Module 13

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Ilana's married friend Gwen is quite upset. She asks her why she, rather than her husband, is always the one who cooks, cleans, and takes care of the children the majority of the time. Ilana tells her all of the following EXCEPT that:

employed women have more time to devote to taking care of the children.

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females

gender

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women

Parents and peers influence different domains. Parents influence _____ while peers influence _____.

long-range and large-scale plans; social status

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

gender identity

our sense of being male or female, or a combination of the two

When six-year-old Sara imitates her mother by carefully wrapping and setting out presents for the holiday celebration, she is praised and given holiday cookies. Sara's learning of gender-linked behaviors is best explained by:

social learning theory.

How does culture affect our behavior?

A culture is an enduring set of behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group and transmitted from one generation to the next. Cultural norms are understood rules that inform members of a culture about accepted and expected behaviors. Cultures differ across time and space.

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

disorder of sexual development

an inherited condition that involves unusual development of sex chromosomes and anatomy

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or harm someone physically or emotionally

Shifting national boundaries in the Middle East in the past century are an illustration of the way in which cultures _____ and _____.

vary; compete for resources

How do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent sexual development, and what is a disorder of sexual development?

Both sex chromosomes and sex hormones influence development. Biological sex is determined by the father's contribution to the twenty-third pair of chromosomes. The mother always contributes an X chromosome. The father may also contribute an X chromosome, producing a female, or a Y chromosome, producing a male by triggering additional testosterone release and the development of male sex organs. During puberty, both primary and secondary sex characteristics develop. Sex-related genes and physiology influence behavioral and cognitive differences between males and females. Disorders of sexual development are inherited conditions that involve unusual development of sex chromosomes and anatomy.

How do gender roles and gender identity differ?

Gender roles, the behaviors a culture expects from its males and females, vary across place and time. Social learning theory proposes that we learn gender identity—our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two—as we learn other things: through reinforcement, punishment, and observation. Critics argue that cognition also plays a role because modeling and rewards cannot explain gender typing. Some children organize themselves into "boy worlds" and "girl worlds"; others prefer androgyny. Transgender people's gender identity or expression differs from their birth sex. Their sexual orientation may be heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or asexual.

How does the meaning of gender differ from the meaning of sex?

In psychology, gender is the socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women. Sex refers to the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females. Our gender is thus the product of the interplay among our biological dispositions, our developmental experiences, and our current situation.

What is included in the biopsychosocial approach to development?

Individual development results from the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences. Biological influences include our shared human genome; individual variations; prenatal environment; and sex-related genes, hormones, and physiology. Psychological influences include gene-environment interactions; the effect of early experiences on neural networks; responses evoked by our own characteristics, such as gender and temperament; and personal beliefs, feelings, and expectations. Social-cultural influences include parental and peer influences; cultural traditions and values; and cultural gender norms.

How do early experiences modify the brain?

Our genetic predispositions and our specific environments interact. Environments can trigger gene activity, and genetically influenced traits can evoke responses from others. As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then prompt a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but throughout our lives our brain modifies itself in response to our learning.

In what ways do parents and peers shape children's development?

Parents influence their children in areas such as manners and political and religious beliefs, but not in other areas, such as personality. As children attempt to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt their culture—styles, accents, slang, attitudes. By choosing their children's neighborhoods and schools, parents exert some influence over peer group culture.

The average woman is different from the average man in which of the following ways?

She is 14 cm shorter.

x chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

What do scientists think might have happened had the energy of the Big Bang been a little weaker?

The universe would have collapsed on itself.

What are some ways in which males and females tend to be alike and to differ?

We are more alike than different, thanks to our similar genetic makeup—we see, hear, learn, and remember similarly. Males and females do differ in body fat, muscle, height, age of onset of puberty, life expectancy, and vulnerability to certain disorders. Men admit to more aggression than women do, and they are more likely to be physically aggressive. Women's aggression is more likely to be relational. In most societies, men have more social power, and their leadership style tends to be directive, whereas women's is more democratic. Women focus more on social connectedness, and they "tend and befriend."

How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ in their values and goals?

Within any culture, the degree of individualism or collectivism varies from person to person. Cultures based on self-reliant individualism, like those found in North America and Western Europe, tend to value personal independence and individual achievement. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes, and personal rights and liberties. Cultures based on socially connected collectivism, like those in many parts of Asia and Africa, tend to value interdependence, tradition, and harmony, and they define identity in terms of group goals, commitments, and belonging to one's group.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.

Because of cataracts, a neighbor was deprived of visual experiences during early childhood. Last year, her vision was restored by surgery but she is having difficulty in dealing with the visual world. This is probably because:

brain cells normally devoted to vision died or were diverted to other uses.

Piano players who do drills when they are children to improve dexterity in their left hands experience _____ as a result.

brain changes that greatly improve dexterity

Children with ADHD are at very high risk for physical abuse. This is because the hyperactivity is a(n) _____ trait.

evocative

People with autism have a tendency to be aloof, so that they keep a distance from others that feels emotionally manageable to them. Others, in turn, are likely to maintain that interpersonal distance. In this case, aloofness is a(n) _____ trait.

evocative

spermarche

first ejaculation

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

According to research cited in the text, infant rats that were _____ gained weight more rapidly and developed faster neurologically than those rats that were _____.

handled;not handled

Pamela is a 15-year-old white teen who lives in the suburbs. She is likely to have her _____ influence her clothing selection and her _____ influence her college choice.

peers; parents

One's own concepts of masculinity and femininity that influence the comprehension of the world are called gender:

schemas

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

menarche

the first menstrual period

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished