Modern Political Theory Quiz
3 Ws: Rousseau
18th Century philosopher out of Geneva.
What is Rousseau's Core Idea?
some societies produce indiv.s who are oriented to the community and some produce indivs oriented to their own self-interest. INSTITUTIONS PRODUCE CITIZENS
medieval structure of political authority
the tree, a hierarchical form with 2 parallel sides- DUALIST . On the top is the pope and the king (highest religious: sacred and political: profane authority), with priests, bishops, lords, aristocrats, and eventually @ the bottom, peasants who passively obey authority. was seen as divinely natural (basis of legitimacy), permanent, unchanging, and therefore unquestionable. represented also a struggle for power between religious and secular authority. eventually breaks down in part due to Martin Luther
examples of violations of limited gov't (Locke)
trump campaign's collusion w/Russia to undermine elections & admin's obstruction of justice
R's main issue in the social contract
trying to figure out how to ensure a political system operates as the general will
doctrines of Martin Luther's reformation: Priesthood of All Believers
when it comes to religious authority- YOU are your own authority, the hierarchy officials of the church are not necessary for salvation, religion btwn god and the indiv. clergy as corrupt intermediaries btwn people and god ** CUTS DOWN HALF THE TREE- saws off the branches !
Locke's State of Nature: Rational
(Reasonable) everyone has their own interest they want to fulfill, equal in ability to reason- figure out that god put you in this position, therefore should follow this law of nature, to not harm others life, lib. property.
Locke's State of Nature: Equal
(challenges medieval idea of NOT equal by nature) argues that creatures are the same species, creatures have all the same faculties (brains), and **We are all equal in the EYES of GOD. (Theology)
Fiduciary (Locke)
basis of idea of limited gov't: majority can take back sovereignty from gov't
Protestant Reformation
began in 1517 in germany after the publishing of Martin Luther's theses. Before it, there was only 1 church, THE Church (today the Catholic Church).
Limited Gov't and ROL (Locke Social Contract)
brought about by the social contract , idea that gov't should not extend beyond the COMMON GOOD (protection of natural rights, property + life), limited set of functions, gov't shouldn't exercise power arbitrarily (random decrees, applying laws differently to some), state can't infringe on natural rights bc gov't has no authority that we don't have in a SoN
What makes Calvinism the "first modern revolutionary political ideology"?
"duty" of every good christian to oppose any unjust, tyrannical, corrupt leader. If you don't, going to hell. cromwell + round heads killed king, it had a systematic set of ideas, and commoners transformed the political authority
Locke's State of Nature: Free
"state of perfect freedom" yet restricted by natural law (from God)- noone ought to harm one another in life or property. bc god creates humans, if you violate someone else's natural rights (God Given), you a re putting yourself over God. [CORE OF LOCKEAN THEORY, moral basis of legitimate gov't, basic rights that gov't shouldn't touch]
How do Luther's ideas have democratic potential?
(Gillespie) they bring authority from the top to bottom. however, only religious- he still believes strongly in rigid hierarchal political authority- upholds the secular authority of the king and local lords (who were protecting him from the church), yet opens doors for challenges to authority GENERALLY: (Thomas Muntzer)
Rousseau: General Will
(connected w/contract idea of giving up natural liberty for civil + moral liberty if the lawmaking auth. has this quality) In a just pol. system, when you obey laws, your interest is tied to the interest of the group as a whole, you feel like youre obeying your self-exercising moral liberty (difficult @ level of pol. system) - will for the general good or public interest, opposite is private interest. Will of the people.
R: Small, Direct Democracy
(not representative) THE SOURCE OF THE GW. the more social bond extended either through geography or population, the looser it becomes. community easier when you can have face 2 face interaction. DD: people actively directly vote on issues, not reps. authentic democratic voice achieved- authentically democratic.
3 Ws: Philosophes
18th C French intellectuals (doctors, lawyers) like Voltaire, saw themselves in warfare w/church + monarchy (Enlightenment philosophers v Old regime) obsessed w 2 strands of progress that went together. 1. Scientific, Tech., economic 2. Moral-Political. Church hated this idea!
Why didn't Locke perceive an abusive majority?
1. Historical Context: tyranny only exercised by a monarch. solution? popular sov. by a majority 2. His "majority" is only white males w/ property (aristocrats), who he perceived as morally better
2 stages of Locke's social contract
1. Indiv.s irrevocably transfer sovereign authority to the "consent of the majority" of a society who direct the political system, need to give express, irrevocable consent 2. Limited Gov't and Rule of Law are synonymous. Constitutional gov't cannot do anything it wants, majority able to intervene. Fiduciary relationship (trust) with best interest in mind, to uphold common good of natural rights
Locke: Wasteland and Valuable land
1. Justification of Colonialism, expropriating land from the natives, enslaving and genocide-ing them
2 models for understanding illegitimacy of british rule over the american colonies
1. Locke's contractural model 2. Rousseau's corruption model (jefferson + adams): america as a land where people are "more equal", largely farmers w/ guns who stand up to rich debauched soldiers (how america saw itself)
Qualifications for Revolution according to Locke
1. Majority backs it 2. has to be over a violation of natural rights (life,lib. prop.) 3. has to be LONG TERM of ABUSES, sustained injustice over time
Limited Functions of Gov't (Locke)
1. Protect Natural Rights (esp. prop & life) 2. settle disputes 3. settle property Qs 4. Clarifying notions of right + wrong 5. Law Enforcement-> punishment 6. National Defense
R: What social and institutional conditions does R think are necessary to build a strong sense of community that is necessary for people to deliberate in such a way that they will discover the general will? (How does this feature of the pol. system create a strong sense of community that will be able to reflect the general will. only then will the majority will reflect the GW)
1. Small, direct democracy 2. Limits on amount of inequality of wealth 3. Censorship 4. Civil Religion
Hobbes logic
1. in a state of nature: people are naturally free, equal ( in their capacity to harm one another), and rational 2. Their interaction produces insecurity and conflict- feedback loop, everyone as enemy 3. solution? Authoritarian gov't of absolute power
Locke: criteria satisfied in a just political system
1. known and settled laws (public knowledge, everyone subject to same laws)- solves ignorance + mis-interpretation problem 2. Impartial Judiciary (not tied to exec. branch)- solves bias problem- tend to favor ourselves 3. Secure execution of the laws: executive branch- solves power differential problems
Why growing inequality of wealth can be "dangerous" to political systems
1. more difficult to have fair equality of opportunity for people @ the bottom, deck stacked against 2. growing capacity of wealthy to undermine the fairness of the political process. top wants to perpetuate the inequality. Undermines norms of democratic society
How does Locke get people @ bottom to agree to system of property inequality
1. tacit consent: because they did not verbally disagree, they have agreed to the system as legitimate. your behavior (using money) implies compliance 2. Material Benefits for All (rising tide raises all boats): the economic growth that comes from the system of inequality of wealth will make EVERYONE benefit. King of nations of america example: rich in land, poor in the comforts of life, "yet for want of improving it by labor" are worse off than A DAY LABORER IN ENGLAND, entangled with civilizational argument, that europeans better 3. Calvinist Social Morality. (protestant work ethic) shift from economic to religious argument. the wealthy are wealthy bc they are hardworking and industrious. there is a moral distinction between those at the top and bottom.
when was the enlightenment?
1730-1780
3Ws Oliver Cromwell
17th C Calvinist Military and Political leader in England, who fought in the English Civil War in 1642, ruled as lord protector from 1647-1659, an effective leader, but died b
3Ws King Charles I
17th C King of England aligned with the Church of England against the Calvinists in the English Civil War, eventually pushed out of power, held on trail for treason by calvinists, for undermining the political system. is found guilty and executed. marks end of hierarchal authority
Hobbes
17th Century English Philosopher , believed in the idea of a Leviathan- people aren't vicious but situations will deteriorate bc of uncertainty, less trust, violence. State of Nature: Life as "nasty brutish, short" war of all against all (State of War): pessimistic logic of human interaction where there is no pol order bc of uncertainty.
3 Ws John Locke
17th Century English Philosopher, Published the Second Treatise of Government in 1689,
3 Ws Rousseau
18th C genevan in france- philosopher
What is the relation of the general will to the majority will?
A majority vote COULD be the general will, if it is not made up of a coalition of special interests.
Goals/Arguments of the Enlightenment Philosophes
A. Physical: gain knowledge of natural laws of physical universe, eliminate barriers to science + its power to control nature, scientific-technical advance B. bring about an economic order in accord w/ the natural laws of social interaction: ie: eliminate barriers for free economic exchange *invisible hand, adam smith, laissez-faire* C. Moral-Political- bring about a political order in accord w/natural moral laws, ie. eliminate barriers to indiv. freedom + *rights of man* ADD EM UP? Perfectibility of Human Beings + Society- if you can get rid of old inst-> road to progress
obstacles to 18th century enlightenment philosophers
A. The church B. Absolute Monarchy + entire social + economic order of Feudalism in France- no revolutions yet, wealthy catholic church still in power
Locke's arguments for majority rule
A. physical metaphor: a force of gravity pulls toward the will of the majority B. If everyone has equal voice, the only solution is unanimity, which is pretty much impossible. doesn't mention protections for minorities or against majority tyranny.
Locke and the Protestant Work Ethic
AKA Calvinist Social Morality. Wealth and success as a product of hard work and indicative of God's favor. if you're not working hard, morally wrong. Strong believer, influences his ideas of Wasteland (forests) and Valuable land (being exploited).
Who were the calvinists?
AKA Puritans, 17th centural christian sect that was 1. politically radical 2. socially conservative - religion guides everything you do in life to be a "good christian" emphasis on tradition, religion, social hierarchy 3. militarily effective: religious + military discipline. everyone in dull colors, round hair cuts. fought against swashbuckling cavaliers and WRECKED 'EM --believed in predestination: NOTHING you could do to guarantee heaven
Rousseau: Moral Liberty (What does it mean that someone must be 'forced to be free')
Ability to obey the rules set for ourselves, we are not free when we act on impulse, desire, appetite, when something below reason overcomes reason, then we are not acting in our ideals. ML is acting in accordance with laws you set for yourself (bc the general will reflects your own will). we don't have power to act in our true, enlightened, rational willl, so people are given authority to force you (@ level of political system, a LAW). ex: addicts, seatbelts greek: autonomy- self law, law given to yourself by committing yourself to something Social Contract + Pol System act so that Obeying law feels like exercising freedom (but hasn't worked in the pol. systems of Rousseau's time or history, its his idea of a JUST pol. system.
3 Ws Martin Luther
An early 16th C theologist in germany. He challenged the fundamental hierarchal structure of The Church in the publication of his theses (the sale of indulgences was trivial). translated the bible from latin- vernacular! made religion accessible to people outside the hierarchy of the church- draining authority!
Rousseau: Social Contract (Content)
Beginning: general condemnation of most policy systems
Historical Context of John Locke 1679
British Parliament worried that Charles II will take us back to catholicism, Shaftesbury tries to pass a law that says English monarchs can't be catholic, Charles II closes parliament and takes oppressive measures against the political opposition. THIS is when locke starts the second treatise
How do we get from bible's view of money to PWE?
Calvinism! the political ideology of the english civil war challenged political authority. it was fundamentally a economic ideology, and changes how christianity views moneymaking: Doctrine of the Elect- Calvin -> People who work hard, in process of making money, prove you are one of god's elect. rich are more likely to be predestined for heaven. making money puts you closer to god. wealthy= morally better. ALL THIS IS IMPLIED IN LOCKE: god gave land for the "industrious and rational"
Historical Context of John Locke 1660-1688
Charles II was opposed to Calvinists, wanted to fire them from universities, so Locke is out of a job. he becomes a medical doctor for the earl of shaftesbury who was leader of the opposition. locke becomes political advisor
Lockean legacy
Contract Metaphor: Classical Liberal image of Politics: 1. Indiv.'s equal rights to life, liberty, and property (cultural values in politics) 2. central problem of legitimate political authority is limiting gov'ts power, so that it does not threaten these values Progress: comparison of daylaborer + Indian "King" , european civilization are better, more progressive. today crops up as a FAITH IN PROGRESS leftover from enlightenment: expectation that things iwll get better
Question Rousseau is attempting to answer in his Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts
Has the restoration of the Arts and the Sciences contributed to the purification of mores?
Why is Luther so successful
He had the support of the secular authority- who were jealous bc the Church was the wealthiest institution in the western hemisphere (bc of taxes)
Locke's Social Contract vs. Rousseau's
Locke: give up some natural liberty for security of self + property under rule of majority will, social contract as a tool, device. R: gTotal alienation of natural liberty for civil liberty. get back rule by authority if the lawmaking is of the "general will" and you remain as free as before. Social contract as an institution which produces a powerful change in man.
What distinguishes Luther from Calvinism
L: Religious Reformation C: Political Reformation L believed political hierarchy necessary to keep "chaos" down
Hobbes solution to the state of war
Leviathan (1651)- very powerful authoritarian government will bring peace . citizens must be in AWE of pol system, so that everyone obeys laws. as long as there is order, the pol system is legitimate. could easily support monarch or cromwell `\
Historical Context of John Locke 1682
Locke + Shaftesbury are exiled- head to netherlands, dutch are worried abt Engl. turning Catholic, Charles II dies -> james II, even more auth + catholic. THEN dutch join english radicals to put calvanist ideals back: GLORIOUS REV. of 1688- nobody killed, (dutch army loved their leader more)
What is the historical context of Locke's social contract
Locke saw this deteriorate when Charles II shut down parliament and was arresting opponents
Locke & Rousseau: Are humans naturally moral?
Locke: Yes (Hobbes: No, immoral) Rousseau: Amoral- naturally without morals, like children must be TAUGHT, have a capacity to take on morality that they didn't have initially. in social transformation from state of nature (no morals) to civil state, actions are given a "moral quality they previously lacked"
Rousseau: Natural Liberty & Civil Liberty
NL: freedom to do as you will CL:freedom limited by lawmaking authority in polity
According to Locke, can you consent to your own enslavement?
No! You're God's property, can't kill yourself bc you don't own yourself!
Locke's State of Nature
People are free, equal, natural, how people think and restrict themselves. begins as peaceful, but problems emerge that make a contractual gov't necessary. unlike hobbes it is NOT a state of war, but of human restraint. a thought experiment, evolves over time and problems emerge
What is Locke's most important thing that makes a political system legitimate?
Protection of Inequality of Wealth that is Justified
What makes for a legitimate political system?
Question that Locke begins his state of nature with- bc problems come before contracts. what problems if no government? legitmate pol system SOLVES these problems
Is Rousseau-ian democracy at odds w/ indiv. liberty?
R believes that society's specific institutions create certain types of individuals. What sorts of institutions foster Indiv.s that feel that the GW is same as their own will? In r, your own best interests are identical w/lawmaking will. enacting freedom when obeying laws, people don't feel oppress and can realize their freedom
R: Radical Communitarian Democrat
Radical Communitarian(not liberal)- obsessed with the community over the individual, advocates for limits on amount of inequality of wealth Radical Democrat: Putting politics as close to the people/VOP as possible, direct democracy he was enthusiastic about democracy, but didn't like dissent against the community result: on democratic terms, can deal harshly w/ minority dissenters bc they are THREAT in pov of Radical Comm. Dem. Almost authoritarian feat.
How does conflict emerge in Locke's State of Nature
SoN T1: Peaceful, free and equal living together according to reason SoN T2: Conflict over distribution of wealth, situation of fears and danger, insecure.. The inequality of property exacerbates the power differential problem, bias problem, ignorance + misinterpretation problem
What would it feel like to dissent in Rousseau's pol. order?
To dissent against the general will is to have "erred" morally - you have put your own/group interests/ special interests above those of the community. you have no moral liberty, bc you have gone back on your commitment to abide by the general will. Dissenters must be "forced to be free" jailed or executed, for their own good.
Who is on the other side of Locke's social contract?
WILL OF THE MAJORITY (political society, community)- gov't gives up authority to the majority
How do you find out (procedures for determining) what the general will is in a pol. community?
What kind of question that you ask yourself while deliberating reveals the kind of collective that will be expressed. Best Q: What will benefit me as a CITIZEN and and every other citizen in the community. As a member of the community, what is the interest of everyone in the long run?
3 Ws John Calvin
a 16th French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation.
modern idea of progress
a product of 18th century enlightenment thinkers (100 yrs after locke), people expect that political authority must MAINTAIN progress.
How does property (inequality of wealth) arise in Locke's State of Nature
according to Bible, god gave Earth to humans in common. Property is made private through LABOR, work. breaks down: the ocean: can't own it.
Can you accumulate as much property as you want? (Locke)
as long as it is not wasting, spoiling: bc ur taking from others who could use it. And you can't mix labor w/un owned natural resources. *Enough and As Good Provision- need to leave this much natural resource for others, can't take too much MONEY (gold + silver) can be infinitely accumulated bc it does not spoil: Locke's justification for inequality, gov'ts must protect it bc it is god-ordained an natural
doctrines of Martin Luther's reformation: Salvation by Faith Alone-
challenged the idea that brought about indulgences, that people are saved by doing certain good works which are graded by the church. LUTHER said that people are saved by believing in god alone, and HIS grace not that church saves you. important bc this means that you do not need the church to grade your behavior!
King William's grounds for rule
consent of the people, not from god or hierarchy, and the people have the power to topple. Beginning of Constitutional Gov't
central idea (metaphor) to modern political theory
contract theory of political authority- denotes aspects of a horizontal relationship between 2 parties, both free and equal and some sort of consent. Starts w/John Locke. It rejects dualism (no religious authority), is egalitarian (people as equals), changeable (can be altered, revoked, renegotiated), and based on consent (artificial terms of contract, man-made)
Rousseau's method
contrasting darkness of modern world w/light of ancient world where human spirit flourished. Argument: todays politics is corrupted by business and money, ancient was about mores + pol/civic virtue
Rousseau and Progress?
disagreed wi/ the dual track theory of progress, says that science/tech progress causes moral/political decline- but not same reasons as the church.
Historical Context of John Locke 1689
dutch prince william and his queen mary become king of england, good bc institute principals of constitutional gov't: King in relation to other pol. powers + gives power to the people: locke provides an image of what this new political authority should look like in 2nd Treatise- document to justify new regime.
Why enter into a political society? (Locke)
end conflict over ineq of property, protect private property, establish an executive, dispels anxiety, impartial judge (solves bias problem)
R: General Will tends toward...
equality (equal consideration)
Terms of Locke's social contract
give up role of private interpreter, judge, and execution of the law of nature, lose your sovereign authority to do what is necessary. In return? better security for your natural right to life, liberty and property. establishes rule of law: security, less violence. PEACE + NATURAL RIGHTS THROUGH ROL
Why does Rousseau hate modern france + athens
great ineq., luxury, art, architecture, declining religious faith. fosters citizens w/ self-interest, personal freedom, ambition, entertainment
Rousseau: Social Contract
how to imagine what a legitimate political system is, radically democratic and shifting in its political views. Political system draws legitimacy from the power of the people (direct democracy + general will), force of opinion of the people
What does "man is born free, yet everywhere in chains" mean (Rousseau)
humans have natural freedom, yet everywhere non-legitimate (non-direct democracy) political systems constrain people. Individual natural liberty is State of Nature, political authority after contract signed, laws take away freedom, restriction on liberty- in a system with a fraudulent contract.
Locke's right of revolution/ political resistance
if king doesn't act within trust of the majority, they can revolt. if gov't violates the social contract, the majority can have armed rev against it. BUT if your life is not directly threatened by gov't- use right of appeal through courts, only if minority convinces majority that their persecution threatens society as a whole
Why does Rousseau like Sparta?
lack of wealth, ineq. and luxury, little arts + sciences, strong religion, strong military discipline ==fosters a citizen oriented to "virtue" + freedom of community, willing to die for community, strong bond of comm.
mores
like "morals" but broader, involving social and political issues
How do we get into a state of war according to Locke?
only happens in a state of nature, where you have no authority/common law to appeal to. if you violate someone of their property (natural right) then you have violated the law of nature and are now in a state of war. solution? Kill him, slavery, reparations: The Victim is the Judge + Executioner (interprets and executes law)!
