Morris Cell Bio Exam 3 Troy University
G1 Phase (meiosis)
"growth phase" the cell gets larger, very metabolically active
Due to meiosis, women produce ___ egg(s) and __ polar bodies
1, 3
What are the three stages of the Calvin Cycle?
1. Carbon fixation 2. Reduction 3. Regeneration
Homologous chromosomes in Meiosis characteristics:
1. Chromosomes have the same length 2. Chromosomes have centromeres positioned the same 3.) One comes from father (paternal homologues) one comes from mother (maternal homologues) 4.) when stained, they show similiar banding patterns
Prophase I
1.) Nucleus disappears 2.) Nuclear envelope disentegrates 3.) nucleoli disappears, mitotic spindles begin to form 4.) Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, with a tetrad (or matched pair of chromosome) Things that are unique to meiosis, not mitosis 5.) Synapsis: members of a homologous chromosome pair, which swap certain characteristics. 6.) Chiasma (recombination, which allows for greater adaptibility in an environment)
How many G3P molecules make one molecule of glucose?
2
How many cell divisions occur due to meiosis
2
How many pathways do C4 plants have?
2
In mitosis, 1 parent cell would produce ___ genetically identical daughter cells
2
Any human karyotype consists of ___ chromsomes
23 pairs/46 total
Sex chromosomes are:
23rd pair; X and Y chromosomes.
How many carbon atoms does G3P have?
3
reduction
3-PG is rearranged into G3P, which then can either be used as the building blocks for glucose, or continue in the cycle to regenerate RuBP This stage gets its name because NADPH donates electrons to, or reduces, a three-carbon intermediate to make G3P
What is the first form of organic carbon in the Calvin Cycle?
3-PGA
When O2 is fixed to RuBP in photorespiration, two molecules are produced:
3-PGA (normal intermediate) and 2-C Phosphoglyclate (which cannot enter the system, and its carbons are removed from cycle)
Due to meiosis, men produce __ sperm
4
The cell plate forms ___boundaries
4
Which stage of cancer would mean that it has metastasized?
4
Which microfilaments make a cleavage furrow in plants?
Actin
actin vs tubulin
Actin is involved through the contraction in cytokinesis Tubulin is present in mitotic spindles, present in prophase-telophase
PEP carboxylase
Acts as a gatekeeper by only accepting CO2; incredibly efficient.
Of all the pathways (C3, C4, CAM) which takes the longest to grow?
CAM
Which kind of plant has the C4 and C3 cycle combined into one mesophyll cell?
CAM
What are the points of crossing over (exchange of genetic material)
Chiasmata (plural) or chiasma (singular)
Which organelle does photosynthesis happen in?
Chloroplast
Telophase
Chromosomes are clustered at opposite poles, and de-condense; nuclear envelope re-forms around chromosomes Golgi complex and ER reform, spindles begin to disappear
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and become visible as sister chromatids, attached at centromere Cytoskeleton disassembles, and microtubules are re-used to form spindle fibers Golgi and ER disperse, the nuclear envelope breaks down, nucleolus disappears, two centrioles move away from each other
What happens by the end of S-Phase?
Chromosomes have duplicated, and now contain genetically identical sister chromatids
Name 3 examples of C4 plants
Corn, sugarcane, and many tropical grasses
What is the single most important event for diversity in daughter cells?
Crossing-over
Therefore, glucose in CAM plants is synthesized when? (day or night)
Day
Cancer grade
Degree of differentiation
Meiosis I take genetic material from ____ to _____
Diploid, Haploid
When does photolysis happen in photosynthesis?
During Photosystem 2 during the oxidizing of water
Which phase do sister chromatids appear?
During S phase of interphase
When do plants photorespire?
During drought periods, when stomate close and roots take in an excess of oxygen through water
When do plants generally accept oxygen in place of carbohydrates?
During high temperature drought periods when O2 concentration overwhelms CO2 concnentration because plant stomates close, thus shutting off the import of CO2 and root systems continue to take in O2 through water
When does cytokinesis occur?
During telophase, but separately
histones are characteristic of what kind of cell?
Eukaryotes; Prokaryotes do not have histones
True or false; a chromosome must have exactly 2 sister chromatids to be considered a 'chromosome'
False
True or false; all cells spend the exact same amount of time in interphase
False
True or false; Cytokinesis happens after telophase is complete
False; Cytokinesis happens simultaneously with telophase
True or false; Glucose is made inside the carbon cycle
False; G3P leaves the carbon cycle to be made into carbohydrates
True or false; RuBISCO breaks CO2 down into Carbon and Oxygen
False; RuBISCO only aids in fixation
True or false; the light dependent reaction is endergonic and anabolic
False; because it produces energy, it is catabolic and exergonic
True or false; the P53 gene always kills damaged cells
False; sometimes it attempts to repair DNA
The _____ the wavelength, the ______ the energy of light
Shorter, higher
What is the C3 pathway named after?
The first form of organic carbon, Phosphorglyceric Acid (3-PGA)
reaction center
The chlorophyll a molecule and the primary electron acceptor in a photosystem; they trigger the light reactions of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll donates an electron, excited by light energy, to the primary electron acceptor, which passes an electron to an electron transport chain.
Photorespiration
The consumption of oxygen in the presence of light, and yields no ATP or Carbohydrate
The G2 phase refers to:
The creation of proteins (tubulin) made to help with mitosis
The C3 pathway in CAM plants happens during:
The day
Mitosis refers directly to:
The division of the nucleus
The S phase refers to:
The doubling of DNA
The Cell Cycle
The entire life of the cell between divisions; a complete cell cycle includes cytokinesis
Anaphase I (Meiosis)
The genetic material goes from diploid to haploid; whenever homologus pairs of chromosomes are separated, the genetic material goes from diploid to haploid
What occurs during interphase?
The growing of a 'mature' cell cell growth and duplication of the chromosomes The longest stage of the cell cycle
Where are dead cells recycled?
The liver
The C4 pathway in CAM plants happens during:
The night
Meiosis refers specifcally to division of:
The nucleus
density-dependent inhibition
The phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another.
CAM photosynthesis
The photosynthetic pathway in which carbon fixation takes place at night, and the resulting carbon acids are stored until daylight when they are broken down into pyruvate and CO2.
Starch is often found in what part of the plant
The roots; the plant converts glucose to starch for storage primarily
What type of information can a karyotype hold?
The sex of a person, any genetic disorder as a result of changes in chromosome number or chromosome structure
Metastasis
The spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site.
Sucrose is often found in what part of the plant?
The stem; plants convert glucose to sucrose for transport throughout the system
Where do light reactions occur in Plant chloroplasts?
The thykaloid membrane
What does ATP do in Photosynthesis?
Fix 3PG to become G3P, and use G3P to regenerate RuBP
Where do the ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent reactions go when the process is complete?
From the thykaloid to the stroma
To become sucrose, G3P requires the addition of what molecule?
Fructose phosphate
protoncogenes
Genes responsible for turning replication on and off. Mutations lead to cancer.
Independent segregation
Genes that lie far enough apart in the same chromosome will segregate independentky
G3P can be converted into
Glucose phosphate Sucrose Starch Cellulose Fatty acids and glycerol Amino acids
What happens to Chromatin before mitosis?
It condenses into chromsomes
What is tubulin's role in mitosis?
It forms the mitotic spindles and microtubules
What are some of light's properties?
It has particle and wave-like nature
How does the P53 gene help fight cancer?
It recognizes and suppresses damaged cells, and keeps damaged cells from reproducing "When cells suffer from minor DNA damage, p53 pauses the cell growth and repairs the DNA to protect the individual cell; when the DNA damage is severe, p53 destroys the cell to protect the cell population.
Where is malate stored in CAM plants until it can be decarboxylated in the C3 pathway?
Large central vacuole
Regeneration of RuBP
Leftover G3P remains in the system, and with the addition of ATP, helps to rebuild the RuBP molecule
Which forms of cancer are caused by viruses?
Leukemia, HPV
first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy)
Matter (and energy) can neither be created nor destroyed
Is it meiosis I or II that creates haploid chromosomes
Meiosis II
What stage of mitosis are karyotypes taken in?
Metaphase
When does independent assortment happen?
Metaphase 1
The C4 pathway happens in what kind of cell?
Mesophyll
asexual reproduction
Process by which a single parent reproduces by itself essentially produces clones
Photolysis
Process by which absorbing light energy breaks down a molecule
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes (non-sister chromatids) exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
Prokaryote chromosomes
Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a circular DNA molecule The DNA in a prokaryote is called the nucleoid region which is circular DNA - which, unlike eukaryotes, is not associated with any histone proteins There is one copy of each gene in the nucleoid except when the cell and its DNA are replicating
Telophase is the opposite of what stage of mitosis?
Prophase
Crossing over occurs during
Prophase I
Anaphase
Proteases degrade cohesin proteins holding centromeres of sister chromatids together; thus, sister chromatids are separated, and pulled to opposite poles by kinetochore microtubules
what codes for growth factors?
Proto-Oncogenes
Photosynthesis
Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars
Which organisms can do photosynthesis?
Plants, algae (plant-like protists), and some cyanobacteria
True or false: Photosynthesis is a redox equation
True
True or false: the C4 pathway also has the C3 pathway involved in photosynthesis
True
True or false; Meiosis divides the chromosome number in half prior to fertilization
True
True or false; PEP carboxylase is such a good enzyme that it overrides the extra steps of the C4 pathway and the need for extra ATP. Makes C4 more efficient.
True
True or false; homologous chromosomes may encode identical or different genetic information
True
True or false; meiosis has interphase, which is similar to mitosis interphase
True
True or false; most people have had cancer, and just didn't know it
True
True or false; there are different kinds of photosynthesis
True
True or false; when homologous pairs separate, the daughter cells are haploid
True
True or false; when sister chromatids are separated, daughter cells are still diploid
True
True or false; in homologous chromosomes, genes occur in duplicate
True; you have a maternal copy and a paternal copy
Telomeres (lengthen/shorten) during cell division
Typically, shorten
Are malignant tumors cancerous?
Yes
Human Karyotype
a display of the full set of 46 human chromosomes
dominant trait
a genetic factor that blocks another genetic factor
recessive trait
a genetic factor that is blocked by the presence of a dominant factor
Chromosomes
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
Meiosis
a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
What are the 3 possibilities of the light reactions?
a.) To be harnessed and used as ATP and NADPH b.) To become 'Heat Entropy' (disorganized energy) c.) To reemit as a lower wavelength back into the atmosphere (fluorescence)
tumor
abnormal cell growth
chlorophyll b and carotenoids
accessory pigments that allow leaves to capture a wider spectrum of visible light than chlorophyll alone. Additionally, it helps to keep Chlorophyll-a from wearing out (sort of like plant sunscreen :) )
mitosis is involved in ____________ reproduction
asexual
first 22 chromosomes
autosomes
CAM plants often do photosynthesis in their: a.) leaves (spines) b.) stems c.) flowers d.) roots
b
Chlorophyll B absorbs what colors?
blue and orange
Carotenoids absorb what colors?
blue-green
Chlorophyll a absorbs what colors?
blue-violet and red-orange
Growth factor
broad group of proteins that stimulate cell division
Which component of the Calvin Cycle accounts for photorespiration? a.) G3P b.) 3-PG c.) RuBISCO d.) RuBP
c.) the protein (enzyme) RuBISCO
The centrosome contains two barrel-shaped _____
centrioles
Metaphase
chromosomes align to the metaphase plate by their centromeres, where kinetochore spindles are fully formed This is often where karyotypes are taken.
Diploid
containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
C3 plants are best adapted to ___ temperatures with ____ rainfall
cool temperatures, high rainfall
CAM stands for:
crassulacean acid metabolism
The outer layer of our skin is composed of living or dead cells?
dead
Cytokinesis in animal cells
division of the cytoplasm; Cleavage furrow appears between daughter nuclei, effectively pinching the cell off from outside in
Which of the following happens in interphase; a.) G1 Phase b.) S phase c.) Prophase d.) G2 phase e.) A, B, D f.) A, C, D
e
polar microtubules
emerge during prometaphase, these make room 2 future cells by elongating, and pushing the cell apart
True or false; in asexual reproduction, the genes are altered intentionally
false
True or false; light is measured in meters
false; light is measured in nanometers
Zygote
fertilized egg (diploid)
Name a few examples of cells in interphase
fully-functioning muscle cells, brain cells, lung cells
In which cells does meiosis occur?
gametes
Oncogenes
genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction
Chromatin
granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins
Haploid
having a single set of unpaired chromosomes
Meioisis I:
homologous chromosomes line up on spindle fibre and separate to opposite poles, producing 2 cells
Often, white blood cells are subjected to a _______ solution when a karyotypes
hypotonic
Metaphase II is:
identical to mitosis Though the genetic material is haploid, it looks just the same. This is where chromosomes are aligned by their centromeres. Mitotic spindle is very formed, and attach to the kinetochore proteins
primary electron acceptor
in chloroplasts, an acceptor of electrons lost from chlorophyll a; found in the thylakoid membrane
The cell cycle is controlled by: ____ and ____ factors
internal and external
In cancer cells, Telomeres (lengthen/shorten) during cell division
lengthen
Which cancer has the highest mortality rate?
lung cancer
malignant tumor
mass of abnormal cells resulting from uncontrolled cancer cell division; can perform metastasis They are not encapsulated, readily invade neighboring tissues, may metastasize, and results in mutation of regulatory genes
RuBP
ribulose biphosphate; a five-carbon carbohydrate that combines with CO2 to form two molecules of PGA in the first step of the Calvin Cylce
During anaphase, kinetochore microtubules get longer or shorter?
shorter
The centromere is between ____ chromatids, whereas the chiasma occurs in ______ chromatids
sister, nonsister
Prokaryote Plasmids
small rings of DNA that replicate independently; allow for quick individual adaption, and even quicker evolution
growth factors
stimulate the growth and division of cells
During prophase I of meiosis, there is an event called _____, or the contact between homologous chromosomes
synapsis
At synapsis, a nucleoprotein lattice _________ appears between homologs, which does 3 things:
synaptonemal complex 1. holds homologues together 2. Aligns DNA of non-sister chromatids 3. Allows crossing over to occur
Meiosis II
the second phase of meiosis consisting of chromatids separating, along with the two diploid cells splitting in two
Name the phases of mitosis
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
kinetocore
protein at the centromere that hooks onto spindle fibers
What molecule is used to build malate back up?
pyruvate
Which human cells have the shortest life?
red blood cells due to their lack of nucleus; they last about 120 days
Cancer stage
reflects tumor size and extent of tumor spread: helps determine choice of treatment options and prognosis; method that institutions use to communicate patient information for standardization
What are the outputs of the light dependent reactions?
ATP, NADPH, O2,
Oncogenes function as __________ of cell proliferation. a.) brakes b.) Fuel c.) accelerators d.) Steering wheel idk
Accelerator
Calvin cycle is also known as
C3 pathway
What is the main difference between C4 and C3 plants?
C3's fixating enzyme is RuBISCO, whereas C4's fixating enzyme is PEP carboxylase
Name the three main types of photosynthesis
C3, C4, and CAM
What happens in the Calvin Cycle?
-CO2 attaches to a 5-carbon RuBP molecule through the enzyme RuBISCO -this results in an unstable 6-carbon molecule, which splits apart into 2 3-PG molecules (the first form of organic carbon) -These PG molecules are then converted to G3P with ATP and NADPH -The G3P is reduced and turned into the building blocks of glucose (CH2O) -Remaining G3P is used to then regenerate RuBP using ATP, and the cycle starts over
How many pathways do C3 plants have?
1
Normal cells are (5 things)
1 Differentiated, 2 with normal nuclei, 3 undergo apoptosis, 4 respect contact inhibition, 5 and appear organized in layers
Cancer cells are: (6 things)
1 Not Differentiated, 2 without normal nuclei, 3 do not undergo apoptosis, 4 do not respect contact inhibition, 5 appear disorganized in clumps 6. Undergo metastasis
Name 4 influences of cancer
1. heredity 2. radiation 3. pesticides/herbicides 4. viruses
What happens during the C4 pathway?
1.) CO2 enters the system, and binds to PEP Carboxylase to form 4-C Oaxaloacetate 2.) Oaxaloacetate is transformed to malate, which is decarboxylated at the beginning of the C3 cycle in a bundle sheath cell 3.) what remains of Oaxaloacetate is 3-C pyruvate, which uses ATP to build back up to become PEP
Four features of Meiosis I not found in Mitosis
1.) Maternal and paternal homologoues form pairs, and exchange genetic material (crossing over) 2.) Kinetochores of sister chromatids fuction as a unit, allowing sister chromatids to co-segregate during anaphase I 3.) Kinetochores of sister chromatids are connected to a single pole in Meiosis, but opposite poles 4.) DNA replication is suppressed between meiosis I and II
Humans have how many chromosomes?
46 (23 pairs)
How many carbon atoms does RuBP have?
5
Every three turns of the Calvin Cycle yields:
5 G3P are used to remake 3 RuBP, and 3 molecules of ATP are turned into ADP.
Faulty P53 gene accounts for __% of known cancers
50
On average, how many times could a regular cell divide with regular telomeres?
50-75
When CO2 forms with RuBP, it creates a ___-carbon molecule
6
Photosynthesis equation
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Apoptosis Triggers
=Blistering of plasma membrane, fragmenting of nucleus, engulfment of cell fragments
Carcinogen
A cancer-causing substance; essentially, anything in excess
Cyclin
A cellular protein that occurs in a cyclically fluctuating concentration and that plays an important role in regulating the cell cycle.
Describe the anatomy of a chromosome (Use the following terms: Kinetochore protein, centromere, chromosome, sister chromatids)
A chromosome has 2 sister chromatids, attached at a centromere. Additionally, it has two kinetochore proteins, where mitotic spindles attach to guide the chromosome through mitosis, and ultimately pull apart.
antenna complex
A complex of hundreds of pigment molecules in a photosystem that collects photons and feeds the light energy to a reaction center.
Photosystem 1 (PS1)
A light capturing enzyme in the thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast; reduces NADP+ to NADPH.
Photosystem 2 (PS2)
A light capturing enzyme in the thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast; splits water into electrons, protons, and oxygen gas.
G0 phase
A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.
What happens in photosystem II?
A photon from the sun goes to the chlorophyll molecule which excites an electron into the excited state. It then releases heat and a photon when it goes back down to the ground state. Then it breaks H2O to get more hydrogen ions to replace the electron that is gone. O2 is released from that. As the electron moves through the thylakoid, H+ are pumped through the ATP synthase into the lumen to make ATP.
Kranz Anatomy (C4 Plants)
A standard anatomy of a leaf; veins are surrounded by bundle sheath cells, which are surrounded by mesophyll, which are surrounded by epithelial cells and stomates on either side
Centrosome
A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop. "The microtubule organizing center in animal cells"
What type of pigment is found in the reaction center? a. Chlorophyll a b. Chlorophyll b c. Caritinoids d. d. B and C
A: Chlorophyll a
benign tumor
An abnormal mass of cells that remains at its original site in the body. They are encapsulated, and they do not invade neighboring tissue or spread
An allele is:
An alternate form of a gene
Homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
At what point in meiosis does genetic material go from diploid to haploid?
Anaphase 1
What is the opposing force to mitosis? Why?
Apoptosis decreases cell numbers, whereas mitosis increases cell numbers
Centromere
Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
Is DNA replicated before or after Meiosis I?
Before; meisosis involves 2 successive divisions with no chromosomal duplication between them
Scientists use _____ and ____ to keep cells from dividing further
Both stains and fixadents
You have to ______ G3P to regenerate RuBP, which ________ energy
Build-up, Absorbs
Glucose is synthesized in only ____ cells in C4 plants
Bundle sheath
In C4 plants, the C3 pathway happens in what kind of cell?
Bundle sheath
How do C4 plants minimize lateral transport?
By producing glucose only in bundle sheath cells, which occur only around veins; it saves energy.
Most plants are: (C3, C4, CAM)
C3
Which pathway happens in C4 bundle sheath cells (C3 or C4?)
C3
Which pathway synthesizes new glucose?
C3
What is the product of reduction?
CH2O
Which compound is reduced in photosynthesis?
CO2
What is the carbon source for glucose?
CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)
Name 3 examples of CAM plants
Cacti, orchids, wax plants
Which enzymes regulate apoptosis?
Caspases
Cytokinesis is characterized by what in plant cells?
Cell plate
A cell wall is comprised largely of:
Cellulose (carbohydrate)
Prometaphase
Centromere of each chromosome develops 2 kinetochores chromosomes attach to kinetochore microtubules (which connect sister chromatids to centrioles at opposing poles and chromosomes start moving to the equator of the cell
What happens to genetic material in mitosis (three sentences)
Centromeres holding sister chromatids together separate, each sister chromatid becomes a daughter chromosome, and sister chromatids from each chromosome are distributed to opposed daughter nucleus by the end of mitosis
After CO2 forms with RuBP, the molecule: a.) Immediately becomes G3P b.) Is incredibly unstable, and splits into 2- 3C Phosphorglyceric acids c.) splits into the first form of organic carbon d.) b and C
D; The 6-Carbon intermediate formed by CO2 and RuBP is incredibly unstable, and splits into 2 3-Carbon Phosphoglyceric acid molecules. This is the first form of organic carbon in the Calvin Cycle
What must happen before a cell can divide?
DNA must be replicated
After telophase, the cell has two options:
Either enter Interphase II, or straight into prophase two
Energy is transformed at the (Photosystem 2, Photosystem 1, or Electron Transport Chain) into ATP
Electron Transport chain
Electron Transport Chain photosynthesis
Electrons move through several transmembrane proteins that are responsible for pumping H+ ions across the membrane creating the chemical gradient across the chloroplast membrane. Energy source is captured light. Part of the light reactions.
The cell plate is derived from what cell organelle? a.) Rough ER b.) smooth ER c.) golgi apparatus d.) Ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus synthesizes most of a cell's carbohydrates, thus c
What are 3 reasons for mitosis?
Growth, repair, regeneration
Where does H+ go after being released from water?
H+, after being released from water, enters the thykaloid lumen, and charges the thykaloid like a battery; this H+ creates a strong concentration gradient, and through ATP synthase, ATP is synthesized from ADP by pushing H+ through the transmembrane protein into the chloroplast stroma.
Which compound is oxidized in photosynthesis?
H2O
What are the inputs of the light dependent reactions?
H2O, Sunlight
Which organs have diploid cells?
Heart, brain, lung, skin, etc (most cells)
The electron transport chain goes from _____ potential energy to ______ potential energy
High, low
In Meiosis I, the chiasmata ____ homologues together during Metaphase I, and microtubules can only attach to one side of each centromere
Hold
Metaphase 1:
Homologous pairs of chromosomes align along metaphase plate NOT by their centromeres; the dividing plane of the cell is between both members of the pair. Mitotic spindle is very well formed, and connected to kinetochore.
C4 plants are best adapted to ___ temperatures with ____ rainfall (___ stress)
Hot temperatures, High rainfall (tropical) Medium stress
Anaphase II
Identical to mitosis
Prophase II is:
Identical to mitosis Chromatin condenses to chromosomes
independent assortment
Independent segregation of genes during the formation of gametes; Random mixing of alleles
Capases can be activated by _______ or _______ signals
Internal or External
The Cell Cycle in Eukaryotes consists of 2 major stages:
Interphase, mitosis
Centrioles
Located near the nucleus and help to organize cell division they are arranged at 45 degrees from each other in a 9+2 arrangement
During anaphase, polar microtubules get longer or shorter?
Longer
Photosystem 2 absorbs a (higher/lower) wavelengths of light, meaning it absorbs (higher/lower) energy than Photosystem 1
Lower wavelength, higher energy
Which compound is decarboxylated in the C4 pathway?
Malate
What form of reproduction is most commonly widespread
Mitosis
How do homologous chromosomes make contact in prophase I?
Synaptonemal complex
When does PEP carboxylase bind with oxygen?
Never
Are benign tumors cancerous?
No
Is CO2 the first form of organic carbon in the Calvin Cycle?
No
Are homologous chromosomes identical?
No, they are similar but not identical.
Does Anaphase II reduce the number of genetic material in the cell?
No; sister chromatids separation does nto result in chromosome change. Only when homologous chromosomes are separated does genetic material change from diploid to haploid
Prokaryotic cells have what kind of region for genetic material?
Nucleoid
Proto-oncogene or oncogene; which is the result of a faulty P53 gene?
Oncogene
Where are chloroplasts often found in mesophyll cells; Inside or on the outer edges?
Outer edges, due to the large central vacuole
What compound is the C4 pathway named after?
Oxaloacetate
What is the first stable form of organic carbon in the C4 pathway?
Oxaloacetate
What is the starting and ending compound of the C4 pathway?
Oxaloacetate
When photolysis happens in photosynthesis, ________ is released from water and exits through the ______
Oxygen, stomate
What type of chlorophyll a is found in the reaction center of Photosystem 2?
P-680
What type of chlorophyll a is found in the reaction center of Photosystem 1?
P-700
Which faulty tumor suppressor gene is at the root of most cancers?
P53
In the C4 pathway, CO2 enters through the stomate and binds to: a.) Phosphoenolpyruvate b.) oxaloacetate c.) RuBP d.) Malate
PEP carboxylase
Which enzyme is more efficient; RuBISCO or PEP Carboxylase?
PEP carboxylase
homologous chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and same genes.
During the light-dependent reactions, what protein complex comes first: photosystem 2 or photosystem 1?
Photosystem 2
Which photosystem is responsible for the breathable oxygen?
Photosystem 2
What is a key difference between photosystem 2 and photosystem 1?
Photosystem 2 absorbs a different wavelength of light than Photosystem 1
What are the three parts of every photosystem?
Reaction center, Accessory antenna complex, and primary electron acceptor
What kind of light does the reaction center tend to absorb?
Red
Which steps of the Calvin Cycle is NADPH involved in?
Reduction
Which steps of the calvin cycle is ATP involved in?
Reduction and Regeneration
What is the main difference between reproductive and therapeutic cloning?
Reproductive uses G0 cells, whereas therapeutic cloning uses G0 somatic cells
Rubisco
Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase enzyme that converts inorganic carbon dioxide molecules into organic molecules during carbon fixation
Which enzyme is necessary for carbon fixation in the C3 Pathway?
RuBISCO
Which protein is the most abundant in the world?
RuBISCO
What is the starting and ending compound of the Calvin Cycle?
RuBP
When are centrosomes duplicated?
S phase
Homologous chromosomes have genes controlling the ____ trait at the ____ position
Same, Same
Telophase I
Similiar to mitosis 1.) nuclear envelope reappears 2.) mitotic spindle disappears 3.)
Each chromosome pair has a distinct:
Size, shape, and banding pattern
M checkpoint
Spindle assembly checkpoint. Mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are not properly aligned.
Which organs have haploid cells?
Strictly gametes (sperm and egg)
Without cyclins
The cell cycle stops at G1, S, or G2
What is the alternate name for homologous pair of chromosomes?
Tetrad or bivalent
After the Light Dependent reaction is:
The Calvin Cycle
What is photosynthesis's 2 main reactions?
The Light Dependent Reactions The Calvin Cycle, aka 'C3 pathway'
G2 Phase (meiosis)
The cell synthesizes tubulin
S-phase (meiosis)
The amount of DNA is doubled and repliced
cleavage furrow
The area of the cell membrane that pinches in and eventually separates the dividing cell Formed by contractile ring of actin filaments
carbon fixation
The initial incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic prokaryote).
Glucose is often found in what part of the plant?
The leaves
What happens in photosystem I?
The left over electrons enter into photosystem I, but they are very low in energy, so light is again absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules which causes them to be excited. The "special chlorophyll" molecules receives all of the energy and electrons which causes the electrons to shoot up to the primary acceptor. The electrons leave the primary acceptor and travel down the ETC to make NADP+. The NADP+ is then released into the stroma where the NADP+ attaches to a hydrogen ion to make NADPH
Which part of photosynthesis (the light reactions or the Calvin Cycle) is the majority of breathable oxygen released?
The light reactions
If there is an interphase 2:
There is G1, G2, but no S phase
How does O2 enter the plant?
Through the roots
In CAM plants, the C4 cycle and the C3 cycle are separated by:
Time
mesophyll cells
Tissue of photosynthesis found primarily in leaves; where a majority of chloroplasts are found in plants
What is the goal of photosystem 2?
To create ATP
What is the goal of photosystem 1?
To create NADPH
What is the ultimate goal of cell division?
To reach interphase once again
CAM plants are best adapted to ___ temperatures with ____ rainfall (____ stress)
Very hot temperatures, Very little rainfall (Deserts) High stress
Is photorespiration generally useful or wasteful to plants?
Wasteful, as it yields no energy or use to plants
When does RuBISCO work on Oxygen?
When oxygen is more abundant than carbon dioxide in the cell
When does RuBISCO work on Carbon Dioxide?
When the plant is sufficently hydrated, and stomates are open to allow a high concentration of Carbon Dioxide into the cell.
What makes RuBISCO unique compared to other enzymes?
While its an enzyme, meaning that it has an especially specialized function, it accepts two substrates; oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Human karyotypes are obtained from what kind of cells?
White blood cells
Apoptosis
programmed cell death
G3P
molecule that is made in the Calvin cycle; glucose is formed when two of these molecules combine. For each CO2 are formed in the Calvin cycle; 1 leaves to be used in the cell, 5 are use for regeneration of RuBP
You must have _____ division and ______ division for a complete cell cycle
nucleus, cytoplasm
What is a tumor suppressor gene in humans?
p53
PGA
phosphoglycerate; a three-carbon molecule formed in the first step of the Calvin cycle
How does CO2 enter a plant?
through the stomata
C4 plants are typically what kind of plant?
tropical grasses
True or false; cancer cells could divide indefinitely with their infinite telomerase
true
True or false; most plants in Alabama do photorespiration
true
True or false; photosynthesis is endergonic and anabolic
true
G1 refers to
when the cell is getting ready to go into the cell cycle growth in cell, when organelles and the endomembrane system become increasingly active; energy is built up
Are sister chromatids identical?
yes, they are made of duplicated chromosomes; the DNA replicated itself then the identical chromosomes joined together to make a pair of identical chromosomes called sister chromatids
Could a virus cause cancer? Why or why not?
yes; viruses inject genetic material directly into the DNA, changing its genetic structure and causing mutations
