Module 15: Weight Status, Fitness, and Motor Competence

Body Composition

-2 types of tissue in the body: 1.Lean tissue - muscle, bone, and organs 2.Adipose tissue - fat

-Food consumption and exercise can influence body composition • -Changes in body composition: Food consumption •Overeating -> excess fat weight •Starvation -> too little fat, can cause muscle wasting (i.e., breaking down muscle tissue to use as energy)

-Changes in body composition: Exercise •Exercise -> burns calories which can potentially alter a person's body composition •Resistance training -> increase muscle mass, especially after puberty

Adipose tissue & Basal Metabolic Rate

-Maintaining body composition is in part a matter of balancing calories consumed against the basal metabolic rate and physical exertion -Basal metabolic rate - the amount of energy used to keep the body functioning If you look at the graph, adapted by Vox, you'll see that the majority of a person's calories is consumed to maintain their basal metabolic rate, and it differs between men and women, on average.

Sociocultural effects of body composition

-Muscle •Differences in activity standards how much muscle a person exhibits. Some examples may be how much muscle is acceptable for a person to have before looking "unhealthy," where or in what balance a person can build muscle, ...such as the popular concept of "not skipping leg day" describing people with muscular upper bodies and smaller legs

A person who is obese decides to exercise and is finding it challenging. In this case, obesity is a _________ constraint.

A) Structural / Individual B) Functional / Individual C) Environmental D) A and B E) None of the above If a person finds walking difficult because of a large lymphedema on their leg inhibiting movement, then it would be structural. If a person finds walking difficult because they can't see any progress and lose motivation, then it would be functional.

The model of interrelationships: Motor competence and health

Across LLifespan

The role of physical activity in body composition

Body composition - the composition of tissue making up the body as divided into lean tissues or fat (adipose) ◦ Generally: More activity -> Optimal lean tissue and fat BUT activity level and body composition are bidirectional across the lifespan Bidirectional, means exactly how it sounds. Factors are influenced by others, and in turn, affect them.

The role of physical activity in body composition Motor competence, also called motor skill proficiency, is proficiency in common foundational movement skills that enable participation in a variety of everyday activities, sports, and dance. A high amount of motor competence provides some benefits for skilled movers. A skilled mover also has a decreased risk of injury Skilled movers use energy more efficiently when they are physically active, allowing them to sustain the activity for longer.

Motor competence - proficiency in common foundational movement skills that enable participation in a variety of everyday activities, sports, and dance •(Also called, motor skill proficiency) Benefits of skilled movers •Decreased risk of injuries •Use energy more efficiently when they are physically active, allowing them to sustain activity for longer (short- and long-term) ◦

Controversies surround weight loss, activity, and body composition

There are controversies surrounding weight loss, activity, and body composition... ◦Can you be overweight or obese and still healthy or fit? ◦What is the best way to lose weight?

Across Development Interrelations affect later interrelations/domains

as a consequence, the relations between these factors change across development. For example, perceived motor competence is closely tied with actual motor competence. A child with above average motor competence will likely have a self concept which reflects a higher perceived motor competence. Over time, a child who continues to believe they are talented at sports or physical activities, is more likely to continue with activities which promote motor competence across development.

Obesity across the Lifespan Obesity in childhood and adolescence

•Body mass index - a metric used to calculate weight category •SI: a person's weight (kg) divided by squared meters (kg/m2) •US: a person's weight (lbs) divided by squared height in inches, all multiplied by 703 Underweight - below 18.5 Normal - 18.5-24.9 Overweight - 25.0-29.9 Obesity - a body mass index of >30 • •Between 9-13% of children are obese in United States (Flegal & Troiano, 2000) • •Obesity typically remains stable from childhood through adulthood •...So children who are obese are at risk for remaining obese as adults.

Issues with obesity interventions in children

•Calorie restriction? •Sufficient energy and nutrition MUST be provided to support adequate growth • •Changes in motor activity for long-term health? •Children conceptualize long-term benefits/outcomes differently than adults • •Healthier foods and diet? •Again, long-term benefits of less "yummy" foods may not be apparent to kids •Children largely depend on caregivers or other adults for their food choices

Motor Competence and level of physcial activity

•Consistent relations between fundamental motor skill competence and physical activity in early childhood (low/moderate relations), middle-late childhood (low/high relations), and adolescence (low/moderate) • •Early in life, higher levels of physical activity drive acquisition of motor competence •Thereafter, physical activity <->motor competence •(Hypothesis: Physical activity ->motor competence-> greater enjoyment of activity? (Robinson et al., 2015)) • •These effects are magnified with time: early childhood ->middle childhood -> adolescence -> adulthood • •Implications: Enjoyment, motivation, and self-perception are really important for motor competence and physical fitness. •Example: Making an organized soccer league fun is just as important as making it rigorous for improving child health.

Fat Distribution

•Differences in beauty standards by country •Differences in nutrition and food types Within a society, we may see different genders are expected to have a certain amount or type of fat distribution. Different cultures have different acceptable distributions of fat which lend themselves to beauty. A person can be a completely healthy weight, but still seek plastic surgery to remove fat from undesirable areas or do extremely restrictive diets to achieve a lower weight.

Factors contributing to obesity in childhood

•Extrinsic factors •Home environment (sedentary vs. active, physical space to play, etc.) •Modernization requires less energy or physical labor to complete tasks (e.g., air conditioning, water, employment) •General reduced motor activity •Diet (high in fat and sugar vs. more nutritiously dense foods) • •Reduced motor activity is a common characteristics of obese children (Haug et al., 2009). • •Higher levels of activity can... 1.Offset the decrease in basal metabolic rate accompanying calorie restriction 2.Promote the growth of muscle tissue, which requires more calories for maintenance than fat tissues 3.Physical activity interventions were associated with reduced food intake in obese adolescents

Body composition and activity in female children Parizkova (1977)

•Female children at different levels of activity •More active: belonged to gymnastics team •Less active: did not do any training activities •Tested their lean body mass and % fat over the next 5 years • •Results: similar, but not the same as with males •All children's body mass increased across time, no group differences •More active: Absolute level of fat remained the same across period •Less active: Increase in absolute level of fat across time Thus, Parizkova concluded that a period of intense training likely increased the children's lean muscle mass

Motor competence, health-related fitness, and weight status

•Fundamental motor skills predicted cardiovascular health (in 8-12 year-olds), cardiorespiratory fitness, musculoskeletal fitness, general fitness, and healthier weight status (Barnett et al., 2008; Cattuzzo et al., 2016) • •However, not always the motor competencies you would expect. •In 8-12 year-olds, object-control skills predicted adolescent cardiovascular health, not locomotor skills (Barnett et al., 2008). • •Infancy: Higher weight infants may take longer to develop motor skills and competencies (regardless of fat vs lean) •Childhood: Lower motor competence ->movement more difficult -> lower activity -> higher levels of overweight/obesity •Adolescence/adulthood: Lower motor competencies, poorer overall health, and poorer self-assessment of motor competences à health-related fitness, weight status • • •Implications: Higher motor competence in earlier parts of life can have long-lasting effects on health.

Body Composition & Exercise Across the Lifespan

•It's complicated... • Many factors are interrelated -body weight, motor competence, history, nutrition, etc. It's important to understand how these factors relate to one another, before declaring what steps can be taken to achieve good health

Summary: Physical activity and body composition

•Longitudinal research on adults and aging populations are needed on the relation between body composition and exercise. •Why would LONGITUDINAL research be lacking in this area? •Longitudinal research on adults and aging populations are needed on the relation between body composition and exercise. •Why would LONGITUDINAL research be lacking in this area? •Change takes SO long to occur in adult - it's difficult to fund and run a study for 30 years, let along to keep participants engaged for that long • •HOWEVER ... there are clear indications that physical activity, particularly consistent physical activity throughout the lifespan, have effects on body composition. • •Consistent vigorous activity over the life span can lead to more favorable body compositions (i.e., relegating fat tissue to favorable proportion).

Body composition and activity in male childrenParizkova (1968a, 1977) This means that the amount of fat on their bodies remained the same amount and their % body fat decreased. In contrast, the least active group exhibited an increase in the absolute level of fat across time and their % body fat stayed the same.

•Male children were separated into 4 activity groups •Most active: involved in sports for at least 6 hours/week •Least active: no organized/systematic activity •Tested their lean body mass and % fat over the next 5 years •Results •All children's body mass increased across time •Most active: Absolute level of fat remained the same across time •Least active: Increase in absolute level of fat across time •3 years later, same trends continued •In active group, overall weight was higher and lean mass was greater, than the least active group.

Factors contributing to obesity in childhood

•Metabolic or thyroid disorders •However, these disorders are responsible for <1% of cases • •Genetic or epigenetic factors? •Some inherited component, although no single or simple genetic factor(s) have been identified •Examples: basal metabolic rate, appetite control and satiety, lipid metabolism and storage, and dietary thermogenesis (production of heat in the body) • For example, hypothyroidism in childhood is linked with some weight gain and other factors related to weight gain like low energy. However, these disorders are not a large contributor to obesity in children. These disorders are responsible for less than 1% of cases . Genetic or epigenetic factors are thought to contribute to childhood obesity, although please note that no single or simple genetic factor(s) have been identified in study. An example of a possible genetic factor would be those relating to a child's basal metabolic rate. If you remember from before, basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy used to keep the body functioning, so all the calories used by the body other than from digestion or physical activity. If 2 children exercise the exact same amount... They still may burn a different number of calories, due to their basal metabolic rates. Other examples of genetic or epigenetic factors are appetite control, lipid metabolism and storage, and dietary thermogenesis, or the production of heat in the body.

Summary and Synthesis

•Motor competence, health-related physical fitness, physical activity, and body composition are all interrelated. • •Many bidirectional effects that effect one another throughout development. • •Simple or single pronged approaches to health and activity may not be successful to improving health across the lifespan.

Motor Competence, fitness, and body composition

•Motor competency affects body composition and fitness status. (Stodden et al., 2008) • •Children lacking an adequate foundation in motor competency engage in less physical activity •Which means they might not engage in sufficient levels of physical activity •Which may impact health-related fitness, optimal body compositions, and weight status • •These effects are magnified with time: early childhood à middle childhood à adolescence à adulthood • •Implications: Activities which focus solely on fitness may not be sufficient for addressing issues with obesity or health •Example: Improving balance and body awareness through dance will improve future attempts at fitness or organized activities, as well as increase physical activity.

Regular Exercise in Adulthood

•Regular exercisers tend to maintain their muscle and fat masses, even when compared to younger adult populations. •Extend to entire population: Unsure whether this would be true of sedentary adults who became regular exercisers • •Regular exercise promotes and maintains bone growth, depending on the type of exercise the adult performs. (Gomez-Cabello et al., 2012) •Strength training improved/maintained bone mass in adults. Lower impact exercise, such as walking, was no associated with bone growth. •Combinations of strength training, aerobic, high impact, or weight-bearing training, or whole-body vibration improved or at least maintained bone mass in older adults •Low impact/walking not so much • •Regular exercisers tend to be in better health, than sedentary adults •Issue of causality: Does regular exercise make adults healthier, or are sedentary adults less healthy and thus exercise less? • Overall regular exercisers tend to be in better health, than sedentary adults. But, there's an issue of causality. Does exercising regularly make adults healthier, or are sedentary adults less healthy and thus less capable of more exercise? People in worse health tend to exercise less, as health issues can make exercise painful, less safe, increase use of medications with side effects, or reduce the motivation to exercise. An adult with major depressive disorder has increased levels of fatigue and decreased motivation to exercise, while an older adult with mobility issues may fear pain or injury. Researchers and practitioners would agree that regular exercise provides health benefits for most, but it's unclear how much exercise explains health outcomes.

Evidence-based methods for obesity intervention in young children

•Synthesis of reviews and meta-analyses (Khambalia et al., 2012) 1.Intervention programs were more efficacious if they were long-term, rather than short-term. 2.Interventions targeting diet and exercise reduced adipose tissue in/around skeletal muscles and organs in children and adolescents. 3.Multi-pronged approaches worked best: improved diet, increased physical activity, & family environment •Obese children and adolescents do not perform as well as lean children do on multiple physical fitness and motor skills tasks •Arm-strength, endurance, trunk strength, vertical jump, agility shuttle run, and balance (Malina et al., 1995; Beunen et al., 1983) Children and adolescents who are obese have been found to perform more poorly on physical fitness AND motor skills tasks, like arms-strength, endurance, trunk strength, vertical jump, agility shuttle run, and balance. Again, we have evidence of the model of interrelationships and a possible avenue of study or intervention. A child who is not competent at certain activities, may be less active, and subsequently run a greater risk of obesity. Or the reverse, a child who is obese may not be gaining motor competencies at certain actions due to lower overall physical activity.