Modern European History: Midterm exam

Henry Cort

1780 formed puddling for iron: coke was used to burn away impurities in pig iron and produce iron of high quality

1-3rd Estates

1: consisted of clergy and and owned about 10 percent of the land 2: consisted of nobility who owned 25 to 30 percent of land; played crucial role in french society holding key roles in government, military, law courts, and higher church offices 3: commoners, skilled craftsmen, shopkeepers, other skilled workers in society; made up about 75 to 80 percent of population. held 30 to 40 percent of land

Ignatius of Loyola

A saint founder of the Society of Jesus or the Jesuits in 1540

Ideals of Thomas Hobbes

Absolute Monarchy offers the best assurance of stable society without security life of man is: solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short Revolutions not justified unless sovereign powers prove to be to weak

Tabula Rasa

Concept created by John Locke in his essay of human understanding in 1690 Blank slate: people molded by environment but whatever they perceive from it is their own. Everyone is created equal from birth mentally

sugar factories

Describes the sugarcane plantations set up on the east coast of Brazil and other Caribbean islands which required a large number of slaves from Africa to run

Concert of Europe

Developed around 1815 Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (later France) agreed to meet periodically in conferences to take steps that would maintain peace in Europe led to the concept of Intervention Crimean war destroyed this Italians first to benefit from the breakup of this

Peace of Westphalia

Ended the thirty years war in Germany in 1648 proclaimed all German states including Calvinist ones free to determine their own religion Roman empire recognized many independent states and could make own foreign policies brought end to Holy Roman Empire and ensured German disunity for 200 years.

Thomas Hobbes

English Philosopher (1588-1679) Advocate for Absolute Government Wrote Leviathan in 1651 30 years war was the prime of his life

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer coined the idea of modern european feminism wrote vindication of women rights (1792): pointed out two contradictions of views of women: women should obey men is not right to monarchical society where slavery is wrong: if women have reason then they should have same right to education and engage in political and economic life as men.

Voltaire

Francois-Marie Arouet author who wrote several pamphlets, novels, plays, philosophical essays and histories known for criticism of traditional religion and his attachment to idea of religious tolerance (religion should be crushed) coined the idea of deism (world machine)

Hueguenots

French Calvinists who ruled house of bourbons many nobles converted to this which caused threat to monarchical power

Seven Years War

French and Indian war 1754-1763 ended with treaty of paris in 1763 North American conflict in a larger imperial war between Great Britain and France Stamp Act imposed after the war ended to pay for British assistance in the war

Montesquieu

Frenchman 1689-1755 Wrote: Spirit of Laws 1748 questioned social structure that shaped laws

John Lockes ideals

Government cannot take persons property without their consent the preservation of property is the purpose of government Governments can be dissolved when they seek to make themselves " masters or arbitrary disposers of life, liberty, and fortunes of the people."

Heliocentric theory

Idea created by Nicholas Copernicus the idea that the sun (not the earth) is at the center of universe

Henry VIII

In 1534 created the Act of Supremacy that declared the king was the only supreme head of the church of England. gave him control of doctrine, clerical appointments, and discipline.

Gustavus Adolphus

King of Sweden developed first standing army of conscripts who were known for flexibility of tactics (musketeers and pike men) used Calvary in more mobile fashion (shooting then charging with swords)

Council of Trent

March 1545 Group of church officials meet at Trent firmed traditional catholic teachings in opposition of Protestant beliefs scripture and tradition were equal authorities of religious matters; only church could interpret scripture faith and good works necessary for salvation belief in purgatory and indulgences was strengthened after this Roman Catholic Church possessed clear body and acknowledged supremacy of popes.

Crimean War

Oct 4 1853: when who: Russia and the Turks; later britian and France why: over Russia demand for right to protect christian shrines in philistines; refusal to negotiate what: Turks refused and Russia invaded Turkish Moldova; failure to negotiation caused Turks to declare war on Russia; One year later in fear of Russia dominating ottoman empire great britian and France declare war on Russia where: Crimean peninsula of Russia by black sea ending of war: treaty of Paris and Russia suing for peace and destroyed concert of Europe

Philip II

The most catholic king of Spain greatest advocate for militant Catholicism in the 16th century insisted on strict conformity to catholic beliefs and strong monarchical authority control led to revolt in Netherlands where he attempted to crush Calvinism

95 Theses

Written by Martin Luther: "Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," a list of questions and propositions for debate. Popular legend has it that on October 31, 1517 Luther defiantly nailed a copy to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church.

Absolutism

a form of government in which sovereign power or ultimate authority rested in the hand of the monarchs who claimed to rule by divine right was therefore responsible only to God.

Encomienda

a grant of the Spanish monarch to colonial conquistadors to protect Indians as well as use them as laborers and collect tribute but exploited them in practice. Established by Queen Isabella

Catholic Reformation

a movement for reform in the catholic church in the 16th century Catholic Revival was the period of Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, beginning with the Council of Trent (1545-1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648). The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort composed of four major elements: Ecclesiastical or structural reconfiguration Religious orders Spiritual movements Political dimensions

nationalism

a sense of national consensus based on awareness of being part of a nation or community. common institutions, traditions, language, customs, and becoming the focus of individuals primary political loyalty

Hegelian Dialectic

a thesis, giving rise to its reaction, an antithesis, which contradicts or negates the thesis, and the tension between the two being resolved by means of a synthesis

Mercantilism

an economic theory that held the nations prosperity depended on the gold and silver supply and volume of trade was unchangeable advocated for government playing active role in economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports especially those that use tariffs

Liberalism

based on the idea that people should be free from restraint as possible protection of civil liberties (basic rights) advocated separation of church and state and choice of religion right to peaceful opposition of government by representative assembly elected by qualified voters believed constitutional monarchy right to vote/hold office open only to men who owned property laissez faire economics

Middle Passage

brutal voyage from Africa to the Americas. 1/3 of human cargo dies from disease or malnourished tight quarters that held slaves in close quarters and smelt of human waste and disease

Natural Rights

certain inalienable rights to which all people are titled to examples: right to life, liberty, property, religion and freedom of speech, equal treatment under law.

Conquistadors

conquerors leaders in Spanish conquests in the Americas especially Mexico and Peru in the 16th century. glory greed and religious zeal led their motives financed privately ex: Hernan Cortez at Tenochtitlan

Cartesian Dualism

created by Descartes separation of mind and matter (mind and body) that enabled scientists to view matter as something separate from themselves that could be investigated by reason

Rocket

created by George Stephenson and his son Superior locomotive engine used on first public railway line in 1830

Consent of the governed

created by John Locke A condition urged by many as a requirement for legitimate government : that the authority of a government should depend on the consent of the people, as expressed by votes in elections.

stamp act

created in 1765; attempted to levy new taxes and caused riots and revolts that laws quick appeal; no taxation without representation

John Calvin

created the ideology of Calvinism wrote Institutes of the Christian religion in 1536 emphasizing the ideas of sovereignty of God and predestination there could no guaranteed salvation successful reformed the city of Geneva in 1536

Oliver Cromwell

created the new army model composed of extreme puritans (Independents) who believed in battle for God Established military dictatorship after not being able to agree with Parliament after death of Charles I

Johannes Gutenberg

developed the printing press his "Bible" was the first book ever created by movable type in 1455 or 1456

Robespierre

dominated the Commitee of Public Safety and took control of France for 12 months and declared universal mobilization

Boers

dutch farmers that spoke dialect of Afrikaans and occupied cape town

Deism

established by Voltaire a religious outlook based on the idea of the Newtonian world-machine: assistance of a mechanic God in the Universe. Like a clock run according to natural laws of God.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

established in 1854 allowed slavery in the Kansas and Nebraska territory to be determined by popular sovereignty caused uproar in the North and led to creation of new sectional party

Friedrich Engels

helped develop the Marxist theory along with Karl Marx Emphasized the issue of class struggles: "society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great classes Bourgeoisie and Proletariat

feminism

idea created by Mary Wollstonecraft belief of social, political, and economic equality of sexes organized activity to advance womens rights

Calvinism

ideology of John Calvin written in institutes of the christian religion emphasis on sovereignty of God predestination: God predestined (the elect) to be saved and others to be damned (the reprobate)

Richard Trevithick

in 1804 pioneered the first steam powered locomotive on an industrial rail line in southern wales

Utopian Socialists

intellectuals and theorists in the early 19th century favored equality in social and economic conditions and wished to replace private property and competition with collective ownership and cooperation deemed impractical and Utopian by later socialists

Philosophes

intellectuals of the 18th century enlightenment who believed in applying the spirit of rational criticism to all things including religion and politics. focused on improving and enjoying the world rather then worrying about the afterlife ex: Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot

Lutheranism

is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther (1483-1546), a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. ... In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first four ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church.

reign of terror

launched by the National Convention and Committee of Public Safety in France to meet domestic crisis Revolutionary Courts instituted to protect the Republic from its internal enemies 16,000 killed by guillotine Revolutionary armies set up to bring cities and districts back under the control of the National Convention Example: Lyons cannon destruction

Toussaint L'Ouverture

leader of the Haitian independence movement during the French Revolution. He emancipated the slaves and negotiated for the French colony on Hispaniola, Saint-Domingue (later Haiti), to be governed, briefly, by black former slaves as a French protectorate.

Orders in Council

legislation in many countries, especially the Commonwealth realms. In the United Kingdom this legislation is formally made in the name of the Queen

Christian Humanism

major goal to reform Christianity in European countries north of the alps. believed in the ability of human beings to reason and improve themselves through education in sources of classical and Christian antiquity and they could instill inner piety that could bring reform to the church and society most influnetial person: Desiderous Eramus

Adam Smith

one of the founders of modern discipline of economics believed individuals should be free to pursue their own economic self-interest and all society would ultimately benefit. government should have no say in economics (lassiez-faire economics) government has 3 functions: to protect society from invasion (by army); defend its citizens from injustice (by police force); keep up public works (roads and canals)

Ulrich Zwingli

ordained priest in 1506 of Zurich the great priest of zurich preaching of the Gospel caused uneasiness in 1524 and was put to trial but he won all paintings amd relics removed and whitewalls instilled, mass replaced by liturgry of prayer, scripture, ans sermons, catholic authority and practices abolished. killed in battle by enemies: body cut, burned to ashes and scattered

John Locke

philosopher (1623-1704) favored limited government Father of English Liberalism 1690: wrote: Two Treatises of Government

justification by faith

primary doctrine of Protestant Reformation; taught that humans are not saved through good works but by the grace of God; given freely through the sacrifice of Jesus. Established by Martin Luther

Puritans

protestants within the Anglican church that wished to eliminate every trace of Roman Catholicism from the church of England. inspired by Calvinist theology king sought to alienate these people even though they made much of the lower level of parliament when forced to form to angelican ways many of these people went to the "howling wilderness"

Militant Catholicism

radical Catholic believers who believed that the only way to remain a Catholic country was to combine together in lay organizations, to work in politics and society for the overthrow of the Protestant culture, and to replace it with a strictly Catholic ethos.

Anabaptists

radical reformers of the Protestant Reformation true Christian church is the voluntary association of believers who undergo spiritual rebirth and have to be baptized into church adult over infant baptism all believers considered equal each church chose own minister, any member eligible complete separation of church and state refused to hold political office or bear arms because they took thou shall not kill seriously

Montesquieu's ideals

recognized three forms of government: republic, monarchy, and despotism government should be separated by powers (judicial, executive, and legislative branch) checks and balances effective and essential

El Mina

slave fortress built in 1482 by the Portuguese first slave-trading post in world

Enlightenment

the 18th century intellectual movement led philosophes that stressed the application of reasons and scientific method in all aspects of life.

dialectical materialism

the Marxist theory (adopted as the official philosophy of the Soviet communists) that political and historical events result from the conflict of social forces and are interpretative as a series of contradictions and their solutions. The conflict is believed to be caused by material needs.

Anabaptism

the doctrine that baptism should only be administered to believing adults, held by a radical Protestant sect that emerged during the 1520s and 1530s.

Continental System

the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars.

conservatism

the ideology based on the tradition and social stability favored maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority resisted change especially abrupt change

socialism

the ideology that calls for collective or government ownership of means of production and distribution of goods.

Christian Humanism

the intellectual movement in northern Europe in the late 15th and 16th century that combined interests in classics of the initial Renaissance with an interest in the sources of early Christianity including the new testament and the writing of the church fathers believed in ability for Christians to reason and improve themselves through education in classical and religion.

Revolutionary socialism

the socialist doctrine created by Georges Sorel violent action was the only way to achieve goals of socialism

Colombian Exchange

the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage.

Peter the Great

unusual leader; enjoyed low jokes brutality was big (flogging, impaling, roastings) determined to westernize Russia after his trip in 1697-98 reorganize army and create navy divided Russia into providence's: hope to evoke civil duty among the people (police state) hoped to make Russia a open window to the west

Diet of Worms

was an imperial diet (assembly) of the Holy Roman Empire held at the Heylshof Garden in Worms, then an Imperial Free City of the Empire. An imperial diet was a formal deliberative assembly of the whole Empire.

Thirty Years War

when: 1618-1648 where: Germanic Lands of Holy Roman Empire who: led by Protestant calvinists against Habsburg authority; denmark, spain, france, sweden why: struggle between catholic forces; competition between bourbon dynasties (france) and Habsburg dynasties(spain and holy roman empires) ended with the Peace of Westphalia

Denis Diderot

writer in france viewed christianity as fanatical and unreasonable chrisitanity is the worst wrote the encyclopedia,

The Starry Messenger

written by Galileo in 1610 made Europeans aware of new picture of the universe:other places in solar system have qualities similar to earth was attacked by church for having ideas of Copernican and said it threatened scripture but also conception of universe spiritually

Leviathan

written by Thomas Hobbes in 1651 touched upon the sovereign's ability to tax; equal imposition of taxation

Thomas Jefferson

wrote deceleration of independence that was approved July 4 1776 led republican party after ratification of the U.S. Constitution

Louis XIV

wrote letter in 1681 to King of Tonkin requesting permission for Christian missionaries to proselytize in Vietnam controlled policy making machinery of government in time of his rule in France under a divine right monarchy relied on ministers and nobles to be subservient finances were crucial issue for this king for military waged four wars between 1667-1713

isaac newton

wrote principia defined the three laws of motion that governed planetary bodies along with objects on earth universal law of gravitation: objects went in elliptical orbit not straight lines; every object is attracted to the other by gravity world machine