module 1 recap

Describe a form of trepanation that occurred in the mid-1900s.

During the 20th century, there is evidence that this practice continued, as holes were drilled into the side of the skull and sharp metal instruments or chemicals were used to scramble brain tissue. This was done in the frontal lobe as a way to reduce psychosis and other mental disorders (Anastasia, 1984). This practice of "lobotomy" or leucotomy

Describe the historical connection between artists and neuroanatomy by providing some examples.

Leonardo devinnci would experiment with was and an ox brain where he developed the notion that the ventricles were the abode to the soul.

Provide examples of ways that humans are connecting to computers through their nervous system and techniques that might change in the future.

Nanotechnology is a field where materials and technical devices are being miniaturized. Nanotechnology like Berkeley's neural dust is already being implanted into nervous systems to transmit information. In the future, nanocomputers may take on the role of brain nervous tissue.

Describe the movement known as transhumanism. How are humans changing today, and what might the future hold?

Transhumanism is a movement where technology and genetics may be fundamentally changing and enhancing human beings. ~In some ways, humans are already changing, with titanium hips and knees, artificial hearts and kidneys, 3-D printed organs like bladders, hearing aids, cochlear implants, and artificial retinas

Explain the practice of trepanation and what it was thought to accomplish.

a process of drilling a hole (or holes) into the skull and is one of the oldest documented surgical procedures. Holes were drilled into the skull to relieve built-up pressure, drain pus from infection, or release what were believed to be evil spirits or demons. it is possible that if the meninges (outer covering of the brain) or blood vessels weren't damaged, people could survive

Which of these philosophies (dualism and monism) is the way we address neuroscience today, and why?

for the notion that all psychological processes are a product of nervous system activity Neuroscientists today favor a monistic approach to their field.

explain the concept of an emergent property and how this is important for scientists to understand.

is an idea that something unique and unpredictable develops from small things working together. Often it is hard (if not impossible) to understand by investigating the small, fundamental things, as the overall system is needed. For example, the neuron is a pretty amazing cell in the body, but studying the single neuron does not, as yet, tell us about how we get to the emergent property of consciousness, rationality, or perception. To understand these, we must look at how groups of neurons function together (along with sensory systems, the endocrine system, and the like) as a larger unit.

Describe the difference between an applied approach and basic approach to neuroscience.

~An example of an applied approach could be someone who uses an understanding of the psychological process to help remedy a specific problem. For example, a clinical psychologist might use an understanding of psychoactive drugs (psychopharmacology) and cognitive behavioral therapy techniques to benefit the treatment of a patient with depression. Someone specializing in Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) might use the results of experiments on modifying behavior in rats or pigeons to better treat a child with discipline problems or someone on the autism spectrum. An applied approach in neuroscience in the medical field might be a psychiatrist, neurologist, or rehabilitation counselor who specializes in head injuries. ~The Basic approach on the other hand, is directed toward a greater understanding of fundamental principles without the necessity of practical or applied goals. A better understanding can, and often does, lead to better mechanisms of treatment, but that is not the primary focus of basic research. For example, basic research on genetic engineering was able to splice the DNA from bioluminescent jellyfish and corals into other animals and tissue

List subdisciplines in neuroscience that are more often found in biology, zoology, or medicine and some of their research and application interests.

~Behavioral neuroendocrinology is the study of the effects of hormones on behavior. One might investigate the relationship between the hormone cortisol and stress, oxytocin and love, or testosterone and aggression. ~Psychoneuroimmunology looks at the relationship between the nervous system, behavior, and our immune system. We know, for example, that stress and stress hormones can hinder the immune system, increase the chances of infections, and elevate the risk of contracting diseases. ~Psychopharmacology is the study of the effects of psychoactive substances on behavior, ranging from psychoactive drugs used in the treatment of psychological ailments like schizophrenia and depression to the effects of recreational drugs (legal and illegal) such as cocaine, heroin, marijuana, and alcohol.

Explain the difference between holism and reductionism and give examples of each approach in psychology.

~Holism is a holistic approach to research where one might assume that one cannot understand a complex system by looking at its smallest parts, often stated as, "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts." An example in psychology could be in the field of industrial-organizational psychology (I/O), where more is learned from studying how people in a company work and interact together than by just looking at the action of one employee. Ex 2. a researcher might investigate patterns of interactions between people in a city (social psychology) ~Reductionism is a more reductionistic approach to research, which is gaining an understanding of complex behaviors by investigating the smaller components. For example, psychologists might be interested in how levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in a specific brain region affect a rat learning to navigate a maze. ~holistic and reductionistic approaches are not mutually exclusive, and a range within these approaches is often needed to understand complex behaviors. For example, to truly understand causes and treatments for drug addiction, one must bring together ideas from developmental psychology, social psychology, cognitive psychology, psychiatry and medicine, associative learning, and several branches of neuroscience and biochemistry.

List subdisciplines in neuroscience that are typically found in a psychology department, and give examples of the type of research people in these fields might conduct.

~In Psychophysiology Psychophysiologists are also interested in brain activity (physiology) and behavior, but they do not typically use animal models or vivisection (live dissection) UNLIKE Physiological psychology. They most often employ human participants and recording devices that measure, for example, heart rate (electrocardiogram, ECG), specific brain waves (electroencephalography, EEG), or deep brain activity (functional MRI). For example, one might record a particular brain wave that corresponds with getting feedback on an incorrect decision. ~evolutionary psychology looks at how our natural history (our evolutionary past) and pressures brought on by natural selection affect our behavior today. Evolutionary psychologists investigate many topics, from sexual attraction and mate choice to aggression and violence. One example of how our natural history and evolution affect our behavior is in the food we crave and find delicious. ~Applied fields in neuroscience are clinical neuroscience, psychiatry, and neurology. ~there are now researchers focusing on neurotheology, which studies the relationship between the brain and religion; or neuroesthetics, which looks at the brain, art, design, and music; and the aptly named field of neurolaw, which looks at what neuroscience and brain imaging can tell us about legal rules, standards, and sentencing.

Describe how an understanding of neuroscience can be beneficial to someone with interests in applied aspects of psychology.

~Knowing how these drugs work on the brain, how the brain changes with addiction, and how treatment also changes the brain will give a psychologist or therapist a more complete understanding of treatments. ~Someone in applied fields of psychology will be better at their job if they have a good understanding of the neuroscience and neuropharmacology that is relevant to the people they are trying to help.

Provide examples of why studying neuroscience can help prepare you to make sound ethical decisions about the future. What past events demonstrate the importance of moral thinking in neuroscience?

~Learning about neuroscience makes people better at critical thinking, so we are less susceptible to falling for companies that sell remedies that do not work on the brain the way they claim. ~Studying neuroscience helps us to learn from tragic mistakes of the past and gives us the tools to make better ethical judgments about the present and future of neuroscience research and methods

Who were some of the significant thinkers during these times?

~Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is best known as a painter (Mona Lisa, The Last Supper) and inventor, but he was also an exceptional scientist and illustrator of human anatomy and the nervous system. He developed theories about the perception of sight and smell and how the brain decodes these sensations. ~Michelangelo's fresco on the Sistine Chapel's ceiling called The Creation of Adam which has several characteristics of a longitudinal section of the human brain. many artists during the Renaissance began depicting cryptic images of the brain in their artwork that may be a representation of the importance of human thought and reason. ~Andreas Vesalius an Anatomist who created the most detailed books on anatomy during the Renaissance. (1514-1564), who worked with illustrators like Johan Van Calcar to create the quintessential human anatomy books of the time such as De Humani Corporis Fabrica. ~the Scientific RevolutionA time in the 17th and 18th centuries when the scientific method and empiricism were having a significant influence on thinkers and philosophers. This period is also known as the Age of Enlightenment. and Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries. During this period, we find great thinkers about science, mathematics, and philosophy such as Francis Bacon, John Locke, David Hume, and René Descartes. This was a time when the scientific method became a way to investigate the world.

List some ways that a course in biopsychology can be important to people with diverse interests in psychology and other majors.

~Many disciplines in psychology start with a basic understanding of the nervous system because neuroscience can act as the foundation for many theories in each field. ~Someone in applied fields of psychology will be better at their job if they have a good understanding of the neuroscience and neuropharmacology that is relevant to the people they are trying to help. ~Having a foundation of knowledge of these neurological changes can support a developmental psychologist's understanding of life changes ~Many theories in psychology are rooted in how the nervous system functions. For example, theories of associative learning discuss excitation and inhibition of association, which are based on the different ways that neurons send signals to other neurons (Bouton, 2007). Stages in development often coincide with the growth and development of the brain.

List subdisciplines in neuroscience that involve zoology in some of their research and application interests.

~Physiological psychology: which focuses on the neural and biochemical mechanisms underlying complex behaviors such as learning, memory, addiction, and sleeping by directly working with the brain and nervous system in animal models. A physiological psychologist might place a very thin recording device in a specific area of a rat's hippocampus (e.g., CA1) and record the activity of the cells in that area while the rat learns or recalls running through a maze. Researchers in this field often have a strong background in biology, anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and physics as well as animal behavior and associative learning and memory. ~Behavioral Neuroscience: is a rather broad field interested in biological principles of behavior. This field uses research techniques in physiology, genetics, computer science, biology, behaviorism, and chemistry to understand behavior in humans and other animals. ~Cognitive neuroscience is related to several other subdisciplines with the primary goal of understanding the biological influences on cognitive processes such as language, consciousness, learning, memory, attention, and decision-making. This field can use animal models but typically focuses on humans. A subfield of cognitive neuroscience is neuroeconomics which is the study of the biological influences of making economic decisions. Basic principles of neuroeconomics can use animal models to look at brain functions when an animal is choosing between different food reward parameters like amount, quality, or probability. There are also some fascinating studies using brain imaging to look at people making decisions about money, gambling, winning, and losing ~Behavioral genetics looks at the role of genetics in animal behavior (including humans) and is one of the fast-growing fields in neuroscience. This type of research often looks at family members, especially twins, who show similar traits such as obesity, depression, or the development of dementia (loss of cognitive functions). However, there is also research on the genetic influence of personality traits, cognitive abilities, political affiliations, or propensity for addictions. ~Comparative psychology is the study of how psychological principles are similar or different between species of animals. This component of comparative psychology typically looks at the learning, memory, and cognition of different species of animals without the influence of drugs or live dissection (vivisection). ~Ethology is the study of natural behaviors by animals, with research often conducted in natural environments. it sub-sub field is Behavioral ecology which studies the theoretical influences of evolution on behavior, such as how animals make foraging decisions to maximize their energy (optimal foraging theory) or how they evolved to use tools.

List some myths and misunderstandings about the brain.

~There are several false myths, such as we only use 10% of our brain, the left and right halves of our brains process things separately, we have just five senses, or immunization causes autism. ~There are misunderstandings about neuroscience, such as we can locate specific individual characteristics by looking at brain scans. ~There are stigmas about neuropsychiatric disorders that can lead to mistreatment, discrimination, and reluctance to seek treatment. associating people with schizophrenia as violent, mothers with postpartum depression as poor mothers, soldiers with PTSD as not being tough enough, and people with substance use disorder as lacking morals or having weak willpower.

Give an example of how neuroscience is the foundation of many subdisciplines in psychology.

~a clinical psychologist, therapist, behavioral analyst, or counselor will want to know what psychoactive medications their client is taking, how these drugs affect the nervous system, how/if they can lead to substance abuse, and how they modify behavior.

Provide some examples of how companies are selling products without proof of effectiveness that they claim are beneficial for the brain and can help with mental disorders.

~supplements, herbal remedies, and homeopathy are not regulated by the FDA in the same way as other drugs. ~ Because of the Placebo Effect a feeling that a pill has changed symptoms though the medication has no active pharmacological effect. The placebo effect is typically temporary., which is a change in neurochemistry and behavior because someone believes that they have purchased a pill that works to relieve their symptoms

Describe significant contributions to neuroscience in ancient Egypt and Greece, during the Renaissance, during the Age of Enlightenment, and in the 1800s through the early 1900s.

~the Edwin Smith surgical papyrus an ancient Egyptian text with hieroglyphic writing that talked about anatomy, surgery, and the nervous system., which was likely created about 1700 BC. In hieroglyphics writing, the papyrus discusses different surgical techniques and references the brain, meninges (tissue around the brain), fluid in the brain, and the spinal cord. ~Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) also thought the heart to be the location of intelligence, and the brain's primary function was to cool the blood. However, other ancient Greek philosophers and thinkers like Pythagoras, Hippocrates, and Plato came to recognize that the brain was the seat of mental processes and intelligence. ~A physician in ancient Greece named Galen worked with Hippocrates and created some of the first comprehensive texts of anatomy, and his writings and illustrations were used for over 1300 years. Galen also believed that there was not a difference between the mind and the body, which is a fundamental principle of neuroscience today.

Explain the difference between dualism and monism.

~the notion that all psychological processes are a product of nervous system activity. To quote the famous scientist Marvin Minsky, "The mind is what the brain does." This idea is known as monism. ~The soul is the mind and does the thinking and connects to the physical body through a small area of the brain called the pineal gland (see Figure 1.6). This philosophy is known as dualismThe idea that the brain (tissue) is different from and is controlled by the mind (spiritual). (dual means two parts) and became an important doctrine.