focal activation occurs in the prefrontal cortex, a change that is associated with an increase in cognitive control.

Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness

Children gradually become more analytical and logical in their approach to words and grammar. In terms of grammar, children now better understand comparatives and subjectives. They become increasingly able to use complex grammar and produce narratives that make sense. Improvements in metalinguistic awareness—knowledge about language—are evident during the elementary school years as children increasingly define words, expand their knowledge of syntax, and understand better how to use language in culturally appropriate ways.

learning disability

Deficiency in one or more specific cognitive processes despite relatively normal cognitive functioning in other areas.

Robert J. Sternberg

Developed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

neo-Piagetians

Developmentalists who argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision. They have elaborated on Piaget's theory, giving more emphasis to information processing, strategies, and precise cognitive steps.

Motor Development

During the middle and late childhood years, motor development becomes much smoother and more coordinated. Children gain greater control over their bodies and can sit and pay attention for longer periods of time. However, their lives should include abundant physical activity. Increased myelination of the central nervous system is reflected in improved motor skills. Improved fine motor skills appear in the form of handwriting development. Boys are usually better at gross motor skills, girls at fine motor skills. childhood cancer.

inclusion

Educating a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom.

emotional and behavioral disorders

Exceptionalities characterized by problems with learning, interpersonal relationships, and control of feelings and behavior.

Health, Illness, and Disease

For the most part, middle and late childhood is a time of excellent health. The most common cause of severe injury and death in childhood is motor vehicle accidents. Being overweight or obese is an increasingly prevalent child health problem, raising the risk for many medical and psychological problems. Cardiovascular disease is uncommon in children, but the precursors to adult cardiovascular disease are often already apparent during childhood. Cancer is the second leading cause of death in children (after accidents). Leukemia is the most common

Jean Piaget

Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation

gifted

Having above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something. 2% of the population.

Educational Issues

In 1975, Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, required that all children with disabilities be given a free, appropriate public education. This law was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990 and updated in 2004. IDEA includes requirements that children with disabilities receive an individualized education plan (IEP), which is a written plan that spells out a program tailored to the child and requires that they be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE), which is a setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which children without disabilities are educated. The term inclusion means educating children with disabilities full-time in the regular classroom.

James Kauffman

Inclusion too often has meant making accommodations in the regular classroom that do not always benefit children with disabilities

Extremes of Intelligence

Intellectual disability involves a low level of intellectual functioning as well as difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life, with these characteristics occurring prior to age 18. One classification of intellectual disability distinguishes between organic and cultural-familial types. Individuals who are gifted have above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something. Three characteristics of gifted children are precocity, marching to their own drummer, and a passion to master their domain. Giftedness is likely a consequence of both heredity and environment. Developmental changes characterize giftedness, and increasingly the domain-specific aspect of giftedness is emphasized. Concerns exist about the education of children who are gifted.

Intelligence

Intelligence consists of problem-solving skills and the ability to adapt to and learn from life's everyday experiences. Interest in intelligence often focuses on individual differences and assessment. Widely used intelligence tests today include the Stanford-Binet tests and Wechsler scales. Results on these tests may be reported in terms of an overall IQ or in terms of performance on specific areas of the tests. Sternberg proposed that intelligence comes in three main forms: analytical, creative, and practical. Gardner proposes that there are eight types of intelligence: verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, and naturalist. The multiple-intelligence approaches have expanded our conception of intelligence, but critics argue that the research base for these approaches is not well established. IQ scores are influenced by both genetics and characteristics of the environment. Parents, home environments, schools, and intervention programs can influence these scores. Intelligence test scores have risen considerably around the world in recent decades. This phenomenon is called the Flynn effect, and it supports the role of environment in intelligence. Group differences in IQ scores may reflect many influences, including cultural bias. Tests may be biased against certain groups that are not familiar with a standard form of English, with the content tested, or with the testing situation. Tests are likely to reflect the values and experience of the dominant culture.

J. P. Guilford

Isolated 120 factors (elements/abilities) of intelligence with factor analysis Remembered for his thoughts on convergent and divergent thinking

James Flynn

Known for his discovery of the Flynn effect, which is the rise in average IQ scores year after year, all over the year.

Information Processing

Long-term memory increases in middle and late childhood. Working memory is an important memory process. Knowledge and expertise influence memory. Changes in autobiographical memory occur in middle and late childhood. Strategies can be used by children to improve their memory, and it is important for adults who instruct children to encourage children's strategy use. Fuzzy trace theory has been proposed to explain developmental changes in memory. Among the key dimensions of executive function that are important in cognitive development and school success are self-control/inhibition, working memory, and flexibility. Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluating available evidence. Mindfulness is an important aspect of critical thinking. A special concern is the lack of emphasis on critical thinking in many schools. Creative thinking is the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems. Guilford distinguished between convergent and divergent thinking. A number of strategies can be used to encourage children's creative thinking, including brainstorming. Children think like scientists in some ways, but in others they don't. Metacognition is knowing about knowing. Many metacognitive studies have focused on metamemory. Pressley views the key to education as helping students learn a rich repertoire of strategies for problem solving.

Exercise

Most American children do not get nearly enough exercise. Parents play an especially important role in guiding children to increase their exercise. Heavy television viewing and computer use are linked to lower activity levels in children.

Nathan Brody

People who excel at one type of intellectual task are likely to excel at others.

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

Piaget said that the stage of concrete operational thought characterizes children from about 7 to 11 years of age. During this stage, children are capable of concrete operations, conservation, classification, seriation, and transitivity. Critics argue that some abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought, that elements of a stage do not appear at the same time, and that education and culture have more influence on development than Piaget predicted. Neo-Piagetians place more emphasis on how children process information, their use of strategies, speed of information processing, and division of cognitive problems into more precise steps.

strategies

Plans of action for achieving goals and objectives.

Mark Johnson

Proposed that the prefrontal cortex likely orchestrates the functions of many other brain regions during development.

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning

Recent research indicates the complexity of determining whether there are sensitive periods in learning a second language. The dual-language approach (formerly called "bilingual") aims to teach academic subjects to immigrant children in their native languages while gradually adding English instruction. Researchers have found that the dual-language approach does not interfere with performance in either language.

triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions

transitivity

The ability to understand that relationships between two objects can extend to a third object.

individual differences

The aspects of people's personalities that make them different from other people

phonics approach

The idea that reading instruction should teach the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds.

Michael Pressley

The key to education is helping students learn a rich repertoire of strategies that result in solutions to problems.

Body Growth and Change

The period of middle and late childhood involves slow, consistent growth. During this period, children grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year. Muscle mass and strength gradually increase. Among the most pronounced changes in body growth and proportion are decreases in head circumference and waist circumference in relation to body height.

mindfulness

The state of being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities.

fuzzy trace theory

Theory stating that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: verbatim memory trace and gist. In this theory, older children's better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information.

Craig Ramey

With colleagues, conducted the Abecedarian Intervention program at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, which demonstrated that environment makes a difference in intellectual abilities of a child

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

brainstorming

a method of generating ideas for speech topics by free association of words and ideas

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity

convergent thinking

a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one

Patricia Bauer

autobiographical memory

Alan Baddeley

developed a model in an effort to define short-term memory; made up of the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and the central executive

Howard Gardner

devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic

dysgraphia

difficulty in handwriting

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

Simon Baron-Cohen

extreme male brain hypothesis

organic intellectual disability

intellectual disability that involves some physical damage and is caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage

culture-fair tests

intelligence tests designed to eliminate cultural bias by minimizing skills and values that vary from one culture to another

Ellen Langer

studied the illusion of control, or belief that you can control things that you actually have no influence on

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

metalinguistic awareness

the ability to reflect on the use of language

creative thinking

the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems

elaboration

the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.