Motivation

Komaki, Coombs, & Schepman (1991) Reinforcement Theory

A motivation theory emphasizing the consequences of behavior - based on the idea that some behavioral consequences increase the likelihood that a behavior will be exhibited again, whereas other behavioral consequences decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be exhibited. Managers should reward behavior they want repeated and make sure undesirable behavior is not rewarded.

Deci & Ryan (1975) Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Most well-known theory of intrinsic motivation (behaviors performed for their own sake without any external reward). Assumed people adopt their an intrinsic or extrinsic motivational orientation. ▪ Model: perceived environment -> sense of mastery/personal control -> affective and behavioral responses. ▪ Rewards perceived as controlling -> external locus of causality -> extrinsic motivation. ▪ Rewards perceived as informational -> internal locus of causality -> intrinsic motivation.

Mento, Steel, & Karren (1987)

Goal setting meta-analysis (1966-1984) in support of goal setting theory

Adams (1965) Equity Theory

Predicts people will evaluate fairness of their situation in an org based on comparison of the ratio of their inputs and outcomes with some referent's ratio of inputs and outcomes. When ratio comparisons are not equal, people are motivated to change the situation by either modifying their inputs and outcomes, changing their referent other, distorting their perceptions, or quitting. In essence, people are motivated to create a situation of equity or fairness.

Pygmalion effect

The idea that communicating high expectations can improve self-efficacy, which in turn improves performance. Opposite = golem effect - in which low expectations are communicated and self-efficacy and performance decrease as a result.

Baron (1993)

• Affect - mild, temporary shifts in current mood • Incompatible response hypothesis - the notion that inducing affective reactions incompatible with anger can sharply reduce the likelihood of overt aggression o Affective reactions include: empathy, humor, mild sexual arousal o This can be applied to the reduction of org conflict

Latham, Erez, & Locke (1988)

• Assigned goals motivate as well as participatively set goals if they are "sold" properly to employees

Csikszentmihayli (1975) Need/Motive/Value

• Attempt to identify job-person features associated with intrinsically motivated behaviors • "Flow experience": intrinsic motivation among highly skilled people; experiences characterized by undivided attention to the task, an organized set of action opportunities, limited stimulus field, clear goals and feedback, perceptions of control over activity • *Presented dramatic change in direction for intrinsic motivation work

George & Brief (1996)

• Attempt to integrate emotion into a work motivation framework o Possible selves - what people want to become or avoid becoming; they function as incentives for future behaviors and as a means for evaluating and interpreting current views of the self o Emotions - intense feelings that interrupt cognitive thought processes and behaviors o Moods - generalized feeling states that are not necessarily focused on any particular target nor necessarily linked to any given possible self o Determinants of Mood - Interaction between: Personality - positive affectivity or extroversion Context o Distal and proximal motivation: Positive mood enhances distal motivation by facilitating initial involvement, interest and enthusiasm for work tasks Once a worker is in the process of performing a task, positive mood also enhances proximal motivation in that it results in persistence

Skinner (1953)

• Behavior is determined by genetics and the environment. o Cognition and motivation are nonessential • Three component model of behavior o Situational cues o Behavior o Response consequences (provide reinforcement for behavior)

Phillips, Hollenbeck, & Ilgen (1996)

• Compares and contrast SET (self-efficacy theory) and CT (control theory) on how they treat PDC (positive discrepancy creation). Results show that neither theory adequately explains PDC because PDC is actually a two-factor construct (Performance and goal-driven) • PDC - occurs when people set goals for themselves that are higher than their past levels of performance • Two types of PDC: o Performance-driven PDC - individuals low in ability set goals that were equal to those who were high in ability (difficult goals for themselves, but they didn't have the ability to reach the goals) Supports SET o Goal-driven PDC - high future goals set by people who performed similar to others, but had a high need for achievement Supports CT

Maslow (1943) Need/Motive/Value

• Content theory of motivation suggesting hierarchy of needs that influences behavior • Five categories of needs that are based on the prepotency process principle—people move upward through the hierarchy o Physiological, Safety, Belongingness, Love, Self-actualization • Lack of empirical support

Scheier & Carver (1982)

• Control theory is developed on the basis of "self-focused attention" whereas individuals compare their progress to an internal standard o This standard is formed by schemas, which are used to make sense of environmental factors and include information on acceptable behavior [Sense-making, attribution theory] This outcome behavior is value-laden and may be automatic (unconscious) o A feedback loop consisting of an input function (perception) and an output function (behavior) is included in the control theory If there is a discrepancy in the performance as compared to the standard, negative affect (or some other outcome) impacts the environment • Goals may be nested hierarchically, whereas overarching goals may be monitored by lower level reference loops • When performance is grossly different than the standard, outcomes include o Affect / Self esteem / Goal continuance or disengagement (related to perceived V and E; see also attribution theory) • Therefore, failure to perform in a higher level goal may cause an individual to "shift down" to focus on lower level goals that reside under the higher goal

Bandura (1986) Need/Motive/Value

• Created a behavioral framework of intrinsic motives that distinguished between different forms of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation based on locus of the outcome and type of behavior-outcome contingency • In practice, an event may cue both forms of motivation • *Motivation is result of joint influence of self-efficacy expectations and self-evaluations*

Deci (1975) Need/Motive/Value

• Created cognitive evaluation theory (CET) o Most well-known theory of intrinsic motivation (behaviors performed for their own sake, without any external reward) • Assumed that people adopt either an intrinsic or extrinsic motivational orientation

Gist & Mitchell (1992)

• Creates a nomological network for self-efficacy and a model for the self-efficacy-performance relationship o Self-efficacy - a person's estimate of his or her capacity to orchestrate performance on a specific task o Construct definition issues (related constructs): Self-esteem - considered to be a trait reflecting an individual characteristic, affective evaluation of self Self-efficacy - judgment about task capability that is not inherently evaluative o Expectancy - probability judgment driven by self-efficacy - influences through thought patterns, emotional reactions, and the orchestration of performance through ingenuity, resourcefulness, etc. o Self-regulation - self-efficacy is one of several cognitive processes included in self-regulation • Efficacy can be understood as being determined by three dimensions: o Locus of causality / variability / controllability • Three interventions strategies for changing self-efficacy: o Provide information that gives the individual a more thorough understanding of the task attributes, complexity, task environment, and the way in which these factors can be best controlled

Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1973) Cognitive choice

• Creation and examination of the "overjustification effect" o People seeking an explanation for their behavior, perceived an external reward to be the cause of the behavior • Demonstrated that external rewards can actually reduce intrinsic motivation and continued performance o More recent studies show that external rewards don't automatically reduce intrinsic motivation

Deci & Ryan (1980) Need/Motive/Value

• Demonstrated that the presence of external rewards does not automatically decrease intrinsic motivation

Atkinson & Birch (1970; 1974) Self-regulation & Meta-cognition

• Developed Dynamics of Action Approach to explain and predict change/stability in direction of behavior over time • Assumes multiple motivational tendencies operate at same time - behavior reflects strongest motivational tendency • Changes in direction of behavior indicate changes in dominant behavioral tendency o Arousing/instigating forces increase particular motivational tendencies o Consummatory forces counter instigating forces and decrease motivational tendencies over time o Inhibitory forces/forces of resistance: tendency to avoid activities associated with previous negative experiences • Has attracted minimal research

Hollenbeck, Williams, & Klein (1989)

• Empirical test of theory of goal commitment o Significant results found for the following model: (significant elements bolded). o IN RELATION to VALENCE of Goal Attainment: Situation Factors: Publicness, explicitness, rewards, competition, self-setting goals Person Factors: Need for Achievement, type A personality, org commitment, job involvement o IN RELATION to EXPECTANCY of Goal Attainment Situation Factors: Social learning influence, task complexity, spvsr support, constraints Person Factors: Locus of control, ability, past success, self-efficacy • Valence and Expectancy are proposed mediators to goal attainment. The authors found the bolded items to be directly related to goal attainment.

Williams & Luthens (1992) Need/Motive/Value

• Examined the impact of choice of reward and feedback on arousal and performance. Results showed that choice and choice's interaction with feedback affect performance, while they don't impact arousal. Results support Self-Determination Theory (Deci et al, 1989)

Locke, Smith, Erez, Chah, & Schaffer (1994)

• Examined the impact of intra-individual goal conflict (as created by pressure) on performance. Results show in the exploratory study that pressure positively impacts goal conflict while goal conflict negatively impacted performance - additionally, pressure was positively related to setting high goals, which was positively related to performance

Kanfer, Ackerman, Murtha, Dugdale, & Nelson (1994)

• Examines the interaction between goal setting and conditions of practice (spaced or massed) and their impact on task performance. Results show that difficult goals facilitated performance in a training context that had rest intervals (spaced). However, goal setting was harmful to trainees in a massed context due to the sustained levels of attentional effort required • The results support the Resource Allocation Perspective, which states that people while self-regulation is helpful to performance, it requires additional resources to be successful - since spaced training allows for additional resources to be freed, trainees were able to use those resources for self-regulation purposes

Alderfer (1969) Need/Motive/Value

• Existence-relatedness-growth (ERG) theory designed to improve Maslow's theory by considering empirical results. o Three categories of needs which operate simultaneously Existence: relevant to survival Relatedness: interpersonal interactions Growth: development of potential and capabilities o Lack of empirical support and methodological problems

Katzell & Thompson (1990)

• Exogenous theories - focus on motivationally relevant IVs that can be changed by external agents (methods for improving worker motivation) • Endogenous theories - deal with process or mediating variables that are amenable to modification only indirectly in response to variation in one or more exogenous variables • Seven Motivational Imperatives derived from the seven exogenous theories o Workers' motives and values must be appropriate for their jobs Personnel selection / job previews / motive training / socialization o Make jobs attractive, interesting, and satisfying Financial compensation / promotion / participation / job security / career development / job enrichment o Effective performance must be positively reinforced, but not ineffective performance Financial incentive plans / behavioral analysis / praise and criticism / self-management o Work goals must be clear, challenging, attainable, attractive Goal setting / management by objectives / modeling / quality circles / appraisal & feedback o Provide needed resources and eliminate constraints to performance Training and development / coaching & counseling / equipment / technology / problem solving o Interpersonal and group processes must support goal attainment Division of labor / group composition / team development / training / leadership / norm building o Personal, social, and technological parameters must be harmonious Quality of work programs / socio-technical systems designs / org development / Scanlon plan

Weiner (1974) Cognitive choice

• Extended the cognitive choice models (expectancy) to include attributions o Causal explanations people make about past behaviors o Own behavior is a result of four categories: Effort, Ability, Task difficulty, Luck • Attributions -> Expectancy -> Behaviors • Seems to be supported by variety of studies

Hollenbeck & Klein (1987)

• Extension of Locke's goal setting theories with the introduction of goal commitment in relation to motivation. o Goals perceived as too difficult result in individuals ceasing to try to obtain the goals o Goal commitment is the determination of an individual to try for a goal and the unwillingness to abandon a goal o Suggests that goal commitment is a function of the situation and the person and that these factors influence both valence of goal attainment and expectancy of goal attainment. Valence and expectancy of goal attainment in turn influence goal commitment.

Weiner (1985) Cognitive choice

• Extension of attribution theory o Suggest three dimensions to the attribution process Locus of Causality (internal vs. external) Stability (constant vs. variable) Controllable (able to be volitionally controlled vs. not able to be controlled) • Some debate about the validity of three dimensions (i.e. should there be more or less?)

Hyland (1988)

• Presents motivational control theory. See also Scheier & Carver (1982). o Meta-theoretic framework that differs from conventional theories of motivation by being at a more fundamental level of description o Behavior is explained in terms of either variation in the amount of energy invested in a few named goals, variation in the nature of the goals themselves, or variation in the organization of goals

Carver & Scheier (1981)

• Proposed Theory of Self-Regulation based on cybernetic control principles (feedback system) • Self-regulation: negative (discrepancy-reducing) feedback loop o Individuals must focus attention on behavior to determine comparison o Process is triggered when discrepancy is detected between standard (goal) and current performance • Responses to discrepancies: o Adhere to standard, exert greater effort o Lower standard, maintain effort o Terminate cycle by withdrawing from task • NOTE: doesn't explain how people choose these options

Kanfer & Ackerman (1989)

• Further examination of motivation in terms of resource allocation model. Incorporates the resource dependency of the task (how many and how much resource is demanded by the task) along with other motivational consideration to present a model of allocation. o Framework similar to Naylor, Pritchard, Ilgen 1980 o Resource allocation and Performance are moderated by the nature of the task Resource dependent task performance is sensitive to changes in attentiveness Resource insensitive task performance is not • Overall utility is determined by individual perception of the attractiveness of the outcome in relation to the cost of expended effort • The effect of motivational interventions on task performance (i.e. goal setting) is dependent upon the influence of individual diff (resource capacity) and the nature of the task (i.e. attentional demands) o As attentional demands decrease with learning, resource capacity (g) is less important to performance that motivational processes that facilitate on-task attention (i.e. goal setting)

Latham & Locke (1991)

• Goal attributes: o Goal Content - vary from vague to specific and on its level of difficulty Performance is a linear function of goal difficulty Specific and challenging goals lead to higher performance then vague but challenging / vague but non-challenging / or no goals o Intensity - scope, clarity, mental effort, etc. involved in a mental process Commitment - the degree to which the individual is attached to the goal, considers it significant, is determined to reach it, and keeps it in the face of setbacks and obstacles Operates as both a direct causal factor and as a moderator of performance Enhanced through convincing that the goal is possible and important • Goal Choice o Negative relationship between goal level and valence (expected satisfaction with attaining performance level) • Goals and Feedback • Goal Mechanisms o Goals direct activity toward actions which are relevant to them at the expense of actions which are not goal-relevant o Specific goals regulate effort in that people adjust their effort to the difficulty level of the task or goal o Goals affect persistence (duration) in situations where there are no time limits imposed on people When time limits are imposed, difficult goals lead to faster / harder performance No time limits, difficult goals lead people to work longer • Self-regulation - o Self-set goals are as effective as, but not more effective in increasing performance than goals that are assigned or set anticipatively o Goal setting facilitates self-regulation in that the goal defines for the person what constitutes an acceptable level of performance o Proximal goals serve as highly effective self-regulators

Locke (1968)

• Goals are the most powerful cognitive determinants of task behavior. They affect behavior by o Directing attention o Mobilizing on-task effort o Encouraging task persistence o Facilitating development of strategies • Goal attributes that affect behavior o Intensity: strength of the goal (influenced by perceived goal importance and goal commitment o Content: difficulty, specificity, complexity, and goal conflict • Support for basic premise: persons assigned (and who adopt) difficult and specific goals outperform persons provided "do your best" goal assignments (Latham & Lee, 1986) • Proposed that goals moderate the effects of knowledge of results on later behavior

Malone & Lepper (1987) Need/Motive/Value

• Intrinsic motivation can be derived from seeking three experiences: o Arousal - stimulation of affect, senses, cognitive interests, etc. (exp. Curiosity) o Competence - mastery, challenge in a particular area o Self-Determination - personal control • By viewing intrinsic motivation as a multi-faceted phenomenon, each facet can be targeted specifically, especially in light of a threat to one or more of the other facets (as in the case with external rewards)

Hackman & Oldham (1980)

• Introduction of Job Characteristics Theory (JCT). • Core characteristics of the job: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback • Result in critical psychological states as well as org outcomes o Skill Variety, Task Identity, and Task significance Experienced meaningfulness of work o Autonomy -> Experienced responsibility for work outcomes o Feedback -> Knowledge of the actual results at work • These crit psych states lead to outcomes including (motivation, satisfaction, performance, withdrawal) • This relationship is moderated by an individual's growth-need strength • Potential problems with research methods include same source bias

Naylor, Pritchard, & Ilgen (1980) Cognitive choice

• Introduction of motivation as a resource allocation process in the form of a stimulus-organization-response theory. o Individuals possess personal resources (such as time, cognitive effort, etc.) which they may or may not be motivated to devote to a task o The resource allocation perspective allows for researchers to account for ind. differences (diff in total resource availability) o The cognitive choice framework of DM is incorporated with perceptual differences, allowing for both bounded rationality and cognitive biases Expectancy = perceived probability Valence = utility estimates Additive model (as new information is added over time, perceptions change, resulting in resource allocation change)

Dweck & Legget (1988) Cognitive choice

• Later example of CET (Cognitive evaluation theory) • Examination of intrinsic motivation in achievement contexts • Focused on importance of individual's conception of his/her ability and attributional patterns associated with performance and learning goals o Performance goal -> effort is viewed as compensatory for a fixed ability level Failure is attributed to low self-perceived ability -> avoidance of task o Learning goal -> internal, controllable perceptions of ability Failure attributed to lack of effort, modifiable level of ability

Donovan & Radosevich (1998)

• Meta-analysis conducted to examine the overall strength of the moderating effect of goal commitment on performance. o The authors found that goal difficulty x goal commitment interaction accounts for less than 3% of the variance in task performance. o The type of goal commitment measure used (self-report vs. discrepancy) was a significant moderator of this relationship

Kanfer (1990)

• Motivation - a dynamic series of resource allocation processes that act as both a determinant and an outcome of reasoned choice • Motivation as an IV: o Direction - what a person does o Intensity - how hard a person works o Persistence - how long a person works

Blau (1993)

• Operationalized intensity and direction separately and found that each had independent effects on performance. o Intensity measured as the percentage of time a teller was working o Direction measured as the frequency of job behaviors

Davis & Luthans (1980) Cognitive choice

• Review and extension of social learning theory in order to better examine and explain organizational behavior. o Generally, three major approaches to organizational behavior Behavior = function of person (motivation, perception, attitudes, expectancy, personality) Behavior = function of environment (operant conditioning) Behavior = function of interaction between person and environment (Lewin) Should Add fourth perspective: social learning theory • Social learning theory (Bandura) is a continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants

Bandura (1982)

• Self-regulation: o Self-observation/self-monitoring: attention given to specific aspects of one's own behavior Provides information about outcomes o Self-observation/self-judgment: without this, self-regulation is not possible Comparison of desired goal state with performance • Sources of self-efficacy o Past accomplishments o Observation of others (model) o Verbal persuasion o Logical verification

Wright, George, Farnsworth, & McMahan (1993)

• Showed that goal commitment moderated the relationship between goal difficulty and extra-role behavior, such that less extra-role behaviors were performed with difficult goals when the individual was committed to the goal

Bandura (1977)

• Social Learning Theory researchers demonstrated roles of cognitive processes in observational learning, self-regulation, and delay of gratification—all of which are not predicted nor explained by behaviorism • Four component model of behavior o Cognitive, behavioral, organismic, and environmental factors have reciprocal influences on action

Kelly & Michela (1980) Cognitive choice

• Suggests that attribution processes mediate relationship between antecedents and outcomes in relation to individuals. Outcomes may be related primarily to effort by way of expectancy. o Attribution theory is the explaining of why (or attributing causes to certain events, etc.) o Antecedents to attribution include information, personal and pre-existing beliefs, and other motivations o Outcomes to attribution include individual behavior, affective outcomes, and expectancy o The potential to allow antecedents to bias the attribution process results in fundamental attribution error

Eden (1988)

• Suggests that raising expectations and setting difficult goals can be mutually reinforcing means to boost productivity. o Expectancy - a momentary belief regarding the likelihood that a particular outcome will follow a particular act o Expectancy thus is measured as subjective probability of success, (SPS), with choice being a complicating factor o Choosing to work at a task is different from working hard to perform well. [Resource allocation] o Expectancy can be viewed both as a state subject to situational factors and as a trait or belief about self-competence in achievement situations

DeShon, Brown, & Greenis (1996)

• The resource allocation model of goal setting (Kanfer & Akerman, 1989) maintains that self-regulation initiated through goal setting requires attentional resources that could be more productively applied to skill acquisition and complex task performance • These authors question this hypothesis because attentional resources had not been directly manipulated or measured in studies supporting the model, allowing for the potential of alternative explanations • Even at the limits of human information processing, participants who were assigned difficult, specific goals performed at least as well on the secondary task as did individuals with do-your-best goals

Tubbs, Boehne, & Dahl (1993) Cognitive choice

• The within-person approach is faithful to Vroom's version of EV theory while also incorporating the greater specificity provided by achievement motivation theory and Naylor & Ilgen's (1984) work • The across-person approach differs from traditional EV theory in several ways: o The nature of expectancy and valence constructs o The existence and relevance of the motivational force construct o The nature of the relation examined between motivational judgments and outcomes • When no-feedback is provided, subjects can not make realistic EV judgments • The general shape of expectancy, valence, and motivational force (MF) curves were non-linear, suggesting more complex relationships then previously discussed

Kanfer & Heggestad (1997)

• Their intent was to present a framework through which researchers could conceptualize "key non-ability individual differences characteristics" in "person-situation models of employee motivation." • Basically, the authors felt that there hasn't been enough focus on individual differences in motivation and they felt that they could help remedy this by presenting a framework through which authors could develop their own theories of motivation with individual differences. They then present a specific framework using achievement striving and anxiety (specifically, their interaction) as causes of motivation

Vroom (1964) Cognitive choice

• Theory of cognitive choice to predict choices between jobs, tasks, and effort levels that lead to best outcomes • VIE (valence-instrumentality-expectancy) o Choice depends on three sets of variables: Effort-performance expectancy (E) (performance=first-level outcome) Perceived instrumentalities (I) - perceived relationships between performance and second-level outcomes Evaluation of outcomes (V) • Relationship is multiplicative (E X V) • Early generally supported model • Later identified methodological problems (between vs. within subject designs)

Adams (1963) Need/Motive/Value

• Theory of motivation that blends cognitive theory with social exchange theory. (Basis for distributive justice) o Assumes people seek fairness in employer-employee relationships o Cognitive ratio of inputs to outcomes, compared to that of relevant others When ratio is unequal inequity tension o People seek to reduce tension o Other research suggests reactions change over time, but theory does not address this

Atkinson (1957) Cognitive choice

• Traditional theory of achievement motivation • Tendency to choose a task is determined by four elements o Motive to achieve success o Motive to avoid failure o Perceived probability of task success o Incentive value of task success • People differ in motive to achieve success vs. motive to avoid failure • Results support predictions in controlled settings but not in more open settings

Wood, Mento, & Locke (1987)

• Utilized same data as above to examine the moderating role of task complexity in relation to goal setting. o Found that goal effects are higher for simple tasks than for complex tasks

Bandura (1986) Self-efficacy

▪ Self-efficacy develops through four mechanisms: 1. Mastery experiences - successes build a robust belief in one's personal efficacy 2. Vicarious experience - experiences provided by social models; seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observer's beliefs that they too possess the capabilities necessary to succeed 3. Social persuasion - people who are persuaded that they possess the capabilities to master given activities are likely to mobilize greater effort and sustain it. 4. Physiological arousal - in a way that reduces people's stress reactions and alters negative emotions