Mini Exam 4

Why is PM2.5 particularly damaging to humans?

It reaches the gas exchange portion of the lung.

What stages in life span are often most vulnerable?

Larval stages Larvae inhibited from growing their shells Larvae of a temperate brittle star, a relative of the common Seastar, fewer than .1% survived more than eight days Larval fish species are also at risk

What are local, regional, and national tools to improve air quality?

Local: smarter travel choices. Cleaner fuel and vehicles. Tier III vehicles. regional/national: Addressing woodburning, enhanced mass transit, building codes, zero-emitting vehicles.

What are the spatial patterns of air pollution in Utah?

Major pollution facilities in the Wasatch front are highly concentrated in lower SES communities and communities of color.

Why do we care about fine particulate matter (PM)?

7 million people died in 2012 from air pollution. It is estimated that pollution accounts for 1/8 total global deaths.

What is the chemistry of ocean acidification? What is Aragonite and why does it matter?

CO2 enters the ocean and removes carbonate Carbonate is no longer available for marine organisms. This drives more bicarbonate and hydrogen ions into solution CO2 is increased in the atmosphere by human activity. Aragonite: this is a form of calcium carbonate. It structures coral reefs, which could actually dissolve should the seas continue to become more acidic. It has to be at a certain saturation level for corals to form their structure. When it falls below, corals may dissolve.

How does ocean acidification affect marine organisms and which organisms are most and least vulnerable?

Carbonate ions that are removed by CO2 are no longer available for corals crabs and other shellfish. Many animals and plants in the ocean have calcium carbonate skeletons or shells. Plankton at the base of the food chain are affected. Most vulnerable: larval stage organisms. Tropical oceans where corals are found. Least vulnerable: species that are not that great for the ecosystem or for us, including algae, seagrasses, and jellyfish.

What is coral bleaching?

Corals obtain energy from photosynthetic algae called Zooxanthellae that live inside them. When temperatures get too hot, corals expel the algae and turn white. Bleaching= coral stress due to ocean acidification interacting with heat stress. This can sometimes lead to death.

What are direct versus indirect particulate matter and how do they differ?

Direct: directly emitted particles that are not changing upon reaching the atmosphere (1/3) Indirect: 2/3 of pollutants undergoing reactions in the atmosphere and changing chemical forms. Ultimate source is still human combustion. Hard to trace sources back to a point source.

What are the societal and economic impacts of ocean acidification?

Economic: Progressive decline in the $111 million per year oyster industry, as oyster larvae have failed to survive. Impacts through the marine food web affect the multibillion dollar fishing and tourism industries. Commercially important organisms: mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, finfish, corals Societal: threaten the food security of many of the worlds poorest that rely on marine coral ecosystems for protein. Reefs protect the coast by dissipating wave energy and reducing wave height.

How can ocean acidification interact with temperature and overfishing?

Fishing: large fish can be grazers and eat algae that grow on coral reefs. These fish play a key role in coral ecosystems, keeping algae off of coral reefs. The fishing out of large fish means more algae, which means unhealthy reefs. Temperature: Ocean acidification interacting with heat stress can lead to coral bleaching. Temperatures become too hot so corals expel their algae and turn white.

Can you describe the Harvard Six Cities study and the Nurses Health Study?

HARVARD: Measuring city specific mortality during the early 80s and late 90s. Found that mortality is inversely related to level of fine particulates during each period. Similar correlations both for overall mean exposure and for exposure in the year prior to death. NURSES: 19,000 women age 70 to 81 were followed over time. Estimates of PM 2.5 and course particle exposure. Decline in cognitive function on sophisticated testing associated with increased pollution.

What are the air pollution impacts of wildfires?

Increase in: emergency room visits, acute respiratory distress hospital visits, hospital missions for respiratory illness, use of asthma medications, evidence of inflammation in the blood, mortality over 65 years old. Decrease in: lung function.

What are the sources of indoor and outdoor air pollution?

Indoor: results from a reliance of solid fuels for cooking. Wood, charcoal, Peat. Outdoor: transportation, power generation, municipal waste management, waste incineration, agricultural burning and wildfires, meteorology and topography.

What are the health impacts of air pollution?

Interacts with: total mortality/life expectancy, cardio pulmonary mortality, cardiovascular events such as heart attacks, strokes, or sudden death, asthma: incidents, attacks. Worsening of symptoms for patients with cigarette lung disease such as emphysema or bronchitis. Cancer

Describe some of the other stressors that affect coral and make for less healthy reef ecosystems.

Multiple stressors compound the effects of ocean acidification. The combination of ocean acidification and increased temperatures negatively affects many organisms. Coral bleaching occurs when stressed corals kick out the algae due to an increase in temperature. Coral bleaching can lead to death.

How do divergent gradients in ocean acidification and climate change hit ocean organisms especially hard?

Organisms temperature stress is driven by absolute heat thresholds. Many organisms respond by moving to where it is cooler. However, these cooler places have lower levels of aragonite. Less aragonite at lower temperatures.

What are future projections of ocean acidification?

PH 7 is neutral. Above 7 is basic. Ocean acidification has taken pH from 8.2 to below 8.1. This is a 35% increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean. Aragonite threshold: saturation of 3 or higher is a healthy zone. If we continue the trend of high climate change then most coral reefs will disappear.

Compare today's ocean acidification rate to that of the Paleocene Eocene thermal maximum extinction.

Paleocene Eocene: 35 to 50% of the ocean forminifera went extinct over 1000+ years. Today: oceans today are 30% more acidic because of the carbon pollution.

What is the evidence of how efforts to improve air quality has affected human health?

Pope et al. 2009: As air quality improves over time across the country, life expectancy increased 2.72 years. During each period, cross-sectional data showed negative association between life expectancy and pollution levels. From 1980 to 2000, improve air quality accounted for approximately 15% of change in life expectancy.

What are some of the proposed solutions for tackling ocean acidification and what are challenges and drawbacks of some of them?

Tackling climate change: lower climate change so that more corals can survive. Conservation: reducing other stressors. High resilience to Ocean acidification comes through: more resilient food webs, (reducing overfishing). Better water conditions, (reducing pollution and nutrient runoff). Zoning: algorithm to facilitate cost-effective conservation planning. Objective based: protect at least 75% of present species. Maintain recreation and fishing zones and at least 80% of current areas. Cost imposed when conflicting activities are near each other, for example, fishing and conservation. Genetics/physiological acclamation: Exposing corals to higher temperatures helps them to later withstand hot temperature spikes. Limitations: only possible in a few coral taxa. Probably not going to be enough to help most reefs avoid bleaching. Hard to manage reefs unlike many terrestrial ecosystems.

What are some of the worldwide causes of poor air quality?

Transportation, solid fuel burning, power generation, municipal waste management, waste incineration, I agricultural burning wildfires, meteorology and topography.

Why does Utah have a problem with air pollution?

Utah topography: high elevation mountain valley traps pollutants and allows them to reach unhealthy levels.

Can you describe the difference in air pollution in Utah between winter and summer time?

Winter: Inversions: stable air masses that trap human pollution emissions close to the ground. Most likely when snow is on the ground. Snow relates to meteorological conditions for stable air masses. Climate change might decrease number of occurrences due to last winter snow. Summer: wildfire smoke is a major pollutant. Climate change projections indicate a large increase in summer pollution from smoke.

What is ocean acidification?

refers to a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period of time, caused primarily by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.