Module 1: Regan, "How Not to Answer Moral Questions"

Are moral judgements merely personal preferences?

-Moral judgments aren't just expressions of personal preference and it follows that moral right and wrong can't be determined just by finding out about someone's personal preferences. -Our personal preferences are important but we can't answer moral questions just by saying what we like or dislike. When saying if something is morally right or wrong we have to be ready to give reasons to justify our judgments and reasons for other people to accept our judgements as correct. It's relevant to examine the reasons someone gives for thinking what they do because we want to know if the person's judgment is correct, not just their likes or dislikes.

Can moral disagreements ever be resolved by statistics?

It's good to see what the majority thinks, but just seeing what most people favor doesn't make it correct. so no they cannot be resolved with statistics alone.

Can moral questions be decided by appealing to a moral authority?

No. First, because people interpret things differently and second because the the judgements of the moral authority cannot be checked for their truth or reasonableness unless what is true or reasonable can be known independently of what the authority says. There has to be an independent way of testing the truth or reasonableness of moral judgements in order to establish someone's credentials.

Moral Judgments and Personal Preferences

-People can express different personal preferences without denying the other person affirms and two different personal preferences can be true at the same time. -Expressing conflicting judgments about the morality of something is different because you are denying what the other person is saying because for one thing to be right the other would have to be false. -Some philosophers disagree and think that moral judgments should be understood as expressions of personal preference, which the author is doubtful about. -When someone says that something is morally right or wrong, it's appropriate to ask them to give reasons to justify their judgment and reasons for accepting their judgement as correct. (Inappropriate to ask in cases of personal preference) because we want to know if the person's judgment is correct, not just their likes or dislikes. -Since moral judgments aren't just expressions of personal preference, it follows that moral right and wrong can't be determined just by finding out about someone's personal preferences. -Our personal preferences are important but we can't answer moral questions just by saying what we like or dislike.

The Appeal to a Moral Authority

-Some people believe there is a moral authority that is above a mortal, but instead a god or gods. This is controversial and resting questions of right or wrong on what a god says is basing morality on an intellectually unsettled foundation. -If there is a god who is a moral authority, questions come up on whether people are understanding what the authority says (problems of interpretations come up). -Even with a moral authority, it wouldn't make finding out what is right and wrong easy, especially in cases where the Bible offers little or no guidance (life sustaining technology for eg.). -The correct method for answering moral questions can't consist merely in discovering what a moral authority says. -If if there was a moral authority, those who are not moral authorities can have no good reason for thinking that there is one unless the judgements of this supposed authority can be checked for their truth or reasonableness, and it isn't possible to do unless what is true or reasonable right or wrong can be known independently of what this supposed authority says. -One's "credentials" can be established in the case of moral judgements only if there are independent ways of testing the truth or reasonableness of moral judgements. -Moral authority can't be a method we seek for moral questions because there must be some independent way of knowing what judgments are true and reasonable in order to test for the authority of another's moral judgements.

The Irrelevance of Statistics

-The idea that the correct method for answering questions right or wrong is to find out what most or all people think or feel is deficient. opinion polls should be conducted but they only reveal what all or most people think or feel, not what is correct. -Ex. at some point almost everyone believed the world was flat but that didn't make it true. -Questions of moral right and wrong can't be answered by taking a vote and going with the majority.

Why Thinking It So Does Not Make It So

-What someone thinks is the same as the personal preferences argument. -If someone is sincere, if they say something ought to be done then they do think that. But if that judgment is a moral judgment, what they said can't mean that because it's not affirming what someone else denies. Each person would just be stating what they think and it's possible for both to think different things. -So if someone is denying what someone else affirms, they cannot merely be stating that they think something because they believe that what they say is correct (whether it is correct is independent of thinking that it is.) -What someone thinks is irrelevant to establishing whether we ought to do something because our thinking something right or wrong doesn't make it so.

Intro

When faced with an ethical issue, some people don't think the problem can be solved through reasoned discussion because they claim moral judgments are just expressions of personal preference, matters of individual opinion, reflections of majority will, or commands of a higher authority. In these cases, there is no point to try to reason about ethics because we can only express our feelings, reiterate our beliefs, consult polls or consult with a higher power. This paper argues that none of these ways of dealing with moral questions is appropriate.

If you firmly believe an action is moral, might you be wrong?

Your judgment could be incorrect and that would make you wrong. Some people also rely too heavily on just stating their personal preferences. Just believing something is correct doesn't make it actually correct. Just thinking something is right or wrong doesn't automatically make it so.