Midterm Review 1450-1750

Aztec

(1200-1521) 1300, they settled in the valley of Mexico. Grew corn. Engaged in frequent warfare to conquer others of the region. Worshipped many gods (polytheistic). Believed the sun god needed human blood to continue his journeys across the sky. Practiced human sacrifices and those sacrificed were captured warriors from other tribes and those who volunteered for the honor.

Hernán Cortés

(1485-1547) was a Spanish conquistador, responsible for the audacious conquest of the Aztec Empire in Central Mexico in 1519. With a force of 600 Spanish soldiers he was able to conquer a vast Empire that had tens of thousands of warriors. He did it through a combination of ruthlessness, guile, violence and luck.

Emperor Kangxi

(1654-1722) the fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, from 1661 to 1722. His reign of 61 years makes him the longest reigning emperor in Chinese history. Had scholars write down the history of other dynasties, sponsored literary & educational projects, civil service examination, tried to control flooding, tried to preserve distinctions between the Chinese & Manchu

. Impact of the Protestant Reformation

1. Luther's challenges were theologically based and directed at the pope's religious role. Luther asserted that the people did not need the Catholic Church, or its priests, in order to interact with God; they only needed their Bibles. 2. Put simply, by challenging the pope, Luther made it acceptable to question the conventional wisdom of the church. With newly printed Bibles available in their own languages, lay people could learn how to read and form their own relationships with God. 3. As the common masses became literate and better educated, more and more Europeans began to question both the world around them and the authority of the church. Europeans desired to search for their own answers to the questions of the universe. In short, the _______ ________ paved the way for revolutions in education, politics, and science

East Asian Trade and Cultural Contacts with Outsiders 1450- 1750

1. Trade contacts with westerners were limited to a few trading enterprises with the Dutch and Portuguese. 2. Initial tolerance of Christian Missionaries before instituting a ban on Christian proselytizing. 3. Ming/Qing emperor's court was curious about European science, technology, and practical mechanical inventions. 4. Still strong ethnocentric attitudes towards the West

Spanish Empire

1400s- Late 1900s. Made up of territories and colonies in Europe, Africa, and Asia controlled from Spain. At its strongest, it was one of the biggest empires in world history according to how much land they had, and one of the 1st global empires. Royalty from the Castile and Aragon kingdoms ruled it. Christopher Colombus led the first Spanish exploration trip which led them to colonizing America.

Mughal Empire

1526-1858 CE. In India was the first to unite almost the entire subcontinent. The early empire established a policy of religious tolerance where Hindus and Muslims could openly practice. Ended by 1700 when Muslims began to persecute Hindus. Established trade relations with Europeans (namely British and Portuguese).

Martin Luther

16th century German monk and professor who is considered to be the person who started the Protestant Reformation; he began by criticizing Church practices (mainly indulgences) and ultimately broke with the Catholic Church to form his own new religious faith

Ana Nzinga

17th century Angolan queen who fought off the Portuguese colonizers by pretending to accept Christianity, but actually was partnered with their enemies, the Dutch, and also developed a powerful trade nation instead of waging internal war.

Commercial Revolution

A dramatic change in the economy of Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. It is characterized by an increase in towns and trade, the use of banks and credit, and the establishment of guilds to regulate quality and price.

Taj Mahal

A great Mughal monument: a white marble mausoleum in Agra, northern India, completed in 1643 in memory of Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of Mughal. emperor Shah Jahan. It is considered the greatest example of Mughal architecture.

mestizo

A new racial concept that develops in Latin America following the intermixing that occurred between European colonists and the native American population.

. indulgences

A system of paid forgiveness. Indulgences undermined the fear/respect people had with God

Humanism

A system of thought that focuses on the nature, ideals, and achievements of human beings, rather than on the divine (religious)

encomienda system

A system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of Indians; it was a disguised form of slavery.

Triangular Trade

A three way system of trade during 1600-1800s Africa sent slaves to America, America sent Raw Materials to Europe, and Europe sent Guns and Rum to Africa

Middle Passage

A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies

Compare Them: Coerced Labor Systems

Although slavery was not a new system, the demands of the newly global economy resulted in an expansion of systems of forced labor in the empires. 1. Russia's attempts to control their large land mass relied on the forced labor of the serfs. 2. In the Spanish part of the New World, haciendas were established in which Natives owed labor to their landlords-not unlike the feudalism of Europe. 3. The Portuguese took advantage of the already thriving intra-African slave trade and transformed it into a trans-oceanic one. The majority of transported Africans would up on plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean where life expectancy was just three to five years.

creole

American-born Spaniards who owned land, but ranked below "real" Europeans.

capitalism

An economic system in which the means of production are privately owned; supply, demand, price, distribution, and investments are determined mainly by private decisions in the free market, rather than through a planned economy; and profit is distributed to owners who invest in businesses

Colombian Exchange

An exchange of goods, ideas and skills from the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa) to the New World (North and South America) and vice versa.

Zheng He

An imperial eunuch and Muslim, entrusted by the Ming emperor Yongle with a series of state voyages that took his gigantic ships through the Indian Ocean, from Southeast Asia to Africa.

Ndongo

Angolan kingdom that reached its peak during the reign of Queen Nzinga (r. 1623-1663).

Sugarcane and Slavery

As disease had decimated the indigenous population, however, there were not enough laborers available to do the cultivation. In response, the Portuguese began to import enslaved people from Africa, especially from the Kongo Kingdom and cities on the Swahili coast.

Focus On: Westernization of Russia

Both Peter and Catherine are important because they positioned Russia for engagement with the rest of the world, particularly the Western world. By the late eighteenth century, Russia was in a significantly different position than it had been at the beginning of that century. It gained access to the west by both the Baltic and the Black Seas, and it gained cultural access to the West by actively seeking interaction. Unlike China and Japan, who repelled the West from their shores in the same time period, the Russians wanted to engage and emulate the West.

#3 Westernization under Peter the Great

Bureaucratic reform - In order to pay for and promote his expanded army, new navy, and improved infrastructure, Peter reorganized the bureaucracy to more efficiently gather taxes and to encourage industrial production. He replaced boyars with government officials selected according to his newly established Table of Ranks, which allowed officials to attain government positions based on merit, not on aristocratic status. He eliminated many titles of nobility, and he ensured that the new bureaucrats were loyal to him as the person responsible for their newly acquired positions.

St. Petersburg

Capital city of Russia built by Peter the Great. It was on the coast of the Baltic Sea and considered Russia's window to the West and is a symbol of Peter's desire to westernize.

Audiencias

Courts appointed by the king who reviewed the administration of viceroys serving Spanish colonies in America.

WHY DID THE ISLAMIC GUNPOWDER EMPIRES RISE AND DECLINE?

Historians have given various reasons for their declines, but most fall into three categories: (1) ineffectiveness (2) intolerance of minorities (3) failure to modernize.

Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible)

First Czar of Russia. During good Era: made many reforms, Created a council that included members from all classes, Defeated Mongols and expanded borders. During bad Era: Paranoid and strict policies lost many of his followers. Killed his only heir and launched Russia into a Time of Troubles.

Babur

Founder of the Mughal (Persian for Mongol) dynasty in 1523 and reigns until 1530; was formerly a central Asian Turkish adventurer who invades India in 1523 and later takes Delhi in 1526

Ottoman response to Western Hegemony

Ignoring the value of Western technological innovations, the Ottomans also disregarded the growing power of Western Europe, a policy that hastened its decline.

astrolabe and compass

Important navigational instruments enabling sea exploration

Johannes Gutenberg

In 1041, movable clay type was first invented in China. Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith and businessman from Germany, borrowed money to invent a technology that changed the world of printing. Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with replaceable/moveable wooden or metal letters in 1436 (completed by 1440). This method of printing can be credited not only for a revolution in the production of books, but also for fostering rapid development in the sciences, arts and religion through the transmission of texts.

peninsulares

In the colonial caste system of Spanish America and Spanish Philippines, a peninsular was a Spanish-born Spaniard or mainland Spaniard residing in the New World, as opposed to a person of full Spanish descent born in the Americas or Philippines, who were known as creoles. The word "peninsular" makes reference to the Iberian Peninsula in Europe, where Spain is located.

Land-Based Powers

Land-based powers followed patterns that political organizations had used in most places for centuries. Governments controlled land by building armies, bureaucracies, roads, canals, and walls that unified people and protected them from outsiders. The focus was on land.

#1 Westernization under Peter the Great

Military reform - Peter built the size of his army by drafting peasants to serve as professional soldiers and increasing pay. He encouraged the use of western technology, including the training of troops in the use of cannons and firearms. He ordered the building of roads and bridges to more easily transport troops and equipment across the countryside. He built a navy from scratch, and brought in European experts on shipbuilding, sailing, and navigation. Ports, including St. Petersburg, were built to accommodate the new ships.

Ottoman slavery v. Slavery in the Americas

Ottoman slavery (devshirme) allowed non-Muslims to rise to high-ranking positions in the Ottoman military and political systems, with slavery in the European colonies of the New World, which forced Africans into lives of grueling, menial agricultural labor in most cases. Other terms of forced labor also demonstrate characteristics that contrast significantly with Ottoman slavery-for example, Russian serfdom, which tied peasant farmers to land not own, is much more similar to New World slaverythan to Ottoman.

Ottoman empire

Powerful Turkish empire that lasted from the conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453 until 1918 and reached its peak during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566).

Suleyman I

Ruler of the Ottomans also known as the Magnificent. The height of the Ottoman Empire was achieved under Suleyman. Reformed taxes, overhauled the government bureaucracy, also improved Court System (law giver).

Romanov Dynasty

Ruling family of Russia, including Peter the Great and Catherine the Great, this dynasty favored the nobles, reduced military obligations, expanded the Russian empire further east, and fought several unsuccessful wars, yet they lasted from 1613 to 1917.

What was the global currency from 1500-1800?

Silver

#2 Westernization under Peter the Great

Social reform - Peter ordered the boyars to dress like Europeans, which meant they had to abandon their bearskin capes and beards. By tradition, boyars grew their beards without shaving, giving them a very un-western appearance, so Peter ordered them to shave. If they refused, Peter himself was known to hack their beards off with scissors. Previous tsars' courts were all-male, but Peter insisted that women appear unveiled in his court, dressed as European ladies of fashion. He extended rights in pther ways as well, such as a decree that young people, rather than their parents, should determine for themselves who they would marry

Inca

South American Indians who, at the time of the Spanish conquest in 1532, ruled an empire that extended along the Pacific coast and Andean highlands from the northern border of modern Ecuador to the Maule River in central Chile. The Inca established their capital at Cuzco (Peru) in the 12th century. They began their conquests in the early 15th century and within 100 years had gained control of an Andean population of about 12,000,000 people.

New Spain

Spanish colonial possessions in Mesoamerica; included most of central Mexico; based on imperial system of Aztecs

Ming Dynasty

Succeeded Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1368; lasted until 1644; initially mounted huge trade expeditions to southern Asia and elsewhere, but later concentrated efforts on internal development within China.

Reasons for Ottoman Decline

Successors to Suleiman were often held hostage to harem politics conducted by women and eunuchs. Although neither group would have the opportunity to rule, women and eunuchs nevertheless became powerful behind the scenes. The Ottoman Empire as a·whole grew less tolerant of non-Muslims and more insular. Slavery there continued into the twentieth century.

Transatlantic Slave Trade

The brutal system of trading African Slaves from Africa to the Americas. It changed the economy, politics, and environment. It affected Africa, Europe, and America. It implies that slaves were used for cash crops and created a whole new economy.

Impact of Smallpox on the Americas

The indigenous population of the Americas fell by more than 50 percent through disease alone in less than a century. Some American lands lost up to 90 percent of their original populations. It was one of the greatest population disasters in human history.

Mercantilism

The main economic system used during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. The main goal was to increase a nation's wealth by imposing government regulation concerning all of the nation's commercial interests. It was believed that national strength could be maximized by limiting imports via tariffs and maximizing exports

Atlantic System

The network of trading links after 1500 that moved goods, wealth, people, and cultures around the Atlantic Ocean basin. (p. 497)

African Diaspora

The separation of Africans from their homeland through centuries of forced removal to serve as slaves in the Americas and elsewhere.

Geopolitical

The study of the relationship among politics and geography, demography, and economics, especially with respect to the foreign policy of a nation. Peter the Great changes Russia's geopolitical orientation from Moscow to what city/region? Why does he do this?

mulatto

The term used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies to describe someone of mixed African and European descent.

royal charter companies

These European companies were chartered by governments to conduct specific long-distance trade. These charters both granted companies specific rights and required specific obligations. Monarchs themselves often had a financial stake in such ventures. Royal chartered companies dominated the trans-Atlantic trade during the era of European exploration.

Janissaries

These troops were made up of elite soldiers who were enslaved through the devshirme system as boys and trained as a fighting force for the Ottoman Empire's sultan. Although they remained slaves, ____ eventually gained a high level of collective power in the Ottoman Empire. _____ existed from the late 14th century until 1826, when the sultan had many of them executed due to the threat their power posed to him.

colonization

This action occurs when a country explores, conquers, and settles an area. Extensive European colonization of the Americas was a defining feature of the era of European exploration. Colonization affected nearly every aspect of life in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

Expansion of Russia 1462-1689

This empire came into existence in the 15th century, when the Russian people established independence from the Mongols. The Russian Empire relied on a strong centralized government headed by an absolute monarch called a tsar (czar). The Russian Empire lasted until 1917, when the Bolshevik Revolution ended the Romanov line and this form of absolutism

Portuguese empire

This empire grew in the 15th to 16th centuries as Portuguese sailors, explorers, and merchants established numerous trading posts in Africa and Asia, including Goa and Macau. Portugal also colonized Brazil. The advanced maritime skills of Portuguese sailors helped the empire expand. However, the country's relatively small size and population combined With the rise of other seaborne empires (such as the Spanish, Dutch, and British) led to Portugal's decline as a major power by the late 16th century.

fall of Constantinople

This event occurred in 1453 when the invading Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. This conquest effectively ended the Byzantine Empire and set the stage for Ottoman dominance of the region. The Turks changed the name to Istanbul and made it the capital of their Ottoman Empire. Fleeing Greeks brought much of their artifacts and works to Italy, fueling a Greco-Roman interest in Italy and helping to initiate the Renaissance.

hacienda system

This plantation system was introduced to the Americas by Spanish settlers during the colonial era. In the hacienda system, laborers were supposedly free and due a wage, but in practice the system allowed landowners to tie laborers (native Amerindians at first) to the land through debt. In some parts of the Americas, this system lasted until the 20th century.

devshirme

This system of forced recruitment and enslavement of non-Muslim (usually Christian) boys from the Balkan peninsula was used by Ottoman sultans beginning in the 15th century. Drafted boys converted to Islam and dedicated their lives to serving the sultan, either as scribes, palace servants, civil servants, or as soldiers, often as a janissary. Systems such as devshirme exemplified the increasingly common practices of rulers wishing to maintain a strong centralized hold over their subjects during this period. Some individuals enslaved through _______ rose to positions of relative power.

The Atlantic system

This trading pattern relied on the trans-Atlantic exchange of goods, wealth, and free and enslaved laborers through the slave trade. The Atlantic system resulted in a blend of African, American, and European peoples and cultures. The basis of this system was the triangular trade between Europe, West Africa, and American colonies

cash crop

This type of crop is grown to be sold rather than to serve as feed for livestock. During the colonization of the Americas, crops such as cacao, tobacco, and sugar were grown primarily on plantations that relied on a great deal of slave labor. These crops were then exported mostly to Europe and the Middle East.

Boyars

This was the term for the hereditary Russian nobles who possessed great landed estates

Rise of Europe

Three interrelated changes help to explain the rise of Europe: 1) Important cultural changes - including the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment - oriented European minds toward invention and allowed them to escape the social and intellectual boundaries of the Middle Ages. 2) Political consolidation of strong centralized states meant that kings had enough power and money to control regional lands and people and to sponsor trade expeditions and diplomatic envoys to other civilizations. 3) Technological advances and the development of capitalism allowed European states to increase their riches through trade and territorial claims in the Western Hemisphere. Although they often built on inventions from previous eras by other people, Europeans made good use of their innovations.

Trading Post Empire (significance)

Western European nations developed these places on the continents of Africa and Asia; resulted in an increase of wealth for the nations and merchants involved; dramatically increased European power in these areas.

Contrast Them: Russia and Western Europe

While western Europe basked in the glow of the Renaissance, explored and expanded its influence across oceans, and debated about religion, science, and government in a series of movements, Russia remained isolated from the west and pushed eastward instead. Its growth was territorial, but not intellectual or artistic. During the fifteenth, sixteenth, and most of the seventeenth centuries, it had nothing that could be labeled a Renaissance or Enlightenment. It wasn't part of the Renaissance because it was under the control of the Mongols at the time. It wasn't part of the Reformation because it wasn't part of the Catholic Church in the first place. So even though today we often see Russia as a European power, its history progressed along a very different path. It wasn't until the late 17th century that Russia turned its eyes westward.

Problems with Mercantilism

_______ assumes the wealth of a nation depends primarily on the possession of precious metals such as gold and silver. This type of system cannot be maintained forever, because the global economy would become stagnant if every country wanted to export and no one wanted to import. After a period of time, many people began to revolt against the idea of _________ and stressed the need for free trade. The continued pressure resulted in the implementation of laissez faire economics in the nineteenth century.

Syncretism

a blending of beliefs and practices from different religions into one faith

Protestant

a religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church but resulted in the creation of new splinter churches who today are collectively known as Protestants

Protestant Reformation

a religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church but resulted in the creation of new splinter churches who today are collectively known as Protestants

Viceroys

a ruler exercising authority in a colony on behalf of a sovereign.

How did the Tokugawa peace change the Samurai class?

a. Only the samurai would receive access to the finest education, only they would sit for the civil service exam and only they would administer the mundane day-to-day necessities of a centralized government. b. They could keep their honor and their connection to their past by being the only ones who could cany a sword, but with the peace of Tokugawa, the need for a warrior elite vanished. c. Over the course of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the once feared, battle-hardened military elite slowly evolved (or devolved depending on your point of view) into paper-pushing bureaucrats more likely to be seen behind a desk than on a battlefield. d. By the mid-I9cb century, of the 1.7 million samurai, nearly all had either settled into lives of sedentary labor or had grown indebted to the merchant class

Joint Stock Companies

businesses formed by groups of people who jointly make an investment and share in the profits and losses

Capital

money for investment

Price Revolution

increase in prices in 16th century-inflation-increased demand for goods-influx of gold and silver

1. Recovery of Greco-Roman knowledge

one of the most important hallmarks of Renaissance philosophy is the increased interest in primary sources of Greek and Roman thought, which were previously unknown or little read. The renewed study of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc. widened the philosophical horizon, providing a rich seedbed from which modern science and modern philosophy gradually emerged

Vodun

or voodoo is a New World syncretic faith that combines the animist faiths of West Africa with Christianity

Akbar

real architect of the Mughal Empire; grandson of Babur; reigned 1556-1605; brilliant and charismatic ruler; created a centralized, absolutist government; expanded Mughal empire into Gujarat, Bengal, and southwestern India; develops a syncretic faith known as the Divine Faith; encourages religious toleration of Hindus and Muslims

Cartography

science or art of making maps

Qing Dynasty

the last imperial dynasty of China (from 1644 to 1912) which was overthrown by revolutionaries. Also known for its extreme isolationism.