MTFC

Chinggis Khan

Chinggis Khan or Genghis Khan • Between 1206 and his death in 1227, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan conquered nearly 12 million square miles of territory - more than any individual in history • Chinggis Khan was proclaimed leader of the Mongols at a tribal meeting known as a "kurultai" - while "Khan" is a traditional title meaning "leader" or "ruler," historians are still unsure of the origins of "Genghis" - it may have may have meant "ocean" or "just," but in context it is usually translated as "supreme ruler" or "universal ruler" • Genghis Khan often gave other kingdoms a chance to peacefully submit to Mongol rule, but he didn't hesitate to bring down the sword on any society that resisted • The Mongols were skilled warriors on horseback - their cavalry was unrivaled • The Great Khan had a keen eye for talent, and he usually promoted his officers on skill and experience rather than class, ancestry or even past allegiances • One famous example of this belief in meritocracy came during a 1201 battle against the rival Taijut tribe, when Genghis was nearly killed after his horse was shot out from under him with an arrow - when he later addressed the Taijut prisoners and demanded to know who was responsible, one soldier bravely stood up and admitted to being the shooter - stirred by the archer's boldness, Genghis made him an officer in his army and later nicknamed him "Jebe," or "arrow," in honor of their first meeting on the battlefield - along with the famed general Subutai, Jebe would go on to become one of the Mongols' greatest field commanders during their conquests in Asia and Europe • Unlike many empire builders, Genghis Khan embraced the diversity of his newly conquered territories - he passed laws declaring religious freedom for all and even granted tax exemptions to places of worship - this tolerance had a political side - the Khan knew that happy subjects were less likely to rebel - but the Mongols also had an exceptionally liberal attitude towards religion • Along with the bow and the horse, the Mongols most potent weapon may have been their vast communication network - one of his earliest decrees as Khan involved the formation of a mounted courier service known as the "Yam" - it consisted of a well-organized series of post houses and way stations strung out across the whole of the Empire - by stopping to rest or take on a fresh mount every few miles, official riders could often travel as far as 200 miles a day - the system allowed goods and information to travel with unprecedented speed, but it also acted as the eyes and ears of the Khan - the Yam also helped protect foreign dignitaries and merchants during their travels

Benefits of Neolithic Revolution

• 10,000 years ago, some people learned to farm and domesticate animals • This period of learning to farm was called the Neolithic Revolution because it began during the New Stone Age and it occurred at several locations independently • There were many benefits to farming - first of all, crops don't run like buffalo do and so people could settle - they could stay in one location and farm - they did not have to move from place to place in search of food • Second, population increased - farmers produced more food and did not have to carry toddlers and babies as nomads - so, they could have more children • Yes, there were many benefits that the discovery of agriculture bestowed upon early societies such as a greater ability to affect the environments in which they lived - humans could clear the land for farming and build irrigation canals • Humans had a more reliable way of obtaining a more diverse supply of food • Humans had the ability to establish permanent communities and the reasons to do so • And humans increased the tendency to cooperate and form more cohesive societies - it takes a village to build an irrigation canal

Dates of early civilizations

• 3500 B.C.E. is the date that the first full civilization emerged in the Middle East • At around 3500 B.C.E., in Mesopotamia, there arose several important cities and civilizations • The Sumerians lived in southern Mesopotamia, an area known as Sumer, around 100 miles upriver from the Persian Gulf in what is now Iraq • The Sumerians invented writing around 3100 B.C.E. • Schools were first begun in Mesopotamia to teach upper class male students to write using the cuneiform alphabet

Caliphs

• A caliph is a religious and political leader of Islam • The early caliphs DEFINITELY accepted Muhammad's teachings • The early caliphs were NOT strictly political leaders; they were political and religious leaders • The early caliphs were NOT unanimously agreed upon by the umma or Islamic community - after all, there was and is a split in the Islamic world between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims and their differences regarding the legitimate ruler of the community • The early caliphs did NOT concentrate only on religious doctrine and not on expansion - the early caliphs expanded into new lands too

Characteristics of Civilization

• A civilization is a complex society • A common trait of early civilizations is urban life - the word "civilization" comes from the Latin word for city: "civis" - thanks to food surpluses, cities developed • Another trait of early civilization was monument building - whether pyramids or ziggurats - in civilization, monuments were built • Formal state structures - this too was a common trait of early civilizations - government departments or bureaucracy • Writing is a common trait of early civilizations - think hieroglyphics or ziggurats • But nomadism was NOT a common trait of early civilizations - nomads do not build cities because nomads move and to invest time and energy into the building of a structure that will be abandoned makes no sense

Characteristics of Civilizations

• A civilization is a complex society • Hunters and gatherers do NOT have civilization because by moving regularly, their social structures are fairly simple: they do not build monuments; they do not have bureaucracies or governmental departments in highly organized governments; and they do not have intense specialization or people performing lots of different jobs - the men hunt and the women farm but there are not scribes and doctors and tax collectors • Yes, a civilization has a degree of craft specialization (different jobs) and a level of social stratification (a class hierarchy with rich and poor people) and the development of irrigation systems (farmers need water for their fields) and the construction of architectural monuments (like pyramids and temples) • Yes, all of the features of civilization just mentioned were features of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Mesoamerica, the Indus River Valley, and the Yellow River Valley • But religious systems that included sacrifice rituals - this is not a feature of civilization - this could occur even without a complex society - even hunters and gatherers could have sacrifice as part of a religious ritual

Characteristics of Most Early Civilizations

• A civilization is a complex society • It has cities and specialization or the performance of different jobs • It has urban centers and growing populations • It has a writing system; however, some civilizations in the Americas lacked writing systems but still qualify as civilizations in the complexity of their organization and city living

Roman Cultural Legacies

• A cultural legacy is the ideas or accomplishments that a people give to future generations - and the Romans left a significant cultural legacy • The Romans preserved Hellenic philosophy or preserved Greek ideas • The Romans built roads and fortifications that have lasted for centuries • The Romans made Christianity the official faith of the empire • The Romans adopted a legal code still in some use today • But the Romans did NOT adopted Islam as the official faith of the empire

Guild

• A guild is an association of crafts workers - like bakers or carpenters • The guild sets the standards for the work and goods produced and also controls who can enter the guild - first as an apprentice then as a journeyman and finally as a master craftsman • The medieval guilds were generally one of two types: merchant guilds or craft guilds • Merchant guilds were associations of all or most of the merchants in a particular town or city; these men might be local or long-distance traders, wholesale or retail sellers, and might deal in various categories of goods • Craft guilds, on the other hand, were occupational associations that usually comprised all the artisans and craftsmen in a particular branch of industry or commerce. There were, for instance, guilds of weavers, dyers, and fullers in the wool trade and of masons and architects in the building trade; and there were guilds of painters, metalsmiths, blacksmiths, bakers, butchers, leatherworkers, soapmakers, and so on • Guilds performed a variety of important functions in the local economy • They established a monopoly of trade in their locality or within a particular branch of industry or commerce; they set and maintained standards for the quality of goods and the integrity of trading practices in that industry; they worked to maintain stable prices for their goods and commodities; and they sought to control town or city governments in order to further the interests of the guild members and achieve their economic objectives • Yes, organizations of merchants and craftspeople in European cities were called guilds

A Major Difference between Roman and Islamic Civilizations

• A major difference between the classic periods in Rome and the Islamic civilizations was that while Roman society had strict social class delineations and little mobility, Islam was egalitarian with few barriers to social mobility • Yes, in Roman society, a man was born a patrician - a landowning aristocrat or a plebeian - a free working man, or a slave • Birth determined a lot of what a Roman could do or could become • But in Islam, all believers are considered equal in the eyes of Allah and there was a greater opportunity to rise in the society - there were few barriers to social mobility • If birth determines status, then the society lacks social mobility and has many barriers to social mobility but if a person's ability determines status, then social mobility occurs

Bantu and Iron

• A major effect of the Bantu migrations was the diffusion of iron metallurgy in sub- Saharan Africa • The Bantu originated in West Africa but learned to farm and as their population grew, went in search of new agricultural lands • Thus, the Bantu migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa - they began their migration around 1000 B.C.E. and continued until 1000 C.E. • The Bantu spread agriculture, iron-making and the Bantu language • The Bantu provided a common linguistic (relating to language) base in sub-Saharan Africa as many languages in the region are Bantu-based languages

Nuns in Buddhism and Christianity

• A monastic is an individual who gives up family life for the religious life • In Buddhism and Roman Catholicism, monastic life is an alternative to marriage • Both Buddhists and Roman Catholics allow women to lead monastic lives as nuns • The establishment of communities of nuns in both Christian and Buddhist societies by 600 C.E. allowed nuns to exercise power within their communities more extensively than in their respective societies • Yes, a nun had a certain amount of autonomy or freedom in a convent - first, she lived only with women in the convent and as such, within the convent, women made many of the rules for the community • In family life, a woman's husband made many of the rules • So, not only did Buddhism and Christianity provide alternatives to marriage for women; these religions also provided monastic women or nuns greater freedom in convents than in traditional married life

Pastoral Nomads

• A pastoralist is a herder or an individual who raises animals or livestock • Pastoralists are nomadic because herds have to be moved to new grazing lands • While pastoralists differ from farmers in that farmers are settled and pastoralists are nomadic, there are some similarities between the two • Yes, pastoral nomads are comparable to established farmers in that they both domesticate livestock • To domesticate an animal is to breed or train (an animal) to need and accept the care of human beings

Beliefs of Daoism

• A philosophy that developed in China during the Zhou Dynasty in the period known as the "Age of Warring States" • Sought a solution to China's warfare in living harmoniously in nature • Daoism encourages individuals to live naturally and to live close to nature • Daoists believe that the government that governs best governs least and allows individuals to live naturally without restrictions and unnecessary rules • Daoism encourages wu wei or to do nothing but also wu bu wei or to do everything • The Yin-Yang is often a symbol in Daoism for it suggests non-duality • In dynastic China, a scholar could be Confucian by day in his scholarly work but Daoist at night as he painted and danced • a key philosophical and religious element of Daoism is emphasis on harmony between humanity and nature

Effects of New Varieties of Rice (i.e. Champa Rice) in East Asia

• A rapid increase of East Asian populations was an important long-term demographic impact of the spread of new rice varieties in East Asia during the period circa 600 C.E. to 1200 C.E • Early maturing varieties of rice with their ability to escape droughts, avoid floods and in some localities open up the opportunity for double cropping increased the amount of rice grown and therefore increased the number of calories people consumed thereby leading to more people living rather than starving • During Song times, new developments in rice cultivation — especially the introduction of new strains of rice from what is now Central Vietnam, along with improved methods of water control and irrigation — spectacularly increased rice yields - rice was used primarily as food - so, Champa Rice was really important • Demographic means the number of people in a society and Champa rice increased the number of people living in an area because it reduced mortality due to starvation • Improved seeds means greater cultivation • Thus, better rice - rice that can be grown and survive even in difficult places and times - means more people or a demographic change as population increases

Definition of a Serf

• A serf is a person bound to the Lord's land • A serf is not property but is not free to leave or work as he pleases • Serfdom is a form of coerced labor as is slavery • A serf, however, has more rights than a slave • A serf is an "agricultural laborer tied to an estate with rights including military protection, heritable ownership of a plot of land, and owing obligations to share crop yields each season with his or her lord"

Facts about the Shoguns of Japan

• A shogun is a military dictator who ruled Japan while the emperor was a mere figurehead, highly respected but without power • During Japan's medieval period, shoguns wielded the real power in Japan • Under the shogunates of Japan, the emperor's power was symbolic

Last Prophet According to Islam

• According to Islam, Muhammad is the last prophet • There will be no other prophets after Muhammad according to Islam • Muhammad, therefore, is the "Seal of the Prophets"

Last Prophet - Islam

• According to Islam, Muhammad is the last prophet • There will be no other prophets after Muhammad according to Islam • Muhammad, therefore, is the "Seal of the Prophets" • Again, after Muhammad, there will be no other prophets • Muhammad is the final prophet

Zhou Dynasty

• According to Zhou political theory, the Zhou king overthrew the Shang dynasty because the Shang lost the mandate of heaven • The Shang is the first known Chinese dynasty (with artifacts to prove its existence) and was overthrown by the Zhou dynasty • When the Zhou overthrew the Shang, they claimed the right to overthrow the Shang based on a belief in the Mandate of Heaven • The Mandate of Heaven is the right to rule • In other words, the gods select the emperor and dynasty to rule and they thereby received the mandate but if they rule poorly or bad things happen during their rule, it is evidence that they have lost the mandate • Thus, the mandate of heaven justifies rebellion because it states that the dynasty can lose the mandate and then the people have the right to rebel and overthrow the dynasty

Alexander the Great

• After the Peloponnesian War, the Macedonians took control of Greece and spread Greek culture throughout much of the known world under the leadership of Alexander the Great • The Peloponnesian War was a war between the Greek city-states [alliances supporting Athens or Sparta] • As the Greeks fought among themselves, they weakened their cities thereby allowing King Philip II of Macedon to conquer the Greek city-states • When Philip died, his son, Alexander the Great, took command and reconquered the Greek city-states (the Greeks had tried to rebel) • Then Alexander conquered a great empire that included Greece, Egypt, Persia, Afghanistan and even a bit of India - but in the Indian subcontinent, his men demanded to return home • Although Alexander died on the journey home, he managed to spread Hellenism or Greek culture to the lands he conquered • Ironically, Alexander conquered the Greeks but preserved Greek culture - if not for Alexander, much of classical Greece would have been lost to future generations

Facts about the Kingdom of Kush

• An ancient civilization in Africa • It is often referred to as Nubia and had close ties to Ancient Egypt • Like the Egyptians, the Kushites built pyramids at burial sites, worshiped Egyptian gods, and mummified the dead • Yes, cultural diffusion but selective borrowing • Two of the most important resources of Ancient Kush were gold and iron • Women played an important role and could be leaders in Kush

Medieval Europe

• After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe entered a period of political fragmentation as competing kingdoms warred with one another for land and power • Feudalism developed in this age of warfare • In feudalism, land is exchanged for military service • As kings are weak; they depend on their lords to provide them with more knights, more soldiers • In return for military service, kings give land to their lords • The manor is the lord's land and serfs lived and worked on manors in return for protection • A serf is a worker bound to his lord's land • A serf owes his lord labor and fees and in return is protected from dangerous invaders • The social hierarchy of medieval Europe consisted of kings, lords [vassals], knights, monks, and serfs • Manorialism is the economic system of the medieval period as people lived and worked on self-sufficient manors as trade was dangerous • However, by the High Middle Ages, invasions had stopped and commerce and urbanization began to increase • One reason that helps to explain why the collapse of political institutions was more devastating to the Roman civilization than to Han China or Gupta India was that Han China and Gupta India had strong religious/philosophical traditions to provide continuity

Official Language of the Byzantine Empire

• After the fall of the western portion of the Roman Empire, the official tongue of Constantinople shifted from Latin to Greek • It is important to remember that the Byzantine Empire was formerly the Eastern Roman Empire • It was centered in Constantinople and included the Balkans and North Africa as well as some of the Middle East • Of course, Greece is located in the Balkan peninsula • The Byzantine Empire included Greece and its capital, Constantinople, was closer to Greece then Rome - thus, its official language was Greece

Language of the Byzantine Empire

• After the fall of the western portion of the Roman Empire, the official tongue of Constantinople shifted from Latin to Greek • This was not surprising as Greece was part of the Byzantine Empire and Rome had been lost to the Germanic invaders • Constantinople was always closer to Greece than Rome • Of course, in Western Europe, Latin was still the language of the Roman Catholic Church and in the Byzantine Empire, Greek was the language of the Orthodox Christian church • Thus, language separated the two regions and two churches - creating a further division between the two

Similarities - Christianity and Buddhism

• Although different in many ways, there are similarities • Buddhism and Christianity provided alternatives to marriage for women • Women could become nuns in monastic orders • In monastic orders, women had some degree of autonomy within their convents • Yet nuns were still subordinate to monks • Buddhism and Christianity are also similar in that their founders were members of other religions and modified those religions • Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was raised a Hindu • Jesus was a Jewish carpenter and teacher • In addition, both belief systems owned monasteries, spread across trade routes, and appealed to a variety of social classes • Yes, Buddhism and Christianity spread on trade routes and appealed to a variety of social classes because it promised a kind of salvation for all people • Buddhism promises an end of suffering for all people • Christianity promises salvation for all people

Similarities Buddhism and Christianity

• Although different in many ways, there are similarities • Buddhism and Christianity provided alternatives to marriage for women • Women could become nuns in monastic orders • Yet nuns were still subordinate to monks • In monastic orders, women had some degree of autonomy within their convents • Buddhism and Christianity are also similar in that their founders were members of other religions and modified those religions • Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was raised a Hindu • Jesus was a Jewish carpenter and teacher • In addition, both belief systems owned monasteries, spread across trade routes, and appealed to a variety of social classes • Yes, Buddhism and Christianity spread on trade routes and appealed to a variety of social classes because it promised a kind of salvation for all people • Buddhism promises an end of suffering for all people • Christianity promises salvation for all people • Both Buddhism and Christianity place an emphasis on missionary activity

Beliefs of Islam

• An Abrahamic religion; influenced by Judaism and Christianity • Accepts Abraham and Moses as well as the Jewish prophets • Muhammad is the founder of Islam • Muhammad is considered the "Seal of the Prophets" or the last prophet • The Five Pillars of the Faith are: - One God [Monotheism] - Prayer five times a day facing the holy city of Mecca - Alms or charity to the poor - Fasting during the month of Ramadan - Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca

Facts about Siddhartha Gautama

• An Indian prince • Raised a Hindu • Came to discover the existence of suffering • Went in search of the causation and cessation of suffering • Became enlightened or a Buddha • Formulated the Four Noble Truths - Life has suffering - Desire causes suffering - Suffering can end - Follow the Noble Eightfold Path [Right Speech, Right Meditation, etc.] or the path to end suffering • Nirvana: the end of suffering • No caste system • Monasticism for men and women: monks and nuns • Two major sects today: Theravada and Mahayana • Mahayana Buddhists believe in Bodhisattvas or beings who have attained Enlightenment but remain on Earth to bring others to the end of suffering

Mosque

• An Islamic house of worship • Geometric patterns and designs are used to decorate a mosque

The Rise of the Mongol Empire Contributed to

• An empire that extended across parts of Europe and Asia • An unsuccessful attempt to conquer Japan • The spread of the plague • The growth of trade across Central Asia • Psychological warfare conducted by skilled warriors on horseback • Religious toleration for the members of the Empire • But also a "Surrender and Be Spared or Resist and Perish" form of conquest

Yellow Turban Uprising

• An event leading to the collapse of the Han dynasty was the Yellow Turban Uprising • The Yellow Turbans were members of a Chinese secret society whose uprising, the Yellow Turban Rebellion (184 C.E. - 204 C.E.), contributed to the fall of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. - 220 C.E.) • Led by a Daoist faith healer who had gained numerous adherents during a widespread pestilence, the rebellion was directed against the Han court • The rebels wore yellow headdresses to signify their association with the "earth" element, which they believed would succeed the red "fire" element of Han rule • To suppress the uprising, which erupted in eastern and central China, the Han conscripted huge armies at great cost, but their efforts were hampered by inefficiency and corruption in the imperial government • The Daoist leader fell ill and died in 184 C.E., but the rebellion was a continuing menace to the government for two more decades - until it was finally suppressed

Impact of New Varieties of Rice in East Asia

• An important long-term demographic impact of the spread of new rice varieties in East Asia during the period 600 C.E. to 1200 C.E was a rapid increase of East Asian populations • Now - first, it is important to know the meaning of demographic: relating to population • Then it is important to think of a long-term impact or an effect over time • New rice varieties had to be better than old rice varieties - so, what would make a new rice variety better? - perhaps it grew better or grew even when there was drought or a lack of rain - perhaps it produced more rice • Thus, if the new rice was better than it would flourish even when there was less rain and it would produce more rice and then more people could eat and then fewer people would die of starvation and then population would increase

Ancient Egyptian writing

• Ancient Egyptian writing included hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic, and Coptic scripts • The ancient Egyptians believed that it was important to record and communicate information about religion and government and they thus invented written scripts that could be used to record this information • The most famous of all ancient Egyptian scripts is hieroglyphic • However, throughout three thousand years of ancient Egyptian civilization, at least three other scripts were used too • Using these scripts, scribes were able to preserve the beliefs, history and ideas of ancient Egypt in temple and tomb walls and on papyrus scrolls • A scribe was a person who copied out documents, especially one employed to do this before printing was invented

Status of Women in Ancient Greece

• Ancient Greece was patriarchal • Men were superior to women and women were subordinate to men • As such, women were inferior to men in both social and political affairs • Of course, patriarchal norms differed throughout Greece • In Sparta, there was patriarchy but women had more rights • In Athens, women were really oppressed

Similarities Regarding Women - Buddhism and Christianity

• Buddhism and Roman Catholic Christianity provided alternatives to marriage for women • Women could become nuns in monastic orders • In monastic orders, women had some degree of autonomy within their convents • Yet nuns were subordinate to monks

New Stone Age

• Another term for the Neolithic Age is the New Stone Age • The Neolithic Age or New Stone Age was characterized by stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding and dependence on domesticated plants or animals • It was also characterized by settlement in permanent villages and the appearance of such crafts as pottery and weaving • The Neolithic Age is followed the Paleolithic Period or age of chipped-stone tools and preceded the Bronze Age or early period of metal tools • The Neolithic Age was a revolutionary period in human and societal development

Characteristics of Hominids

• Any of a family of erect bipedal primate mammals that includes recent humans together with extinct ancestral and related forms and in some recent classifications the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orangutan • The earliest hominids and their descendants were more advanced than earlier primates because of their bipedalism, large brain, and larynx • Bipedal means using two legs for walking or walking upright • A large brain allowed hominids to make tools and adapt to diverse environments and a larynx allows for speech • So, hominids were more advanced but they did NOT use agriculture - it would take thousands of years before the Neolithic Revolution occurred

Landholding Aristocracies in the Post-Classical Era

• Aristocracy means the highest social class in certain societies: people who have special titles (such as duke and duchess ), who typically own land, and who traditionally have more power than the other people in a society • In the Post-Classical era, landholding aristocracies tended to be the dominant class • In fact, the power of landholding aristocracies was an important continuity in the social structure of states and empires in the period 600 B.C.E. to 1450 C.E. • Empires and within empires, landowners were powerful - it would be many years later when this would change • But for much of history, landowning aristocrats were people of wealth and power

Mandate of Heaven Yet Again

• As developed in China, the Mandate of Heaven established the ruler's legitimacy • Legitimacy is the lawfulness or authenticity of something - in this case, the emperor is the legitimate or rightful or lawful ruler • The Mandate of Heaven was a concept established by the Zhou dynasty, the dynasty that overthrew the Shang dynasty • It stated that the gods picked the emperor to rule and thus the emperor received the Mandate of Heaven or the right to rule but the emperor could lose the right to rule if he ruled poorly or was ineffective • Floods, famines, and too many wars - these were signs that an emperor had lost the right to rule • The Mandate of Heaven therefore justified rebellion • The Chinese could rebel if their ruler failed to rule wisely, competently, or well

Definition of Diffusion

• As in cultural diffusion • Cultural diffusion is the exchange of cultural ideas and objects • Buddhism in China is an example of diffusion • Buddhism originated in India but spread to China • The spread of foods, trade goods, concepts, norms, practices, and inventions among different peoples

Significant Beliefs of Buddhism

• Buddhism developed in the Indian subcontinent, South Asia • Its founder was a Hindu prince, Siddhartha Gautama, who went in search of the cause of suffering and the end of suffering • Upon achieving enlightenment, according to Buddhists, he formulated the Four Noble Truths • The Four Noble Truths are 1- Life has suffering 2- Desire causes suffering 3- Suffering can end (nirvana) 4- Follow the Noble Eightfold Path or eight actions to end suffering (Right Speech, Right Concentration, etc.) • Like Hinduism, Buddhists accept the concepts of reincarnation (Samsara) and karma • Buddhists, however, reject the Hindu caste system • And Buddhists allow monastic opportunities for men and women (monks and nuns) • Yes, the founder of Buddhism developed a religion centered on the elimination of desire and suffering

Similarities - Judaism and Hinduism

• At first glance, Judaism and Hinduism seem quite different • Jews worship one God while Hindus worship many gods - yet believe that the many gods are all aspects of the cosmic spirit called Brahman • Hindus believe in reincarnation (samsara) and Jews do not believe in reincarnation • Hinduism has a caste system and Jews believe that all Jews are equal in the eyes of God • Yet both religions have sacred texts and rules for living a good and moral life • Yes, before 500 C.E. Judaism and Hinduism were similar in that both had written scriptures and an ethical code to live by • The Torah or the first five books of the Jewish Bible are the most important of the sacred scriptures for Jews and the Ten Commandments establish moral and ethical rules for living • The Vedas, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad-Gita are Hindu sacred texts and karma (the belief that all actions have consequences) and dharma (the rules of caste) encourage Hindus to act in moral and ethical ways

Direct Democracy

• Athens was home to the world's first democracy • Athenian democracy was direct democracy - this means that Athenian citizens voted on all issues - it was not representative like in the U.S. where citizens vote for representatives who then vote on laws and taxes and war - in Athens, citizens voted directly on all issues of government • Of course, in Athens, only free men born in Athens were citizens - women, slaves and foreigners were not citizens • However, if given a list of locations where democracy developed - the city-state of Sparta was NOT a democracy nor was the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka's rule and Byzantium was NOT a democracy either • Even republican Rome was NOT a democracy because in republican Rome, citizens voted for representatives who then voted on laws, taxes, and war

Augustus Caesar

• Augustus Caesar was the first Roman emperor • He initiated a period of peace in the Roman emperor known as the Pax Romana • While he ruled as emperor, Augustus Caesar liked to give the impression that the Roman Republic still governed - but of course, this was not the case • Tacitus was a Roman historian and he commented on the reign of Augustus Caesar • He wrote that Augustus Caesar used the peace and prosperity of his reign to enact sweeping political changes - to rule fully as an emperor • In a time of peace and wealth, he could give rewards and bonuses • As Tacitus wrote, "Augustus seduced the army with bonuses, and his cheap food policy was successful bait for civilians. Indeed, he attracted everybody's goodwill by the enjoyable gift of peace. Then he gradually pushed ahead and absorbed the functions of the senate, the officials, and even the law. Opposition did not exist. War or judicial murder had disposed of all men of spirit."

Australia and Neolithic Revolution

• Australia was region of the world that had yet to experience the Neolithic transition by 600 CE • Australia's Aboriginal people were thought to have arrived by boat from South East Asia during the last Ice Age, at least 50,000 years ago • At the time of European discovery and settlement, up to one million Aboriginal people lived across the continent as hunters and gatherers • The most immediate consequence of British settlement was the introduction of European diseases such as smallpox - diseases for which the Aborigines had no immunities due to a lack of domesticated animals and many Aborigines died • The Europeans also introduced large-scale farming

Capital of the Byzantine Empire

• Constantinople • Located between Europe and Asia • Very defensible with water on three sides • Not on the map today • Renamed Istanbul when conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1453

Hominid Development

• Australopithecines, Homo habilis, Cro-Magnon, and Homo sapiens sapiens - that correctly outlines the order of hominid development • Of course, it does not outline every hominid but Australopithecines existed before Homo habilis and Homo habilis lived before Cro-Magnon and Cro-Magnon lived before Homo sapiens sapiens • Australopithecus afarensis is the well-known "Lucy" excavated in Ethiopia and dated to ca. 3.2 million years ago - she was small in stature and lightweight as well • Australopithecus afarensis is important because it has been found in East and South Africa about 2.6 million years ago - it was bipedal (walking upright on two legs) most of the time although it is possible that it spent some time in trees if for no other reason than to escape predators • The species that you and all other living human beings on this planet belong to is Homo sapiens - during a time of dramatic climate change 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens evolved in Africa and like other early humans that were living at this time, they gathered and hunted food, and developed behaviors that helped them respond to the challenges of survival in diverse environments

Islamic Architecture in Córdoba, Spain

• Beautiful mosques [houses of Islamic worship] • Geometric designs and patterns • Domes and arches

Isolation of Americas Prior to 1492

• Before 1492, the Americas was isolated from Eurasia and Africa • Yes, there was the occasional Viking but the Vikings did not linger in the Americas and did not leave a lasting footprint • With the arrival of Columbus in 1492, the Americas was forever changed and for the Native American Indian in a painful and difficult way • With the arrival of the Europeans came new diseases that due to the lack of domesticated animals prior to 1492 had devastating consequences • As a result of new diseases, many indigenous Americans died • Aztec civilization existed in an almost complete state of isolation in the period 600 to 1450 as did all of the societies of the Americas • For 1492 is a hugely significant turning point in the Americas and world history

Silk Roads and Roman and Han

• Between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E., the Silk Roads facilitated commodity trade between the following pairs of empires: the Roman and Han • The Silk Road was the largest overland trade network for much of history • At some point during the 1st century B.C.E., silk was introduced to the Roman Empire, where it was considered an exotic luxury and became extremely popular, with imperial edicts being issued to control prices • Its popularity continued throughout the Middle Ages, with detailed Byzantine regulations for the manufacture of silk clothes, illustrating its importance as a quintessentially royal fabric and an important source of revenue for the crown • Additionally, the needs of the Byzantine Church for silk garments and hangings were substantial • This luxury item was thus one of the early impetuses in the development of trading routes from Europe to East Asia

Concepts of Dharma and Karma in Hinduism and Buddhism

• Both Hindus and Buddhists accept the concepts of dharma and karma • Both Hindus and Buddhists believe that all actions have consequences or that karma exists • Hindus believe in dharma as the rules of the caste • Buddhists believe in dharma as the teachings of the Buddha • Both Hindus and Buddhists also believe in samsara or reincarnation

Similarities - Collapse of Roman and Han

• Both empires collapsed due to invaders, high taxes, and corrupt rulers • Invasions, however, dealt the primary blow

Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia - Comparisons

• Both had polytheistic (many gods) religions • Both had written languages - cuneiform in Mesopotamia and hieroglyphics in Ancient Egypt • Both were river valley civilizations - Ancient Mesopotamia had the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and Ancient Egypt had the Nile River • There were differences too - Ancient Egypt was politically unified and Ancient Mesopotamia had city-states • The Nile flooded regularly and predictably and the Tigris and Euphrates flooded violently and unpredictably

Comparison - Ottomans and Mughals

• Both the Ottoman and Mughal empires were established by skilled warriors on horseback who came originally from Central Asia • The Ottoman and Mughals were both Islamic empires • The Ottomans ruled over a culturally diverse community of Muslims, Jews, and Christians • The Mughals were a Muslim minority ruling a Hindu majority in the Indian subcontinent • The Ottomans and the Mughals were both gunpowder empires

Similarities - Roman Empire and Han Dynasty

• Both the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty had tremendous impact on their respective regions - both lasted nearly four hundred years and both influenced the peoples of their regions for years to come [the Han adopted Confucianism and the examination system and the Roman Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity] • And both collapsed for similar reasons - invaders, corrupt rulers, and high taxes • Their economic and political instability was largely caused by imperial overreach - that most accurately describes both the Han and Roman empires • Too vast and too many external and internal problems for both empires • Although there were few direct trade contacts between the Romans and the Han, the Silk Road was established during the Han Dynasty and this overland trading route allowed for Chinese products to enter the Roman Empire

Why Buddhism Spread After the Collapse of the Han Dynasty in China

• Buddhism is a belief system that focuses on suffering and the end of suffering • When the Han Dynasty collapsed, there was much suffering in China - with different groups competing for power • In this time of chaos and warfare, the people suffered and as Confucianism was the official philosophy of the Han Dynasty and as the Han Dynasty collapsed, some Chinese felt that Confucianism had failed • So, Buddhism became increasingly popular with its promise of an end to suffering • Sociologists who study religions have noted that religions that emphasize individual faith will sometimes spread rapidly in societies experiencing disorder and a decline in influence of traditional sources of authority • Buddhism focuses on the individual in the individual's quest to end suffering • The clearest example of this sociological tendency was the spread of Buddhism in China after the end of the Han dynasty

Buddhism and Nirvana

• Buddhists believe that a state of grace of nirvana may be reached by following the Eightfold Path • Buddhists believe that the Noble Eightfold Path is the path to the end of suffering and the end of suffering is known as nirvana to Buddhists • Within the Four Noble Truths (life has suffering but suffering can end) is the guide to the end of suffering: the Noble Eightfold Path • The eight parts of the path to liberation are grouped into three essential elements of Buddhist practice - moral conduct (Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood); mental discipline (Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration); and wisdom (Right Understanding, Right Thought) • Practically the whole teaching of the Buddha deals in some way or other with this Path

Differences - Buddhism and Hinduism

• Buddhists do not accept the caste system • Buddhists have monastic orders and allow women and men to become nuns and monks • However, both Buddhists and Hindus believe in reincarnation and karma • Buddhists use the term "Dharma" to refer to the teachings of the Buddha as opposed to the Hindu concept of Dharma as pertaining to the rules of caste

Definition of prehistory

• By scholarly convention, prehistory refers to the period before the invention of writing • Prehistory is the period of time in the past before people could write : the time before history was written down • The uncounted millenniums which lie back of the time when man began to keep written records of what he thought and did and of what befell him are called the Prehistoric Age • The comparatively few centuries of human life which are made known to us through written records comprise the Historic Age • Much of the past was not recorded - it is only through the excavation of artifacts that these stories can be told

Byzantine Emperor Justinian

• Byzantine Emperor Justinian was the most significant emperor of the Byzantine Empire • During the reign of Justinian, Roman law was codified in the Code of Justinian • From the Code of Justinian, many modern Western European law codes have been created or influenced • Ideas like "innocent until proven guilty" or equality before the law were important Roman judicial concepts found in the Code of Justinian that still influence many people today • Justinian also ordered construction of the beautiful Hagia Sophia or beautiful Byzantine Church • Justinian also conquered many of the lands lost to the Romans with the fall of Rome • Of course, the Byzantine Empire was formerly the eastern Roman Empire • From law to architecture to conquest, Justinian influenced world history • Yes, this early Byzantine emperor had the longest lasting impact on civilization in the eastern Mediterranean and beyond

Champa Rice

• Champa rice was one of those new varieties of rice • Champa rice was the crop that dominated Korean and Vietnamese agriculture in the 1400s • Because this variety of rice was relatively more drought-resistant, it could be grown in places where older varieties had failed, especially on higher land and on terraces that climb hilly slopes, and it ripened even faster than the other early-ripening varieties already grown in China • This made double-cropping possible in some areas, and in some places, even triple-cropping became possible • The hardiness and productivity of various varieties of rice were and are in large part responsible for the density of population in South, Southeast, and East Asia

China's Influence on Its Neighbors

• China exerted the strongest cultural and political influence on Japan, Korea, and Vietnam - its neighbors • Chinese ideas and practices spread to Japan, Korea and Vietnam • The Chinese brought the ideas of Confucianism to these lands • Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan from China • The Chinese introduced their cultural ideas to their neighbors

Examination System under the T'ang Dynasty

• China under the Tang government filled positions in the bureaucracy by means of merit examinations • A bureaucracy is a large group of people who are involved in running a government but who are not elected • In China, the examination system was created by the Han Dynasty as a means of selecting men for government service • All men theoretically could take the examination and therefore the examination system provided a measure of social mobility - in that a man from a peasant family could pass the exam for government service and become a scholar-gentry, landowner and government employee - but of course, it was difficult for peasant families to pay the money necessary for proper educational training yet a talented peasant might gain the financial support of his village • The examination system was adopted by most Chinese dynasties after the Han and thus, the examination system was a continuity in much of the Chinese dynastic period

Christianity in Ethiopia and Egypt

• Christianity had an early presence in Ethiopia and Egypt • King Ezana of Axum [present-day Ethiopia] converted to Christianity in the 300s C.E. [around the same time as Emperor Constantine] • Even with the arrival of Islam, a Christian presence can still be found in these lands • Yes, after the expansion of Islam into Africa, an organized Christian presence remained in Egypt and Ethiopia • Christianity first arrived in North Africa, in the 1st or early 2nd century C.E. • The Christian communities in North Africa were among the earliest in the world • Legend has it that Christianity was brought from Jerusalem to Alexandria on the Egyptian coast by Mark, one of the four evangelists, in 60 C.E. • This was around the same time or possibly before Christianity spread to Northern Europe • In the 7th century Christianity retreated under the advance of Islam but it remained the chosen religion of the Ethiopian Empire and persisted in pockets in North Africa

Treatment of Christians in Tokugawa Japan

• Christians were brutally persecuted and driven into secrecy • Before the Tokugawa shoguns came to power, in 1543 the Portuguese traders reach Japan (were actually shipwrecked there) and were soon followed by the Jesuit missionary order (established in 1540) in the person of St. Francis Xavier who arrives in Japan in 1549 • The Jesuits worked among the daimyo of the samurai class and were initially well received by leading daimyo • However, the reunification of Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1600 brought with it an emphasis on the reestablishment of order following a century of civil war and turmoil • Aware of the political and religious domination of the Philippines since the Spanish colonized the country in 1565, the Japanese political leaders were suspicious of the Dominican and Franciscan missionaries that arrived in Japan from the Philippines and worked among the non-samurai classes • The Japanese daimyo moved to curtail missionary activity beginning in the 1590s • In 1606, the new Shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, proscribed Christianity (just at a time the Jesuits were being received at the imperial court in China), and by 1614 a concerted effort to end all Christian practice was underway • There were an estimated 300,000 Christians in Japan at this time.) • Apprehensive about the spread of Christianity, Ieyasu expelled all Portuguese and Spanish missionaries, among them Joao Rodrigues, and persecuted Japanese Christians thereby greatly reducing the Christian presence from Japan • Christianity was viewed as a divisive and foreign threat that could lead to civil war or dissension in Japan

Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

• Cities first emerged from agricultural villages and towns in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers • The first cities developed in Mesopotamia - the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers • The origins of Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia are still debated today, but archaeological evidence indicates that they established roughly a dozen city-states by the fourth millennium B.C.E. • These cities usually consisted of a walled metropolis dominated by a ziggurat - the tiered, pyramid-like temples associated with the Sumerian religion • Major Sumerian city-states included Eridu, Ur, Nippur, Lagash and Kish, but one of the oldest and most sprawling was Uruk

A Characteristic of Afro-Eurasian Urban Centers before 600 C.E.

• Cities served as centers of commercial activity - this statement accurately describes a characteristic shared by Afro-Eurasian urban centers before 600 C.E. • Of course, this is not surprising - cities are usually centers of trade • Many cities were originally ports and as trading centers, they flourished and became cities • Urbanization (movement to cities) and trade go together • Where there is a trading center, a city is usually found

Direct Democracy in Athens

• Citizen vote and participate in all governmental decision-making • Only free men born in Athens were citizens • Women, slaves, and foreigners were not citizens • A Direct Democracy is a form of government in which all laws are created by a general vote of society • All male citizens in ancient Athens had the right to attend the assembly, where they could meet in the open to discuss and cast votes

Effects of Andes on Pre-Columbian Civilization

• Civilizations existed in the Andes before the arrival of the Spaniards - pre-Columbian means before the arrival of Christopher Columbus and the conquistadors or Spanish conquerors • The Andes are mountains in South America • It is, of course, difficult to farm on mountains and therefore for a civilization to develop, the people of the region had to work together to make farming possible • Yes, the harshness and ruggedness of the terrain in the Andes Mountains affected the way that societies there evolved because people were forced to cooperate with each other and work out a division of labor • To farm on mountains, terraces have to be built • Building terraces or stretches of flattened land on a mountainside required the cooperation of many peoples

The Neolithic Revolution and an Unusual Aspect of the Revolution

• Compared to other revolutions in world history, the feature of the Neolithic Revolution that is most unusual is that it attenuated unfolding over thousands of years in diverse locales • Yes, the Neolithic Revolution took thousands of years to occur in different locations - most revolutions occur within a few decades or even a few years or even months • Like many revolutions, the Neolithic Revolution altered gender roles and relations - so that is NOT unusual • Like many revolutions, the Neolithic Revolution had an impact on population growth and the transformations of class relations - so these are NOT unusual • And like many revolutions, the Neolithic Revolution had an impact on the abandonment of previously held patterns of religious worship

Confucius - When did he live? /What did he believe?

• Confucius lived during the Zhou Dynasty but in the period of the Zhou Dynasty known as the "Age of Warring States" • The "Age of Warring States" was a period of fighting and chaos • During this period in the Zhou Dynasty, the Zhou rulers were not very strong and powerful lords fought to overthrow the dynasty - it was a time of lots of fighting • So, Confucius - like many philosophers of the time - wanted to find a way of living that would lead to peace and harmony, that would stop the fighting • Confucius came to believe that order in society prevented fighting and returned a society to peace and harmony • An orderly society was a society where each person act according to his role in society - a husband was acted as a superior and a wife obeyed as an inferior • Confucius lived during the Late Zhou dynasty "Era of Warring States" • And Confucius concluded that there were Five Relationships in society: Emperor and subject, Father and son, Husband and wife, Elder brother and younger brother, and friend and friend - in most relationships, there is a superior and an inferior - the superior sets a good example and is the leader and the inferior is respectful and obeys

Polytheism

• Polytheism is the belief in many gods • Yes, it the belief in or worship of more than one god • All of the early river valley civilizations were polytheistic • The first religious expressions on planet Earth were all expressions of polytheism • Monotheism developed later • The world's first lasting monotheistic religion was developed by the Hebrews and is known as Judaism

Beliefs of Confucius

• Confucius lived during the Zhou Dynasty in the period known as the "Age of Warring States" • In this time of chaos and disorder, Confucius sought to restore peace and harmony • He came to believe that when people act according to their stations in life, there is order and when there is order, there is peace • He spoke of Five Relationships (Emperor-Subject, Father-Son, Husband-Wife, Elder Brother-Younger Brother, and Friend and Friend) • In a relationship, there is a superior and an inferior • When the superior acts like a superior and rules benevolently by providing for the inferior and guiding the inferior and the inferior obeys the superior, there is peace and harmony in society • Confucius also believed that men were pretty much alike but that education them better men • Patriarchy was definitely a feature of Confucianism as a woman is always an inferior according to the Five Relationships

Facts of Confucianism

• Confucius lived during the Zhou Dynasty in the period known as the "Age of Warring States" • In this time of chaos and disorder, Confucius sought to restore peace and harmony • He came to believe that when people act according to their stations in life, there is order and when there is order, there is peace • He spoke of Five Relationships (Emperor-Subject, Father-Son, Husband-Wife, Elder Brother-Younger Brother, and Friend and Friend) • In a relationship, there is a superior and an inferior • When the superior acts like a superior and rules benevolently by providing for the inferior and guiding the inferior and the inferior obeys the superior, there is peace and harmony in society • Confucius also believed that men were pretty much alike but that education them better men • Patriarchy was definitely a feature of Confucianism as a woman is always an inferior according to the Five Relationships • Confucius encouraged his followers to follow the ethical rules that promoted harmony and order

Confucianism

• Confucius was a Chinese philosopher during the Zhou Dynasty • Confucius believed that peace and harmony were established in a society only when a person acted according properly and in accord with his position in society • In other words, when a person knows and acts according to his role in society, there will be peace and harmony • Confucius taught that there were five relationships in a society: Emperor and subject, Father and Son, Husband and Wife, Elder brother and younger brother, and friend and friend • In the first four relationships, there is a superior who must be benevolent (caring) and set a good example as well as an inferior who must obey • Yes, in China, Confucianism emphasized the idea that harmony could only be achieved by the proper behavior of each member of the family or society

Beliefs of Confucius - Particularly on Importance of Education

• Confucius was a Chinese philosopher who lived during the "Age of Warring States" period of the Zhou Dynasty • During this time period, China descended into warfare as lords competed against the Zhou dynasty for power and many Chinese suffered as a result of the violence and chaos • Confucius sought to restore peace and harmony to China and believed that order was the key to establishing peace and harmony • Confucius taught that society consisted of unequal relationships between inferiors and superiors and that if inferiors obeyed and respected superiors and superiors ruled benevolently and well then peace and harmony would be restored • Confucius therefore believed that individuals had to know their proper roles in society and act accordingly • Confucius argued that education is essential to becoming a refined gentleman • Yes, to Confucius, the most accomplished man was the educated man - Confucius believed that men were pretty much equal but education set them apart • This is why the examination system became a prerequisite for government service when the Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism as its official philosophy

Confucianism

• Confucius was a philosopher during the Zhou Dynasty - particularly during the "Age of Warring States" period of the Zhou Dynasty • During this time of warfare and chaos, Confucius sought a philosophy that would restore peace and harmony to China • He concluded that an orderly society was a harmonious society - this meant that individuals had to know their roles in society and act accordingly • Superiors had to set good examples and rule benevolently or kindly and inferiors had to respect and obey superiors • The following statement best encapsulates Confucian thought: social harmony is attained when superiors treat those below them with kindness, while inferiors respect those above them

Constantinople

• Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine Empire • Today, the city is called Istanbul - it was renamed when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire in 1453 • Yes, throughout most of its history the capital of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople • The city had a great location for trade and was located on the crossroads of trade between Europe and Asia • The city was originally called Byzantium but the Roman Emperor Constantine moved his capital to the area and the city was renamed Constantinople - after the emperor

Reasons for Aztec Human Sacrifice

• Cosmology or the Aztec understanding of the universe fueled Aztec human sacrifice • While many groups engaged in human sacrifice as a means of appealing to the gods in distressing times, the Aztec regularly engaged in human sacrifice and on a scale previously unseen in world history • The Aztecs believed that the sun would only rise if the sun god was nourished with human hearts and human blood • Thus, to ensure that the world was not plunged into eternal darkness, Aztec priests sacrificed many victims to the sun god • Usually prisoners of war or war captives were sacrificed • Therefore, Aztec human sacrifice fueled Aztec conquests as the Aztecs were primarily interested in collecting tribute from their conquered subjects and tribute was usually in the form of sacrificial victims • The Aztecs offered human sacrifices in order to Honor the gods and forestall the destruction of the world

Confucianism and Order in Society

• Confucius was an important Chinese philosopher who lived during the "Age of Warring States" period of the Zhou Dynasty • Living during a time of warfare and chaos, Confucius believed that peace and harmony could only be restored through an orderly society • If people knew and acted according to their roles in society, there would be peace and harmony • Thus, an emperor had to act like an emperor and a father like a father • Confucius believed in Five Relationships: Emperor and subject, Father and son, Husband and wife, Elder brother and younger brother, and friend and friend • In every relationship - except friendship - there was a superior who had to rule benevolently and set a good example and an inferior who had to obey • Order was the key to ensuring a peaceful society, according to Confucius • Yes, in China, Confucianism emphasized the idea that harmony could be achieved by the proper behavior of each member of the family or society

Innovations from the T'ang-Song Era

• Considered the golden age of China, the T'ang and Song dynasties of China were noted for their great innovations, their great inventions • Beautiful scroll paintings of the T'ang Era • Gunpowder too • The magnetic compass and movable-type printing during the Song Era • In the 11th century movable type (one piece of type for each character) was invented • Movable type was never widely used in China because whole-block printing was less expensive, but when movable type reached Europe in the 15th century, it revolutionized the communication of ideas. • Landscape painting • The use of the magnetic compass for navigation and gunpowder was developed

Facts about Suleyman the Magnificent

• Considered the greatest of the Ottoman sultans, Suleyman brought the empire to its height when the empire stretched to its greatest reaches and a golden age occurred • Suleyman was a sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566 who not only undertook bold military campaigns that enlarged his realm but also oversaw the development of what came to be regarded as the most characteristic achievements of Ottoman civilization in the fields of law, literature, art, and architecture • Suleyman even captured Belgrade and laid siege to the city of Vienna • Difficulties of time and distance and of bad weather and lack of supplies, no less than the resistance of the Christians, forced the sultan to raise the siege on Vienna but Suleyman nonetheless conquered many other lands • Süleyman surrounded himself with administrators and statesmen of unusual ability, men such as his grand viziers (chief ministers) İbrahim, Rüstem, and Mehmed Sokollu • Ulama (specialists in Islamic law) made the period memorable, as did the great Turkish poet Bâḳî and the architect Sinan • Süleyman built strong fortresses to defend the places he took from the Christians and adorned the cities of the Islamic world (including Mecca, Damascus, and Baghdad) with mosques, bridges, aqueducts, and other public works • In general, Süleyman completed the task of transforming the previously Byzantine city of Constantinople into Istanbul, a worthy center for a great Turkish and Islamic empire

Byzantine Emperor Justinian

• Considered the most significant emperor of the Byzantine Empire, Justinian greatly expanded the empire and codified or collected all Roman laws • Justinian was the early Byzantine emperor that had the longest lasting impact on civilization in the eastern Mediterranean and beyond • The nearly forty-year reign of Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527 - 565) led to extensive territorial expansion and military success, along with a new synthesis of Greco-Roman and Christian culture • In the religious sphere, Justinian was a defender of Orthodox Christianity • The rebuilding of Hagia Sophia from 532 to 537 was the paramount achievement of Justinian's building campaigns • As the capital's cathedral and the most important church during the empire's long history, the new Hagia Sophia rebuilt by Justinian set a standard in monumental building and domed architecture that would have a lasting effect on the history of Byzantine architecture • The Code of Justinian or the Corpus Juris Civilis was a collection of laws and legal interpretations developed under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor Justinian • This codification of Roman law has served as the basis for many modern European law codes today with its ideas of innocent until proven guilty and equality before the law

Capital of Byzantine Empire

• Constantinople • Located between Europe and Asia • Very defensible with water on three sides • Not on the map today • Renamed Istanbul when conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1453

Culture

• Culture is a way of life of a group of people; it includes language, religion, clothing styles, and food preferences • Combinations of the ideas, objects, and patterns of behavior that result from human social interaction are referred to as culture • Culture is a "blueprint for living" in that it dictates a lot of what people do and what people believe and what people like • Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving • Culture can also be defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding that are learned through a process of socialization

Daoism

• Daoism emerged as a belief system in the "Age of Warring States" period of the Zhou Dynasty • In this time of warfare, chaos, and disorder, the great philosophers of China sought ways to restore peace and harmony to society • Laozi - the founder of Daoism - believed that peace and harmony could be restored through the principle of living naturally, away from cities - in nature • He also believed that the government that governed least was the best form of government for it allowed people to live according to their true natures • The following exchange is evidence of the Daoist point of view: "'I cannot make a tree grow or flourish' [said the gardener]...'All I do is avoid hindering a tree's growth - I have no power to make it grow.' - 'Would it be possible to apply this philosophy of yours to the art of government?' asked the questioner. - 'My only art is the growing of trees,' said [the gardener]. 'Government is not my business.'" ~ Liu Zongyuan, Chinese scholar-official, circa 800 C.E. • The ideas expressed in this exchange were most strongly influenced by Daoism

Beliefs of Daoism

• Daoism is a Chinese philosophy that developed during the "Age of Warring States" period of the Zhou dynasty • During this time of warfare and disorder, Chinese philosophers sought for ways to restore peace and harmony to China and the great Chinese philosophies of Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism were created • The Daoist solution to creating peace and harmony in society was to live naturally and to live close to nature • Daoists believed that people who lived naturally would be happy people and happy people would live in harmony with one another • A key philosophical and religious element of Daoism is an emphasis on harmony between humanity and nature • When people live naturally and in harmony with nature, peace results • Daoists also believe that the government that governs least and allows individuals the freedom to live naturally governs best • Daoists love nature and the Daoist influence is clearly seen in Chinese painting as it emphasizes mountains, rivers and nature

Daoism

• Daoism is a Chinese philosophy that developed during the Zhou Dynasty • Daoism encourages people to live naturally and to live in nature - away from cities and civilization • Daoist thought is largely antirational - not focused on reason - because Daoists believe that the universe is governed by a natural force (the Dao) and it cannot be understood intellectually • Thus, Daoists do not emphasis scholarly learning as Confucian scholars did • Daoists are trained to perceive the world in non-logical ways

Nature and Daoism

• Daoism is a Chinese philosophy that encourages followers to live naturally and to follow the way of Nature • Education and reason and rules are not encouraged - rather naturally living and living with minimal interference from government officials • Liu Zongyuan, Chinese scholar-official, circa 800 C.E. once said, "I cannot make a tree grow or flourish' [said the gardener]...All I do is avoid hindering a tree's growth - I have no power to make it grow." • A governor asked him, "Would it be possible to apply this philosophy of yours to the government?" and he replied, "My only art is the growing of trees. Government is not my business." • The ideas expressed in his words were most strongly influenced by which of Daoism • Why? - because he said that he could not make the tree grow or flourish - that was nature's domain but at least, he could not hinder or prevent its growth - in other words, government must allow people to live naturally and not prevent their true beings from flourishing or growing - government must not hinder or prevent the way of nature - that is the Dao or Way of the Daoist

Daoism

• Daoism is one of the three great philosophies of China that developed during the "Age of Warring States" period of the Zhou dynasty - a time of disorder and warfare when philosophers sought ways of restoring peace and harmony to China • Daoist thought centered on the idea of living naturally and close to nature • Yes, Daoist thought tends to emphasize harmony with nature • When people live according to their true natures and in harmony with nature, peace and harmony ensue • It is only unnatural living that creates disharmony

Daoism and Proper Governance

• Daoists believed that the government that governed least governed best • Daoists believed in letting individuals live naturally and that rules forced individuals to live contrary to their true natures • A historian of Tang China (618-907 C.E.) would probably find the passage of Liu Zongyuan in the previous flashcard most useful as a source of information about ideas about proper governance • After all, Liu Zongyuan said, "Government is not my business." - his business or only art is the growing of trees • Yes, Daoists are free spirits - by living close to nature and living naturally, people experience happiness and happy people do not fight - peace and harmony is restored by living naturally, according to Daoists

Similarities - Ancient Civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt

• Developed near rivers • Agrarian • Complex societies with cities, specialization, surplus, and writing • Architectural monuments and polytheistic

Diffusion in Africa [Think Islam on trade routes]

• Diffusion is the spread of cultural ideas and objects • Trade is a great conduit for the spread of cultural ideas and objects • Islam spread into sub-Saharan Africa along trade routes [i.e. the Trans-Saharan trade routes in West Africa and the Indian Ocean trade routes in East Africa] • Islam in Africa is an example of diffusion as Islam originated in Arabia • A mosque erected in the fourteenth century in the modern-day West African country of Mali best exemplifies the spread of religion along trade routes

Hindu Concept of Samsara

• Samsara is the Hindu and Buddhist concept of rebirth or reincarnation • The Hindu concept of samsara is BEST described by a belief that one's soul lives, dies, and is reborn many times, until it is pure enough to escape the cycle of rebirth • In Hinduism, release from samsara occurs when the soul is perfected and reunited with Brahman or moksha • In Buddhism, release from samsara occurs when suffering ends and nirvana is achieved

Diffusion

• Diffusion is the spread of foods, trade goods, concepts, norms, practices, and inventions among different peoples • Diffusion is cultural diffusion • In cultural diffusion, ideas or crops or goods that originated in one culture are moved to another culture - usually through trade but sometimes through conquest • Buddhism developed in India but it spread to China - thus, Buddhism in China is an example of cultural diffusion and Buddhism spread on the Silk Roads • The potato originated in the Americas but through the Columbian Exchange (the cultural diffusion that began with Columbus' arrival in the Americas) was grown in Ireland

Abbasid Dynasty - Arabs learn art of papermaking from China

• During Abbasid times, the Arabs learned from China the technique of making paper • Paper making is a Chinese invention - invented during the Han Dynasty • Paper was soon widely used in China and spread to the rest of world through the Silk Road • Around 600 C.E., woodblock printing was invented in China and by 740 C.E., the first printed newspaper was seen in China • For a long time, the Chinese closely guarded the secret of paper manufacture and tried to eliminate other centers of production to ensure a monopoly • However in 751 C.E., the T'ang army was defeated by Muslims at a mighty battle at the Talas River • Some Chinese soldiers and paper makers were captured • The Arabs learned the art of paper-making from the Chinese prisoners and built the first paper industry in Baghdad in 793 C.E. • They, too, kept it a secret, and Europeans did not learn how to make paper until several centuries later

Mongol Impact on Long-Distance Trade

• During the 13th century, long-distance trade in Eurasia increased primarily because the Mongols worked to secure trade routes and ensure the safety of merchants passing through their vast territories • Trade flourished on the Silk Roads during the Mongol Empire • Genghis Khan and his Mongol armies rose to power at the end of the twelfth century, at a moment when few opposing rulers could put up much resistance to them • The vast Mongol empire stretched from China to Europe, across which the Silk Routes functioned as efficient lines of communication as well as trade • Protected under the Pax Mongolica, the Routes were particularly safe from raiders or aggressive tribes in this period, and great expeditions, such as the famous journey of Marco Polo in the late thirteenth century, became possible

Changes brought about by the Neolithic Revolution

• During the Neolithic Revolution, some people learned to farm and domesticate animals - this radical change in food production occurred in several different locations around the world circa 8000 B.C.E. • The Neolithic Revolution allowed individuals to settle and establish permanent settlements - farmers were NOT nomadic - and class divisions developed as some individuals were more successful at food production than others and now settled, individuals could store more wealth and goods • All of the following changes to human societies were brought about by the Neolithic Revolution: reliable food supplies increased, job specialization occurred, and the distinction between nomads and settled people became important • However, women and men did NOT grow to have more equal status - in fact, patriarchy or male dominance developed as a result of the Neolithic Revolution as men were typically farmers and male work was seen as more valuable

Technologies of Paleolithic Hunter-Gatherer Societies

• During the Paleolithic Era or Old Stone Age, people were nomadic - moving from place to place in search of foods • As hunters and gatherers, Paleolithic people moved and did not settle but nonetheless, developed some technologies • Technology basically means using knowledge to make useful tools or toolmaking • Paleolithic peoples made arrowheads and learned how to use fire • Yes, archaeological evidence indicates that Paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies used controlled use of fire for warmth and as an aid in hunting and foraging

Characteristics of the Paleolithic Era

• During the Paleolithic Era or the Old Stone Age, hunters and gatherers roamed the Earth - humans were nomadic as they moved in search of food and bands of humans were small in number • Class divisions did not exist as property could not be accumulated and stored due to mobility and movement and few gender divisions existed • Yet although hunters and gatherers were nomadic and stored few possessions - they did create technologies to improve their lives like stone tools and arrowheads • Indeed archaeological evidence indicates that Paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies used the controlled use of fire for warmth and as an aid in hunting and foraging • The Paleolithic Age was characterized by the use of rudimentary chipped stone tools but humans began to populate all of the habitable regions of the world

Facts about Classical Era

• During the classical era, empires were more prominent than in earlier eras • An empire is a state that rules over diverse cultures and diverse peoples and is usually established through conquest • There larger and more powerful empires in the Classical Era like the Roman Empire or the Han Dynasty • In general, the classical period of world history spanned the millennium from 500 B.C.E. to 500 C.E. - although some world historians prefer the ending date of 600 C.E. to include the Gupta Empire of the Indian subcontinent • Powerful empires developed (Rome, Persia, India, China, etc.) • These empires were much larger in scale and scope than any of the kingdoms of the early river valley societies, including Egypt • The period was also characterized by intellectual developments in each cultural empire (Confucius in China; Buddha in South Asia; Jesus of Nazareth in Rome), the creation of large unified economic units and trading zones, cultural and religious integration and art and architectural innovation

Reasons for Decline of Islamic Empires

• During the post-classical era from 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E., the Islamic Empires were powerful and expanding • The Islamic Empires were flourishing and golden ages occurred • Trade flourished and merchants prospered • But by the 1700s, the Islamic Empires began to decline as Western European nations rose in power • A major reason for the decline in the Islamic Empires was the refusal to accept new ideas and technologies from the West • But not adapting the ideas and technologies of more prosperous societies, the Islamic Empires fell technologically behind and were eventually reduced in power and size

Emperor Constantine and Christianity

• Emperor Constantine was a Roman Emperor • The Romans had persecuted or mistreated Christians for many years • But Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity • When the Emperor converted to Christianity, it ended the persecution of Christians and many subjects in the Roman Empire converted to Christianity • Eventually, Christianity was declared the official religion of the Roman Empire • Yes, the emperor who allowed Christians to practice their faith openly for the first time in the Roman Empire was Constantine

Christianity in Ethiopia

• Ethiopia remained Christian despite the spread of Islam on the African continent • The adoption of Christianity in Ethiopia dates back to the fourth-century reign of the Aksumite emperor, King Ezana • His kingdom was located along major international trade routes through the Red Sea between India and the Roman Empire • The story of Ezana's conversion has been reconstructed from several existing documents, the ecclesiastical histories of Rufinus and Socrates Scholasticus • Both recount how Frumentius, a youth from Tyre, was shipwrecked and sent to the court of Aksum - Frumentius sought out Christian Roman merchants, was converted, and later became the first bishop of Aksum • At the very least, this story suggests that Christianity was brought to Aksum via merchants • Ezana's decision to adopt Christianity was most likely influenced by his desire to solidify his trading relationship with the Roman Empire • Christianity afforded the possibility of unifying the many diverse ethnic and linguistic peoples of the Aksumite kingdom, a goal of Ezana's leadership • Aksum was one of the earliest states to develop a coin system in order to service its sophisticated and prosperous economy • Emperor Ezana was the first world leader to put the cross on coins that are the earliest examples of Christian material culture from Ethiopia

Feudalism

• Feudalism was the political and military system of the Middle Ages in Western Europe • Under feudalism, land was exchanged for military service • Kings were weak in the Middle Ages and needed help from lords to control their kingdoms - kings therefore gave land to lords (the lord receiving land became a vassal to the king) and lords, in return, gave loyalty and knights to the king when needed • Of course, an accurate statement about feudalism in Europe was that feudalism led to major class differences in society • Yes, the medieval hierarchy or ranking system was King, Lords (Vassals), Lesser Lords (Vassals to Lords), Knights, Monks, Serfs • In a feudal society, each person has a fixed position and has responsibilities and obligations to superiors in the system • A vassal must be loyal to his lord and a serf must work for his lord in return for protection

Foot Binding

• Foot binding is a practice that dates from the Song era • In Song China, a small foot was considered a beautiful foot - at least, on a woman • However, a small foot was not possible without breaking the bones of a girl's foot and then binding the foot improperly to create the appearance of a small foot - but actually, the foot was painfully deformed • Foot Binding was a reflection of patriarchal attitudes • A Chinese saying stated: "If you love your daughter, bind her feet; if you love your son, let him study." • A daughter with bound feet would be attractive to a man and would marry - and that was what a daughter in a patriarchal culture was to do - to grow up, marry, and give birth to and raise sons

Song Dynasty - Foot Binding

• Foot binding is a practice that dates from the Song era in China • Foot binding was the practice of breaking the bones in a girl's foot and then binding the foot incorrectly to create a smaller foot • A small foot was considered beautiful and the procedure was done to increase the perceived beauty of the woman • Foot binding limited the mobility of women • This practice became popular during the Song Dynasty (960 - 1276 C.E.); during the Song Dynasty, patriarchy or male dominance was strengthened in China and women lost rights

Facts about Ottoman Empire

• Founded by Osman Bey in the 1300s in Anatolia, this Ottoman Turkish empire controlled the Eastern Mediterranean Sea • The Ottomans - at their height - conquered Anatolia, the Balkans, parts of North Africa, parts of the Southwest Asia or the Middle East, and parts of Eastern Europe • The Ottomans were a gunpowder empire and made use of gunpowder weapons as well as a skilled cavalry or warriors on horseback • Suleiman the Magnificent was the most significant Ottoman ruler and conquered parts of Hungary but the Ottomans, although they tried twice, never conquered Vienna • The Ottomans were religiously tolerant of Jews and Christians and used the Millet System - allowing religious minority communities to follow their own laws and ways as long as the jizya or tax on non-Muslims was paid and the Sultan obeyed • The Ottomans used the Devshirme or the gathering or collecting as Christian boys as slaves • Janissaries were among these slaves and highly skilled soldiers in the Ottoman Empire • The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and renamed the city Istanbul

Facts about Mughal Empire

• Founded by the Central Asian warrior, Babur, the Mughal Empire was established in the Indian subcontinent in the 1500s • The Mughals were a Muslim minority ruling a Hindu majority • The Mughals made use of gunpowder weapons and therefore are considered one of the gunpowder empires of Asia [along with the Ottomans, Safavids, and Tokugawas] • Akbar was a significant ruler of the Mughal Empire and was religiously tolerant • Akbar abolished the jizya or tax on non-Muslims and allowed Hindus to participate in his government • Aurangzeb was another significant ruler of the Mughal Empire; Aurangzeb was intolerant of Hindus and reestablished the jizya, destroyed Hindu temples and abolished sati [widow immolation]

Compare the European Caravel to the Ming Treasure Ship

• From 1405 until 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven ocean expeditions for the Ming emperor • Over sixty of the three hundred seventeen ships on the first voyage were enormous "Treasure Ships," sailing vessels over 400 hundred feet long, 160 feet wide, with several stories, nine masts and twelve sails, and luxurious staterooms complete with balconies • The likes of these ships had never before been seen in the world, and it would not be until World War I that such an armada would be assembled again • During the first expeditions, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast • In his fourth voyage, he traveled to the Persian Gulf • But for the three last voyages, Zheng went even further, all the way to the east coast of Africa • The European Caravel on the other hand was a significantly smaller vessel • A Caravel was a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century by the Portuguese to explore along the West African coast and into the Atlantic Ocean • The lateen sails gave the caravel its speed and the capacity for sailing to windward • Find images of both to visually recognize the ships and their differences

Comparison - Ships of Zheng He and Columbus

• From 1405 until 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven ocean expeditions for the Ming emperor • Over sixty of the three hundred seventeen ships on the first voyage were enormous "Treasure Ships," sailing vessels over 400 hundred feet long, 160 feet wide, with several stories, nine masts and twelve sails, and luxurious staterooms complete with balconies • The likes of these ships had never before been seen in the world, and it would not be until World War I that such an armada would be assembled again • During the first expeditions, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast • In his fourth voyage, he traveled to the Persian Gulf • Zheng eventually went all the way to east coast of Africa • The European Caravel on the other hand was a significantly smaller vessel • A Caravel was a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century by the Portuguese to explore along the West African coast and into the Atlantic Ocean • The lateen sails gave the caravel its speed and the capacity for sailing to windward • Find images of both to visually recognize the ships and their differences

Similarity - Christianity and Islam

• From the founding of each religion, Christians and Muslims shared a belief in a single omnipotent deity • Deity is another word for God and omnipotent means all-powerful • Christians and Muslims are monotheists and believe in one, all-powerful God • "Islam" means submission to the will of God and a Muslim is an individual who submits to the will of God • Muslims and Christians believe in a single omnipotent deity

"People of the Book" in Islam

• Islamic law made a distinction between two categories of non-Muslim subjects—pagans and dhimmis ("protected peoples," or "peoples of the book"; i.e., those peoples who based their religious beliefs on sacred texts, such as Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians) • The Muslim rulers tolerated the dhimmis and allowed them to practice their religion • In return for protection and as a mark of their submission, the dhimmis were required to pay a special poll tax known as the jizya • The jizya was a head or poll tax

A Contributing Factor to the Spread of the Plague in the Fourteenth Century

• Germs travel when people travel • Think of it as the "cough heard round the world" • A major contributing factor to the spread of the plague to Cairo, Beijing, and Florence in the fourteenth century was trade along the Mongol road system • The Mongols conquered a vast empire that stretched from the Pacific coast to the Black Sea • The Mongols conquered the entire length and breadth of the Silk Roads • The Mongols provided peace and security on the Silk Roads during this time of peace in the Mongol Empire, the Pax Mongolica • As trade flourished, more people travelled and the more people that travel, the greater the likelihood of more contagious people travelling and spreading more contagious diseases

City-states of Greece

• Greece was the classical civilization that was composed of city-states • The terrain of Greece was mountainous and the mountains of Greece separated the cities of Greece • Thus, in Greece, city-states developed • Each city had its own government and sometimes cities warred with one another • Yet all cities shared the Greek language and Greek religious outlook

Griots and Oral Tradition in Sub-Saharan Africa

• Griots were and are oral historians in West Africa • Before the arrival of Islam, West Africa lacked writing systems (Muslims brought Arabic to the region and thus a writing system) • However, even without writing, people want to preserve the history of their people • Griots preserved the history of the people by memorizing and reciting the history • Yes, African literature of the post-classical period was preserved through oral tradition

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were two important cities of the Indus River Valley civilization (sometimes called Harappan civilization) - one of the early river valley civilizations • This mysterious culture emerged nearly 4,500 years ago and thrived for a thousand years, profiting from the highly fertile lands of the Indus River floodplain and trade with the civilizations of nearby Mesopotamia • A well-planned street grid and an elaborate drainage system hint that the occupants of these ancient Indus civilization cities were skilled urban planners with a reverence for the control of water • The city's wealth and stature is evident in artifacts such as ivory, lapis, carnelian, and gold beads, as well as the baked-brick city structures themselves • Writing was developed in the Indus River Valley civilization but it cannot be deciphered by archaeologists today - in other words, archaeologists cannot read the writing • In the sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, archeologists have found a high degree of standardization of weights, measures, architectural styles, and even brick sizes - such standardization may suggest that there might have been a central authority powerful enough to reach all corners of society but we don't know for certain

Hellenism

• Hellenism is a Greek-like culture that was spread by Alexander the Great • The word "Hellas" is the ancient Greek word for Greece • Hellenism is mostly Greek but it has elements of Persian and Egyptian and even a bit of Indian cultures • Constructing buildings and monuments in stone in southwest Asia is an accurate example of Hellenism • The ancient Greeks were superb builders - they built columns in architecture and this architectural influence can still be seen today around the world

Reason and the Historian

• Historians are like detectives - piecing together the past • Historians have to find evidence for their arguments (thesis statements) and conclusions • Thus, different sources are used for proving different historical arguments • An example of this is a historian researching the timeline of the spread of iron metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa • The historian researching the timeline of the spread of iron metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa would find the following source most useful: archaeological evidence of early forges and smelting operations • Archaeological evidence of early forges and smelting operations would reveal where iron metallurgy occurred and where it spread in sub-Saharan Africa • The evidence must connect to the topic of research

Point of View in History

• History is a record of the past but the recording of the past is influenced by the person recording it • In other words, historians recount stories from the past from certain points of view • The African proverb, "Until the lions have their historians, tales of hunting will always glorify the hunter," conveys this idea and suggests that history usually reflects the viewpoint of the victors • Students of history must take into account the "recorder" of history • For example, a peasant might view the Communist victory in China in 1949 differently than a landowning aristocrat • Historical records do not always include all points of view [i.e. conquerors often write history from the perspective of the victors as opposed to the vanquished] • It is important to examine the historian writing the history to discover the historian's point of view and what the historian has emphasized and possibly ignored in the recounting of history

Comparing Hunter-Gatherer Societies and Agricultural Societies

• Hunters and gatherers are nomads • Farmers are settled • Agriculture allowed humans to manipulate their environment as never before - farmers cleared forests and redirected the flow of water through irrigation canals • Women probably played a key role in promoting the transition from hunting and gathering to agricultural societies • Agriculture promoted permanent settlements. • And people began producing their own food nearly 12,000 years ago. • But it incorrect to state: agricultural societies were less organized than hunter-gatherer societies - that is NOT correct - agricultural societies were More organized because more tasks were needed and needed to be done cooperatively - like building irrigation projects

Characteristics of Hunting and Gathering Societies

• Hunters and gatherers are nomads - they are mobile - moving from place to place in search of food • Hunters and gatherers have a little specialization of labor - specialization means performing different jobs and yes, men hunt and women gather and thus, there is a little specialization of labor • Hunters and gatherers do NOT have widespread specialization of labor - widespread would mean a lot of different jobs • Hunters and gatherers have limited trade • Hunters and gatherers have a subsistence lifestyle - meaning that they have the resources necessary to survive but do not accumulate extra or surplus resources

King Menes of Ancient Egypt

• In 3100 B.C.E., the history of Egypt is said to have begun when King Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt • For almost 30 centuries - from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.E. - ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world • Around 3400 B.C.E., two separate kingdoms were established: the Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River and the White Land in the south - a southern king, Scorpion, made the first attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 B.C.E. but a century later, King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty • King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. • Most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state - the annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year

Athens

• In Athens, a Greek city-state, democratic government emerged • In Athens, free men born in Athens voted and participated in government - indeed direct democracy existed in Athens in that all male citizens participated in making all governmental decisions • However, women, slaves, and foreigners could not vote • So, Athenian democracy was quite different from modern democracy • Only one-third of Athenian population could actually vote • But still, citizens participating in government through voting first occurred in the Greek city-state of Athens

Women in Buddhism and Christianity

• In Buddhism and Christianity (the Catholic form of Christianity especially), there were alternatives to marriage for women • Women were allowed to enter monastic orders and become nuns - nuns dedicated their lives to religion and were celibate in that they did not marry and did not have children • Buddhism and Christianity also allowed women to participate spiritually in the religions • Buddhism and Christianity were two religions that gave women a possible path to spiritual salvation • Buddhists believed that salvation occurred through an end to suffering - nirvana • Christians believed that salvation (Heaven - being saved from Hell) occurred through faith in Jesus

Five Relationships

• In China, Confucianism emphasized the idea that harmony could be achieved by the proper behavior of each member of the family or society • It is important to remember the Confucius lived during the "Age of Warring States" period of the Zhou Dynasty - in this time of disorder and warfare, Confucius wanted to restore peace and harmony to China • Confucius believed that order was the key to developing peace and harmony in society • Thus, each person had to know his place and act accordingly • In the Five Relationships of Confucianism (Emperor and subject, Father and son, Husband and wife, Elder brother and younger brother, and Friend and friend), superiors set good examples and rule benevolently and inferiors respect superiors and obey • By acting according to the appropriate role in society, peace and harmony ensued - at least, according to Confucius

Status of Women in Ancient Greece

• In Greek civilization, women were considered inferior to men in both the private and public spheres • Patriarchy or male dominance existed in ancient Greece • In Athens, women could not be citizens - only free men born in Athens could be citizens - women, slaves and foreigners could not be citizens • Even in Sparta, where women had higher status, women were still viewed as inferior to men • Greek women had virtually no political rights of any kind and were controlled by men at nearly every stage of their lives - the most important duties for a city-dwelling woman were to bear children - preferably male - and to run households

Status of Women in Ancient Greece

• In Greek society, women were treated as inferior to men in both social and political affairs • Patriarchy or male dominance was very strong in ancient Greece • In Athens, women were usually secluded and did not participate in public life • Even in Sparta where women had substantially more power, they were still viewed as inferior to men • Yes, the ancient Greeks - in particular the Athenians - invented democracy but only free men born in Athens could vote - Women, slaves, and foreigners could not vote

Status of Merchants in Han China

• In Han China, merchants and traders had low status • Merchants and traders were considered social parasites (living off others) • Yes, in Han China, merchants and traders were placed in a lower social class than farmers and artisans • Confucian scholars believed that the only proper ways of life were scholarship and government service or administration for the upper classes and agriculture for the poor • Merchants did not farm and merchants did not study - merchants moved goods and sold good - merchants sold the goods others made - merchants had low status

Role of the Medieval Catholic Church

• In Western Europe, during the Middle Ages, the only Christian church was the Roman Catholic Church - indeed, Catholic means universal • As most Western Europeans were Catholics, the Roman Catholic Church was very powerful in the Middle Ages; it was the largest landowner and a very wealthy institution that individuals believed determined whether a man's soul was saved • The main unifying institution in medieval Europe was the Roman Catholic Church • In Medieval times, the Church dominated society • Catholics were taught that the only way they could get to Heaven was by obeying the dictates of the Roman Catholic Church • Catholics were required to pay 10% of what they earned in a year to the Church (this tax was called a tithe) • Tithes could be paid in either money or in goods produced by peasant farmers

Champa Rice

• In World AP, when we speak rice, it is almost always Champa Rice and Champa Rice was drought-resistant and originated in Vietnam • The Chinese brought Champa Rice to China and it greatly increased rice production as a rice that is drought-resistant can grow even in difficult circumstances • Champa Rice is also early-ripening • Thus, Champa Rice increased population because it increased rice production - more food, more survival • Rice dominated Korean and Vietnamese agriculture in the 1400s as it provided many calories

Patriarchal Society

• In a patriarchal society, male dominance is the norm • Women are considered inferior and must be protected • In a patriarchal society, power resides with men

Monastics

• In both Buddhism and Roman Catholic Christianity, monasticism is an alternative to marriage and family life • Monks and nuns may dedicate their lives to the religious life and forsake family life • In Buddhism, a Bhikku is a monk or an individual who has renounced worldly life and joined a monastic community • The term bhikku in Buddhism comes from a verbal root meaning "to beg" - thus, a Buddhist monk or nun is marked primarily by his or her practice of poverty and nonattachment to the material world • Originally, bhikkus were the followers of the Buddha who had left their families and worldly pursuits in order to meditate and to apply the Buddha's teachings to their everyday life • Bhikkus tended to live as a group in forest retreats near villages and towns; in exchange for food, the monks taught the townspeople the ways of religious righteousness (dhamma; Sanskrit: dharma) • Four monastic rules, if broken, result in lifelong expulsion from the order - these prohibit (1) having sexual relations, (2) taking or ordering the taking of life, (3) taking something as one's own that has not been freely given, and (4) making claims regarding one's spiritual attainments, powers, or degree of enlightenment • Catholic monks have similar yet different rules but all monks forsake family life for the religious life • Yes, two religions that encouraged the monastic life were Buddhism and Christianity

Art in Islam

• In general, geometric art is preferred in Islam • As only God is the creator, Muslims prefer that art not be an imitation of God's creation but rather based on patterns and beautiful geometric designs • Geometric designs prevent idolatry

Geometric Art and Islamic Civilization

• In general, geometric art is preferred in Islam • As only God is the creator, Muslims prefer that art not be an imitation of God's creation but rather based on patterns and beautiful geometric designs • Geometric designs prevent idolatry

Islamic art

• In general, geometric art is preferred in Islam • As only God is the creator, Muslims prefer that art not be an imitation of God's creation but rather based on patterns and beautiful geometric designs • Geometric designs prevent idolatry • Islamic art focused on abstract geometric patterns and ornate calligraphy in Arabic

Facts about Indian Ocean Trade

• Indian Ocean commerce flourished and was conducted by a mixture of Asian, Middle Eastern, and East African merchants • Indian Ocean trade connected Southeast Asia, South China, India, Arabia and East Africa in commercial activity • In East Africa, Swahili city-states flourished as a result of Indian Ocean Trade • Indian Ocean Trade even flourished in 1000 to 1450 but flourished even earlier • Zheng He, the great Chinese explorer from the Ming Dynasty, traveled along the Indian Ocean trade routes all the way to East Africa and brought a giraffe back to the Beijing Zoo • Calicut in India was the pepper capital of the world • Monsoons winds, blowing predictably for half of the year in one direction and then in the other direction for the other half of the year, were used by navigators in the Indian Ocean basin • India was the fulcrum of the trade route

Why Were Trade Networks Slower to Penetrate Sub-Saharan Africa

• In general, people want to trade - trade allows for new and different products - without trade, there would be no oranges or chocolate bars in New York • When trade is slower to occur, it is usually because of geographic barriers - it is harder to trade across a desert or over a mountain • Yes, trade and communications networks were slower to penetrate sub-Saharan Africa compared to other regions because there were formidable geographic barriers to overcome • Think about it - the Sahara desert separates North Africa from West Africa and the Sahara desert is the largest desert in the world • Of course, it is not impossible to cross the desert and with the introduction of camels from Arabia to Africa (sometime before 200 C.E.) - it became more manageable to cross the desert • Remember that the great kingdoms of West Africa (Ghana, Mali, and Songhai) depended on taxes from the Trans-Saharan Trade (a trade that connected North Africa to West Africa and was conducted across the Sahara desert - also known as the salt for gold trade)

Status of Women in Islam

• In many ways, the Prophet Muhammad greatly increased the status of women in Arabia and ultimately, in Islam • The Prophet forbade female infanticide or the killing of unwanted female infants in the pursuit for a son • The Prophet allowed women to inherit and daughters could inherit not just sons - although daughters only inherited half of what sons inherited • And of course, the Prophet limited the number of wives a man could have to four wives • Thus, the following belong in a list describing the status of Muslim women in the early Islamic period: male adultery was condemned in the Koran, female infanticide was forbidden, female inheritance rights were strengthened and divorce rights for women existed • However, the following statement does NOT belong in a list describing the status of Muslim women in the early Islamic period: females and males both were allowed multiple spouses • In Islam, a man is allowed four wives but a wife is only allowed one husband

Alternatives to Marriage for Medieval Women

• In the European Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church was the only Christian Church and a very powerful and wealthy institution • Monasticism exists in the Roman Catholic Church • Women could enter convents as nuns • Being a nun was an alternative to marriage

Peninsulares in Colonial Latin America

• In the colonies of Spain in the Americas, there was a colonial hierarchy or ranking system • Peninsulares were individuals born in Spain and were given the most important jobs in the colonial government like viceroy or governor in addition to receiving valuable tracts of land; Peninsulares were wealthy and powerful • Peninsulares had the highest social status in Latin American colonies • Beneath Peninsulares were Creoles or individual born in the colonies but of 100% European ancestry; as a result of being born in the colonies, they were viewed as being less educated or cosmopolitan and were therefore denied the top jobs in the colonial government although they were wealthy landowners [these individuals will lead the independence movements in Latin America] • Mestizos were of mixed ancestry: European and Indian and faced discrimination • Native American Indians and Africans were exploited and frequently enslaved

Facts about the Status of Women in Islam

• In the eyes of Allah, women and men are equal • In Islam, women have an equal chance of entering Heaven as men do • Female infanticide (the killing of female infants) is forbidden • Women can sue for divorce • Women can inherit property; however, daughters inherit half of what sons inherit • Women can testify in court; however, a woman's testimony in court only counts as half of a man's testimony • A woman can only marry one husband whereas a man can marry up to four wives • Women can engage in business ventures

Rights of Islamic Women

• In the eyes of Allah, women and men are equal • In Islam, women have an equal chance of entering Heaven as men do • Female infanticide (the killing of female infants) is forbidden • Women can sue for divorce • Women can inherit property; however, daughters inherit half of what sons inherit • Women can testify in court; however, a woman's testimony in court only counts as half of a man's testimony • A woman can only marry one husband whereas a man can marry up to four wives • Women can engage in business ventures

Cash crops in Americas [1450 - 1750]

• In the period 1450-1750, cash crops such as sugar and tobacco were produced on large plantations by slave labor and were significant commodities in the growing world market • Sugar and tobacco were grown on plantations with African slave labor

The Impact of the Global Demand for Sugar and African Slavery in Brazil

• In the period 1500 to 1750, the population of the Portuguese colony of Brazil grew rapidly and became predominantly African because of the increase in global demand for cash crops such as sugar • Plantation labor in the Americas was African slave labor and as Europeans and colonial settlers profited from the sale of these cash crops, African slaves labored under horrific conditions and were terribly exploited

World Trade in the Seventeenth Century and Eighteenth Century

• In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European nations were becoming more powerful, conquering more lands, and dominating more of the world • Yet it would be incorrect to conclude that Europeans controlled the largest share of world trade during these centuries because other nations and kingdoms were also involved in world trade • Thus, in recent decades, many world historians have challenged the commonly held view that Europeans controlled the largest share of world trade in the seventeenth through the eighteenth centuries because European merchants transported only a fraction of the goods shipped globally • Muslim traders, Indian traders, Chinese traders and others also traded

Indian Ocean Trade Networks

• Indian Ocean commerce flourished and was conducted by a mixture of Asian, Middle Eastern, and East African merchants • Indian Ocean trade connected Southeast Asia, South China, India, Arabia and East Africa in commercial activity • In East Africa, Swahili city-states flourished as a result of Indian Ocean Trade • Indian Ocean Trade even flourished in 1000 to 1450 but flourished even earlier • Zheng He, the great Chinese explorer from the Ming Dynasty, traveled along the Indian Ocean trade routes all the way to East Africa and brought a giraffe back to the Beijing Zoo • Calicut in India was the pepper capital of the world • Monsoons winds, blowing predictably for half of the year in one direction and then in the other direction for the other half of the year, were used by navigators in the Indian Ocean basin • India was the fulcrum of the trade route

Indian Ocean Trade in the Early Modern Era

• Indian Ocean commerce flourished and was conducted by a mixture of Asian, Middle Eastern, and East African merchants • Indian Ocean trade connected Southeast Asia, South China, India, Arabia and East Africa in commercial activity • In East Africa, Swahili city-states flourished as a result of Indian Ocean Trade • Indian Ocean Trade even flourished in 1000 to 1450 but flourished even earlier • Zheng He, the great Chinese explorer from the Ming Dynasty, traveled along the Indian Ocean trade routes all the way to East Africa and brought a giraffe back to the Beijing Zoo • Calicut in India was the pepper capital of the world • Monsoons winds, blowing predictably for half of the year in one direction and then in the other direction for the other half of the year, were used by navigators in the Indian Ocean basin • India was the fulcrum of the trade route • In recent decades, many world historians have challenged the commonly held view that Europeans controlled the largest share of world trade in the seventeenth through the eighteenth centuries because European merchants transported only a fraction of the goods shipped globally

Reason for the Fall of the Roman, Han, and Gupta Empires

• Intensified invasions and security issues along their frontiers • Yes, invasions by borderland peoples • Inefficient or corrupt rulers and high taxes

Reason for the fall of the Roman, Han, and Gupta Empires

• Invasions • High Taxes • Corrupt rulers

Reasons for the Collapse of the Roman and Han Empires

• Invasions by borderland peoples contributed significantly to the fall of both the western Roman and Han empires • The quality of Han emperors began to decline around 88 C.E. - at the same time, conditions for the peasantry deteriorated, as large landowners began to monopolize control over the agricultural system and impose serfdom - peasant unrest transformed into a Daoist revolutionary movement by the Yellow Turbans in 184 C.E. - although Han generals suppressed the rebellion, they set themselves up as regional rulers - nomads from the Asiatic steppes invaded China and established their own regional kingdoms - in this period of political disintegration, Buddhism spread into China • The Han Dynasty collapsed in 220 C.E. • The Roman Empire also collapsed due to invaders and internal problems • The population of the later Roman Empire declined, diminishing the recruitment base for the armies - the economy was less able to support taxation - politically, the quality of emperors also worsened - the onset of decline coincided with the end of imperial expansion around 180 C.E. - with the end of imperial conquest came the end of the ready supply of slaves on which the empire depended - because the empire never established a principle of succession, there were constant civil wars over who should be emperor - when the Germanic migrations began in the fifth century C.E., the western half was able to offer almost no resistance

Mosques in West Africa - Cultural Diffusion

• Islam entered West Africa along the Trans-Saharan trade routes • Of course, Islam originated in Arabia and therefore, Islam in Africa is an example of cultural diffusion or the spread of cultural ideas • A mosque is an Islamic house of worship; therefore a mosque in West Africa is also an example of cultural diffusion • Of course, a mosque will be built with different materials in West Africa as the geography of the region is different • Therefore, make sure to look at an image of a West African mosque in order to identify a West African mosque on the examination

Facts about Islamic Spain

• Islamic Spain, known as al-Andalus, was controlled by Muslim Berber conquerors but NOT part of the Abbasid Empire • It was also the source of a failed invasion of France and the home of Ibn Rashd (Averroes) - Averroës was an influential Islamic religious philosopher who integrated Islamic traditions with ancient Greek thought - at the request of the caliph, he produced a series of summaries and commentaries on most of Aristotle's works (1169-95) and on Plato's Republic, which exerted considerable influence in both the Islamic world and Europe for centuries • In 711 C.E., Muslim forces from the Umayyad Dynasty invaded Spain and in seven years conquered the Iberian peninsula • Muslim Spain became one of the great Muslim civilizations; reaching its summit with the Umayyad caliphate of Cordova in the tenth century - although the Umayyad had been long conquered by the Abbasid Dynasty by then, it continued to rule Islamic Spain • Muslim rule declined after that and ended in 1492 when Granada was conquered. • The heartland of Muslim rule was Southern Spain or Andalusia

Similarities - Islamic and Chinese Civilizations in the Postclassical Era

• Islamic and Chinese empires in the postclassical period (700 C.E. - 1200 C.E.) shared the following characteristic: extensive urbanization and maritime trade • In the postclassical period, Islamic and Chinese empires were prosperous and flourishing and as a result, trade increased and city life increased • Urbanization means movement to cities and these empires had many people living in cities • And of course, trade prospered - yes, even maritime trade or sea trade - in the Indian Ocean trade network, Muslim merchants dominated • Indeed, during the Song Dynasty, Chinese maritime trade exceeded Silk Road trade, and Chinese porcelain has been found as far away as the Swahili coast of Africa

Monasticism

• It is to dedicate the individual's life to religious practice • Buddhism and Roman Catholic Christianity encourage monasticism • Individuals are encouraged to lead a life purely devoted to religious practice and to forsake families and worldly life • Of course, most Buddhists and Catholics do not become monastics but all practicing Buddhists and Catholics admire monastics

Foot binding in Song Dynasty

• It was the practice of making a woman's foot appear small and delicate • It was popularized in China during the Song Dynasty • It increased the attractiveness of the female in Song Dynasty • It was incredibly patriarchal in that it further reduced the freedom of women as the mobility of women was greatly decreased • Like the corset in Europe, foot binding restricted the movement of women - whether walking or breathing comfortably

Selective Borrowing of Japanese Regarding Chinese

• Japan has geographic proximity or closeness to China • Japan is an archipelago or series of islands but it is very close to China • The Japanese borrowed many ideas from the Chinese • However, the Japanese did NOT borrow every Chinese idea • Despite extensive modeling of the Chinese imperial system, the Japanese civilization hew (adhered to or followed) to established tradition in the postclassical era • Examination systems were not a part of the selection process for the imperial elite • In China, the examination system determined government service - a man had to pass a rigorous examination to be granted a government post • In Japan, however, the examination system was NOT used - the Japanese believed that birth mattered more than merit in this time period • Thus, the Japanese selectively borrowed from China

Spread of Christianity

• Jesus was Jewish and his first followers observed Jewish law • As Christianity spread to non-Jewish peoples, it changed its observance of Jewish law • The early Christians gained adherents or followers of their faith by decreeing that new followers did not have to observe Jewish law • This meant that converts did not have to obey Jewish dietary laws or circumcision • This made conversion easier

Johannes Gutenberg

• Johannes Gutenberg was responsible for the invention of movable type in the West • Yes, the Chinese invented woodblock printing and even movable type printing but in China, there was less reliance on movable type printing as woodblock printing was very efficient • However, Johannes Gutenberg was the first Westerner responsible for movable type printing in Western Europe • Johannes Gutenberg was born 14th century in Mainz [Germany] • German craftsman and inventor who originated a method of printing from movable type that was used without important change until the 20th century • The unique elements of his invention consisted of a mold, with punch-stamped matrices (metal prisms used to mold the face of the type) with which type could be cast precisely and in large quantities; a type-metal alloy; a new press, derived from those used in wine making, papermaking, and bookbinding; and an oil-based printing ink • None of these features existed in Chinese or Korean printing, or in the existing European technique of stamping letters on various surfaces, or in woodblock printing • The printing press greatly increased the production of books thereby leading to a drop in the price of books - allowing more people to purchase books and thereby increasing literacy

Beliefs of Judaism

• Judaism is the world's first lasting monotheistic religion • Judaism is based on the belief in a covenant between God and the Hebrew people • The Jewish people believe that the one God has chosen them to live moral and ethical lives according to God's Commandments • According to the covenant, if the Jews obey God's Commandments, they will be blessed by God but if they forsake God's Commandments, they will be punished • The Jews, according to Judaism, are to be an ethical and righteous people

Cash Crops and Plantations in the Americas

• Mercantilism is all about the colonies benefitting the mother country • Thus, gold and silver from the colonies to the mother country but also valuable crops for sale to the mother country or cash crops • Sugar was an important cash crop and very valuable • As a result of desire for more sugar, plantations were established in the Americas, particularly on the islands of the Caribbean and in Brazil • Sugar, cotton, and tobacco were important cash crops • Where sugar plantations were established, many African slaves worked • Thus, in the period 1450-1750, sugar and tobacco were produced on large plantations by slave labor and were significant commodities in the growing world market

Judaism

• Judaism is the world's oldest lasting monotheistic religion • Judaism influenced Christianity and Islam - and all three religions are known as the Abrahamic religions - as Abraham came to believe in one God or monotheism • Judaism is an ethical and moral religion - in that according to Judaism, God gave his Commandments or ethical rules to God's people • The Jewish people believe that they have a covenant or agreement with God - that they must obey God's Commandments and then God will bless them • In the Jewish faith, the Torah or first five books of the Bible are very important as these books convey God's rules for his people • In the Jewish faith, there is a belief that a Messiah would appear and free the Jewish people from oppression • In Judaism, the Tanakh refers to the Jewish Scriptures comprising the books of law, the prophets, and collected writings - Tanakh is an acronym of the first Hebrew letter of Torah (First Five Books of Bible), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings) • Of course, Judaism is a monotheistic or one God faith • However, the Eightfold Path is NOT related to the Jewish faith - the Eightfold Path is related to Buddhism

The Order or Chronology of the Monotheistic Faiths

• Judaism, Christianity and Islam are the monotheistic faiths • Judaism is the earliest monotheistic faith • Christianity evolved from Judaism • And Islam is the youngest of the monotheistic faiths • In what order did these three monotheistic faiths come into being? - Judaism, Christianity, Islam

Byzantine Emperor Justinian

• Justinian is considered to be the most significant emperor of the Byzantine Empire by many historians • Yes, Justinian was an early Byzantine emperor that had the longest lasting impact on civilization in the eastern Mediterranean and beyond • Justinian was the emperor of the Byzantine Empire between 527 and 565 • Justinian pushed to reclaim land in the west • While he was unable to reclaim the entire Roman Empire, he did make considerable gains to the west • His expansion reached as far west as Macedonia in Europe and halfway through Libya in North Africa • Before Justinian, Constantinople was ravaged by riots due to high taxes and in order to reestablish order, Justinian codified Roman law - the Code of Justinian - and thus helped preserve Roman culture in the eastern portion of the Empire • Justinian ordered construction of the Hagia Sophia, a new church dedicated to Christianity - its characteristic dome an engineering marvel of the time

Status of Merchants in Confucianism

• Low status • Viewed as greedy and unproductive • Violated filial piety by traveling far from parents • Considered social parasites feeding on the productivity of others

Characteristics of Patriarchal Societies

• Men are accorded superior status • Male dominance • Women are viewed as weak and inferior and must be protected by men • Women are lowly • Sons are favored

Environmental effect of the European establishment of plantation agriculture in the Americas

• Mercantilism was a popular idea when the European conquerors arrived • This idea that colonies must benefit the mother country led to the establishment of plantation economies in the fertile lands of the Caribbean, Brazil, and the southern climes of the United States • In these fertile lands, sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton could be grown • Of course, a plantation is a large farm and the land must be altered to create such a farm • Widespread deforestation occurred as trees were cut down to clear the land for farming • In addition, the depletion of nutrients occurred as the same crops were harvested year after year

Status of Merchants in Han China

• Merchants had low status in Han China • Merchants were viewed as social parasites - individuals who did not produce or make anything but merely profited from moving objects about • Merchants also violated filial piety - the belief that sons should honor and obey parents and ancestors - because merchants traveled far from parents and ancestors • As the Han Dynasty of China adopted Confucianism with its values of filial piety and education, merchants were viewed negatively • Yes, merchants and traders were placed in a lower social class than farmers and artisans in Han China

Monasticism

• Monasticism - yes, it is related to monasteries and monks or nuns • Monasticism is an institutionalized religious practice whose members attempt to live by a rule that requires responsibilities that go beyond those of ordinary followers of the religion • Monks or nuns are usually celibate - without sexual relations and without families - and dedicate their lives to the religious life • Monasticism is a characteristic of Catholicism and Buddhism • There are Roman Catholic monks and nuns and Buddhist monks and nuns

Beliefs of Judaism

• Monotheism • Ethical and Moral Religion [The Ten Commandments] ... certain behaviors are required of a Godly people • A covenant or agreement between God and his People such as to worship one God and obey his Commandments to be blessed or to be punished for disobedience to God's Commandments

Similarities - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

• Monotheism • Ethical and moral religions • Influenced by Judaism • Recognize the existence of Adam and of Moses • Abrahamic religions • Belief in a single omnipotent deity

Monsoons and Impact on South Asia

• Monsoons are seasonal winds • There are dry monsoons that bring no rains and monsoons that bring rains • On the Indian Ocean, monsoons blow predictably in one direction for half of the year and in the other direction for the other half of the year • Mariners or seafaring traders relied on monsoon winds for traveling • The monsoon winds in the Indian Ocean tied Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and east Africa together in a maritime trade route

Characteristics of Early Civilizations

• Most early civilizations before 600 B.C.E. shared the following characteristics: urban centers, growing populations, and writing systems • In general, a civilization is a complex society - the word "civilization" comes from the word "civis" which in Latin means city • Civilization typically consists of cities, large populations, government bureaucracy, class systems, and writing systems • Yet some civilizations lack writing systems - many civilizations in the Americas lacked writing - largely due to isolation • Cuneiform, the world's first writing system, developed in Mesopotamia but spread throughout Eurasia and parts of Africa

What Early Civilizations in the Americas Often Lacked

• Most early civilizations in the Americas lacked writing systems • Only the Mayas had a fully developed writing system • The Americas were isolated from Europe, Africa and Asia for many thousands of years • Whereas the people of Afro-Eurasia benefitted from the Sumerian invention of writing (cuneiform) - through diffusion this idea of writing spread - in the Americas isolation from other continents and geographic barriers within the Americas made diffusion difficult • So, why are many societies of the Americas considered unusual because they reached an advanced state of civilization without developing systems of writing • Yes, in general, when a student thinks of civilization or a complex society, the student thinks of a writing system but in the Americas, complex societies or civilizations developed but these civilizations often lacked writing systems

Origins of agriculture

• Most experts believe that agriculture first originated in the Middle East but also began later as independent invention in many other areas around the world • Yes, the Neolithic Revolution occurred independently in a number of sites around the world but the first region to experience a Neolithic Revolution was most likely found in the Middle East or Southwest Asia • The Neolithic Revolution occurred first in the so-called "Fertile Crescent" or Mesopotamia in what is now modern Iraq but it also occurred independently at later dates in China, the Americas and possibly in parts of Africa and New Guinea • Agriculture then diffused from these locations to other lands • Yet its earliest expression was more than likely in the Middle East

Birthplace of Humanity

• Most scholars today believe that early humans originated in Africa, then migrated to other continents • Just ask Mary Leakey, the famous anthropologist who worked in East Africa, and found evidence of early humans in East Africa

Origins of Early Humans

• Most scholars would agree with this statement about early humans that humans originated in Africa and then migrated to other continents • As to its human history, Africa is the place where some seven million years ago the evolutionary lines of apes and proto-humans diverged • Human life began in Africa and thus, the story of humanity is an African story • It remained the only continent our ancestors inhabited until around two million years ago, when Homo erectus expanded out of Africa into Europe and Asia. • Sometime between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago our African ancestors underwent some further profound change • Whether it was the development of complex speech or something else, such as a change in brain wiring, scientists aren't exactly sure • Whatever it was, it transformed those early Homo sapiens into what paleoanthropologists call "behaviorally modern" Homo sapiens • "Behaviorally modern" Homo sapiens, probably with brains similar to our own, expanded again into Europe and Asia • Once there, they exterminated or replaced or interbred with Neanderthals and Asia's hominins and became the dominant human species throughout the world • In effect, Africans enjoyed not just one but three huge head starts over humans on other continents

Birthplace of Humanity

• Most scientists consider Africa to be the birthplace of humanity • As to its human history, Africa is the place where some seven million years ago the evolutionary lines of apes and proto-humans diverged • Human life began in Africa and thus, the story of humanity is an African story • "Behaviorally modern" Homo sapiens, probably with brains similar to our own developed in Africa and expanded again into Europe and Asia • The "Out of Africa" thesis states that Homo sapiens developed first in Africa and then spread around the world between 100 and 200,000 years ago, superseding all other hominid species • The implication of this argument is that all modern people are ultimately of African descent

Reasons for Sunni and Shi'a Split

• Muhammad died unexpectedly and before picking a successor • Thus, disagreement over leadership succession issues arose • Sunni Muslims believe that any pious Muslim man can lead the Islamic umma or community • Shi'a believe that leadership of the community should be through ʿAli, the Prophet's son-in-law • ʿAli was the fourth of the Righteously Guided caliphs and was assassinated

Sunni Muslims

• Muhammad died unexpectedly before picking a successor • Thus, disagreement over leadership succession issues arose • Sunni Muslims believe that any pious Muslim man can lead the Islamic umma or community

Last Prophet According to Islam

• Muhammad is recognized by Muslims as the last prophet • Muslims believe that Islam is a faith that has always existed and that it was gradually revealed to humanity by a number of prophets, but the final and complete revelation of the faith was made through the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century C.E. • The traditional story of the Qur'an tells how one night in 610 Muhammad was meditating in a cave on the mountain when he was visited by the angel Jibreel who ordered him to recite • Once Jibreel mentioned the name of Allah, Muhammad began to recite words which he came to believe were the words of God • During the rest of his life Muhammad continued to receive these revelations • The words were remembered and recorded, and form the text of the Holy Qur'an or the Muslim scripture

Effects of Muslim Conquests in Seventh Century

• Muslim armies unified the Arabs on the Arabian Peninsula • Muslim armies expanded into North Africa and parts of Southwest Asia • Muslim armies weakened the Byzantine and Persian Empires

Why Historians Find Myths Useful

• Myths are useful to historians because myths provide insights into the values and traditions of their societies • A myth is a story that is told in a culture to explain a practice, belief, or natural occurrence - it is not factual or at least, it cannot be proven but it is believed as an explanation for why things are as they are • Even though myths are not factual, they provide insights into cultures • A myth reveals the values of a culture or the practices of a culture • By studying myths, historians gain greater understanding of the cultures of the peoples they are studying

Neo-Confucianism

• Neo-Confucianism means the new Confucianism - the name commonly applied to the revival of Confucian philosophy in the middle of the 9th century and reached new levels of intellectual creativity in the 11th century in the Northern Song Dynasty • This Confucianism was blended with elements of Daoism and Buddhism • Daoism and Buddhism had gained in popularity after the collapse of the Han Dynasty and so by the time of the Song Dynasty - many years later - these beliefs could not simply be replaced - rather Daoism and Buddhism were incorporated into Confucian philosophy • So, Neo-Confucianism incorporated ideas from Buddhism and Daoism as these belief systems that had grown in popularity in China

Nomadism

• Nomadism refers to people who have no fixed residence but move from place to place usually seasonally and within a well-defined territory • Pastoralists are nomads • Pastoralists domesticate animals but not plants - pastoralists are herders • Pastoralism affected early social development in that herding societies tended to migrate frequently, and thus civilization took longer to emerge • Yes, herders are nomadic

Griots in West Africa

• Oral historians of West Africa • Societies in the Sahel and Savanna regions of West Africa have long kept their own history, in their own languages, orally, in the form of epics • Griots were masters of words and music • The male griots and female griottes were historians, genealogists, advisers to nobility, entertainers, messengers, and praise singers • The griot established his authority by connecting himself to the past - through his memory, the griot preserved the story of his people

Role of Oceans in History

• Oceans can separate nations or bring nations together • Oceans have, at times, kept societies apart - the Mongols tried to conquer Japan twice but the seas made it difficult and the Mongols failed twice - waters surrounding a land can make conquest or contact difficult thereby separating lands • Yet oceans have served as an effective means of transport - the Indian Ocean was a region of great trading - sailors used monsoon winds that predictably blew in one direction half of the year and the other direction the other half of the year to trade - the Indian Ocean trading network connected East Africa, Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia • Yes, oceans have stimulated the emergence of networks of trade, technology transfer, and cultural exchange • And by using oceans, humans could travel completely around the world by the sixteenth century C.E. - in the 1500s, Ferdinand Magellan's crew successfully circumnavigated the world

Status of women with rise of agriculture

• One common effect of the process of agricultural settlements developing into civilizations was that the status of women fell • Before agriculture, men were hunters and women were gatherers but they both contributed to the survival of the community and both were valued even though men may have had more power • With the rise of agriculture, many changes occurred - including the role of men - men now became farmers and their labor was seen as more valuable • In addition, women could now have more children - hunters and gatherers move and thus, have few babies - babies must be carried and each adult can only carry one child at a time in a nomadic migration - but settled mothers can have many babies • Women became associated with the home and child-rearing and the very important work they did was viewed as inferior - thus, patriarchy or male dominance developed

Hammurabi's Law Code

• One of the earliest and most complete ancient legal codes or law code was proclaimed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi, who reigned from 1792 to 1750 B.C.E. - Hammurabi expanded the city-state of Babylon along the Euphrates River to unite all of southern Mesopotamia • His code, a collection of 282 laws and standards, stipulated rules for commercial interactions and set fines and punishments to meet the requirements of justice • One of the main innovative ideas in Hammurabi's law code was that was a consistent set of regulations should govern society • Hammurabi's Code also had class division - in that rich and poor people were punished differently • This early written law code clearly stated the rules and punishments and could be harsh at times

Facts about Hammurabi's Law Code

• One of the earliest written law codes • Hammurabi was a king of Babylon • Babylon existed in Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers • Hammurabi's Law Code had class divisions • Punishments varied according to the individual's class • Thus, for a peasant, it was an "eye for an eye" • But for a nobleman, it might be "an eye for a fine" • However, harsh punishments nonetheless were frequently found in the Code of Hammurabi

Trade and the Growth of Cities

• One of the most significant causes of the growth of cities in Afro-Eurasia in the period 1000-1450 was increased interregional trade • Centers of trade frequently become cities because many people engage in the exchange of goods • In the Indian Ocean Trade Network, there was an "archipelago of towns" that connected merchants throughout the region • Where there is a great center of trade, there is usually a city

Impact of Decline of Gupta Empire

• One of the reasons for the decline of the Gupta Empire was invasions • But when the Gupta Empire declined, India returned to a period of fragmentation - many local rulers but no emperor for most of the land - no centralized rule • Yes, the decline of Gupta India saw the increased power of local princes • Local princes controlled their regional kingdoms • In a period of fragmentation, there are many local rulers but no national unity

Facts about the Chinese Civil Service Examination System

• Open to all men in theory • But favored wealthy men as tutors for examination preparation were expensive • However, a talented peasant might be supported by his village • Provided a modest measure of social mobility • A meritocracy: placing talented scholar-gentry as government officials • Based on Confucianism and Chinese history • Encouraged education that looked to the past rather than to the future and change • Not a progressive education rather conservative

Similarities - Collapse of Han Dynasty and Roman Empire

• Outside invaders contributed to the collapse of both the Han Dynasty and the Roman empire • Yes, the collapse of Han China resembled the Roman Empire's loss of its European lands as a result of invaders • Nomadic invaders found civilization attractive • Invaders could plunder the many riches stored in civilization • The Han Dynasty and Roman Empire collapsed as waves of invaders entered their lands

Facts about the Atlantic Slave Trade

• Over the period of the Atlantic Slave Trade, from approximately 1526 to 1867, some 12.5 million slaves had been shipped from Africa, and 10.7 million had arrived in the Americas • The Atlantic Slave Trade was likely the most costly in human life of all of long-distance global migrations • The volume of slaves carried off from Africa reached thirty thousand per year in the 1690s and eighty-five thousand per year a century later • More than eight out of ten Africans forced into the slave trade made their journeys in the century and a half after 1700. • By 1820, nearly four Africans for every one European had crossed the Atlantic • About four out of every five females that traversed the Atlantic were from Africa • Well over 90 percent of enslaved Africans were imported into the Caribbean and South America • Only about 6 percent of African captives were sent directly to British North America. • Yet by 1825, the United States had a quarter of people of African ancestry in the New World • The Middle Passage was dangerous and miserable for African slaves. • About twelve percent of those who embarked did not survive the voyage • African slaves replaced a dying Native American Indian population • European slave traders' account books would be a useful source of evidence for research about the profits of Portuguese and British slave traders in the period 1600-1800 as these books would show the number of slaves sold and the prices received

Facts about Muslims in Northern India

• Over two hundred years, between the 1000s and 1200s, Muslims seized parts of northern India • The Delhi Sultanate was the principal Muslim sultanate in north India from the 13th to the 16th century • Of course, even before a Muslim kingdom in a predominantly Hindu subcontinent, Muslim merchants interacted with Indians as early as the seventh century C.E. • The power of the Delhi sultanate in north India was shattered by the invasion (1398-99) of Turkic conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who sacked Delhi itself • And of course, by the 1500s, the Mughal Dynasty was established by Babur, a descendant of Timur (Timur was a son-in-law of Chinggis Khan) • The Delhi sultanate made no break with the political traditions of the later Hindu period - namely, that rulers sought paramountcy rather than sovereignty • It never reduced Hindu chiefs to unarmed impotence or established an exclusive claim to allegiance • The sultan was served by a heterogeneous elite of Turks, Afghans, Khaljīs, and Hindu converts; he readily accepted Hindu officials and Hindu vassals • Threatened for long periods with Mongol invasion from the northwest and hampered by indifferent communications, the Delhi sultans perforce (by force of circumstances) left a large discretion to their local governors and officials

The Abbasids

• Overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 C.E. • Lasted from 750 C.E. to 1258 C.E. when the Mongols sacked Baghdad • Capital was Baghdad • More decentralized than Umayyad in that local princes had greater autonomy • Second Islamic Caliphate • Never conquered Umayyad Spain • Founded by Abu al-'Abbas' • Support from Mawali [non-Arab Muslims] and Shi'a although Sunni dynasty

Domestication of Animals

• Pastoral nomads are similar to settled farmers in that they both domesticate animals • Pastoralism is the raising of animals - pastoralists are herders • Pastoralism is also known as animal husbandry • Farmers domesticate animals but also plants • Pastoralists only domesticate animals

Characteristics of Pastoralism

• Pastoralists are herders; they raise livestock • Pastoral societies are based on herding but NOT farming • Pastoralism affected early social development in that herding societies tended to migrate frequently, and thus civilization took longer to emerge • Yes, pastoralists are nomadic because animals must graze and grazing requires mobility and movement • In pastoral societies, women generally had more rights than in agricultural societies because when women must move, their status is generally a bit higher - women cannot be secluded and out of public view

Pastoralists and Mobility

• Pastoralists rarely accumulated large amounts of material possessions because they were frequently mobile • It is hard to accumulate things when you are moving regularly • You must be able to carry (at least if you are a hunter or a gatherer) what you own when you move • Thus, pastoralists - nomadic herders - generally did not accumulate many material possessions because they could not easily move a lot of stuff • However, they did want to accumulate livestock (domesticated animals) because wealth in a pastoral society was based on the number of animals the herder possessed

Patriarchy

• Patriarchy means male dominance • In a patriarchy, women are viewed as inferior to men • Of course, there are variations in patriarchal societies in that some societies, although patriarchal, give women more rights than other patriarchal societies • Thus, an accurate statement about gender relations up to 1000 C.E. is that in some societies, women enjoyed more rights than in others • In ancient Egypt, a woman could own property and in medieval times in Europe, a woman could inherit a fief (land) but not rule it • Yes, Egyptian women could own property, borrow money, sign contracts, initiate divorce, appear in court as a witness, etc.

Effects of the Neolithic Revolution

• People learned to farm and domesticate animals • Effects include: - Permanent settlements - Population increases - Reliable food source - Epidemic diseases due to proximity to domesticated animals - Class Divisions - Patriarchy - Slavery

Facts about Neolithic Revolution

• People learned to farm and domesticate animals • Effects include: - Permanent settlements - Population increases - Reliable food source - Epidemic diseases due to proximity to domesticated animals - Class Divisions - Patriarchy - Slavery

An Effect of the Neolithic Revolution

• People learned to farm and domesticate animals • As a result of farming, people settled • Population increased due to a reliable food source • Epidemic diseases occurred due to proximity to animals • Class divisions emerged as some individuals acquired more goods than others • Patriarchy or male dominance occurred as women's work was viewed as less valuable • Sedentary village communities were established as people settled abandoned their nomadic ways

A Major Feature of the Neolithic Revolution

• People learned to farm and domesticate animals during the Neolithic Revolution • As a result of farming and domesticated animals, people settled in villages • Sedentary village communities were established • A reliable food source developed • Population increased • Class and gender divisions emerged • Epidemic diseases occurred due to proximity to animals • Yes, a major feature of the Neolithic Revolution in the Middle East was the establishment of sedentary village communities

Domestication of perennial plants

• Perennial plants are for plants that live for more than two years • Many perennials grow and bloom over spring and summer, die back during fall and winter, and grow again the following year from their roots • Domestication of perennial plants in each region was true for ALL of the early agricultural systems • With the domestication of the key food plants and animals in the Middle East (about 10,000 years ago), people were able to live in large settled communities with a reliable, predictable, and abundant food supply that was able to support the development of cities, craft specialization, social stratification, temple priesthoods, and kingship - the complex of connected institutions that we call "civilization" • In short, the consequences of the Neolithic revolution were enormous - affecting nearly every major aspect of human environment, economy, and culture

Importance of Point of View in World History

• Point of View analysis occurs when the reader identifies the author of the text and determines who the individual recording the information is • What class is the author from? What gender? What information can I gather from the individual that will provide insight into why the author might express his thoughts as he does? • When we read a primary source, we want to reflect on the author for a moment in order to better understand the passage • Of course, we do not want to jump to conclusions either • Each text will speak for itself • The African proverb, "Until the lions have their historians, tales of hunting will always glorify the hunter," conveys the idea that history usually reflects the viewpoint of the victors

Point of View in World History and the Crusades

• Point of View analysis occurs when the reader identifies the author of the text and determines who the individual recording the information is • What class is the author from? What gender? What information can I gather from the individual that will provide insight into why the author might express his thoughts as he does? • When we read a primary source, we want to reflect on the author for a moment in order to better understand the passage • Of course, we do not want to jump to conclusions either • Each text will speak for itself • Thus, if we are reading passages on the Crusades, let us not assume that the Muslim will write or say one thing and the Christian the other • Again we must let each text speak for itself • People are full of surprises • History teaches us not to generalize and only to reach conclusions without deep thinking

Polis

• Polis is the Greek word for city-state • The polis is most closely associated Athens • Of course, there were other city-states like Corinth, Thebes and Sparta • Each city-state, or polis, had its own government • Some city states were monarchies ruled by kings or tyrants; others were oligarchies ruled by a few powerful men on councils; and Athens was a direct democracy where citizens voted on all issues of government concern

Polytheism in Africa and Americas

• Polytheism is the belief in many gods • An accurate statement about both the Americas and West Africa before 1500 is that polytheism was the dominant belief system in these regions • In the Americas, the Native American Indians were animists (believing that everything in nature has a spirit) and polytheists • Monotheism (in the form of Christianity) was NOT introduced in the Americas until the arrival of the Europeans and while Columbus arrived in 1492, mass conversions did not occur until the 1500s • In Africa, animism and polytheism were popular too • While it is true that Islam (a monotheistic religion) entered West Africa along the trans-Saharan trade routes, usually elites or high class individuals converted to Islam • Animism and polytheism were still practiced in much of West Africa prior to 1500

Increased Population Density and Agriculture

• Population density increased as a result of the development of agriculture in societies that previously relied on hunting and gathering • Population density refers to the number of people living per unit of an area • Population increases in societies that experience agriculture • Agriculture provides a reliable food source and therefore, people settle and women can give birth to more babies • In hunting and gathering societies, the birth rate is limited as hunters and gatherers move regularly and cannot easily move lots of babies and toddlers

Social Changes Brought About By Agriculture

• Population growth was a change brought about by agriculture - in that agriculture societies had a more reliable food supply and could feed and support more people • The emergence of villages and towns - another change brought about by agriculture - in that farmers settle; farmers create permanent settlements • The specialization of labor was another change brought about by agriculture - in that as farmers become more productive and grow more food - some individuals are freed from farming and can perform other jobs (specialization - to perform different jobs) • The emergence of social classes was also a change brought about by agriculture - in hunting and gathering societies, people cannot accumulate many possessions and therefore people are equal - there are no social classes but in farming societies, social classes emerge as some people acquire more possessions and land than others - thus, the rich and the poor divide occurs in society • But the invention of writing was NOT a social change brought about by agriculture - a social change is a change in the composition of a society - all of the others are social changes - in addition, writing did not always occur in societies that experienced agriculture - many societies in the Americas, societies where agriculture developed, did not develop writing systems (yes, there were exceptions like the Mayans but in general, agriculture can develop without writing developing)

Pre-Islamic Arabia

• Pre-Islamic Arab society is best characterized as pastoral nomadic • Arabia is mostly a desert and for much of its history, the people of Arabia were pastoral nomads - raising animals and moving from oasis to oasis • There were trading centers and settled populations but most people were nomadic • Of course, it was due to Arabia's location on important trade routes that its history changed • Yet still geography dictated what many people in the peninsula could do and could not do - in desert lands, nomadic life is the norm

"Out of Africa" Thesis

• Proposes that modern humans emerged in Africa • Thus, all humans have African ancestors • Proposes that humans first evolved in Africa and then some populations migrated to other lands and populated all of the habitable lands of Earth

Rationalism

• Rationalism is a belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response • The Greek approach to science was characterized by its: application of rational thought to speculations about nature's order • Reason rather than the gods was used to explain natural phenomena • This is rather surprising given how the ancient Greeks worshipped the quarrelling gods of Mount Olympus • Yet, Greek thinkers were rationalists - using intelligent thinking to understand math and science

Sacred Texts of World Religions

• Religious texts are considered to be sacred or dedicated to a religious purpose or central to a religious tradition • Many religions and spiritual movements believe that their sacred texts are divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired • In Judaism, the Torah or first five books are considered sacred - it is in the Torah that the Jewish people believe that God gave his Commandments to his people • The Qur'an is the sacred text of Islam - Muslims believe that God's words to Muhammad are recorded in the holy Qur'an • The Bible is sacred to Christians - Christians believe that the words of Jesus are recorded in the Bible • And the Avesta is the religious book of Zoroastrians that contains a collection of sacred texts • But the Bhagavad Gita is NOT a sacred text of Confucianism - It is, however, a sacred text of Hinduism

River Valley Civilizations

• River Valley Civilizations such as the Egyptians or Sumerians developed craft specialization - some individuals performed different jobs than farming - they became skilled craftsmen or artisans • River Valley Civilizations had social stratification - or class systems with some people ranked higher than others - priests had more prestige and status than peasant farmers • River Valley Civilizations often engaged in long-distance trade - the Sumerians of Mesopotamia traded with the peoples of the Indus River Valley civilization • River Valley Civilizations had complex religious rituals - priests performed elaborate ceremonies to please the gods • But constitutional monarchy was NOT a development in river valley civilizations - river valley civilizations developed in the B.C.E. era but constitutional monarchy or a government where a king's power is limited by a constitution did not exist until the modern era, thousands of years later

Sedentary Agriculture

• Sedentary agriculture is the economic activity that is most likely to produce a surplus • In sedentary agriculture, there are permanent settlements and village life revolves around farming • Settled farmers often grow more crops than they can eat and thus, surplus (extra crops) occur • As a result of surplus crops, not all individuals are needed for food production • This allows some individuals to perform other jobs - thus specialization (performing different jobs) occurs

A Result of the Development of Agriculture

• Sedentary villages • Class divisions • Patriarchy • Slavery • Epidemic diseases • Population density increased

Effects of the Development of Agriculture

• Sedentary villages • Class divisions • Patriarchy • Slavery • Epidemic diseases • Population density increased

Serfdom versus Slavery

• Serfdom and slavery are both coerced labor systems - a coercive labor system is a forced labor system as in slavery or an indentured laborer or serfdom • In slavery, the slave is the legal property of the owner and the owner can do with the slave what he wishes • In serfdom, a peasant is bound to his lord's land and cannot leave the lord's land - the lord determines what the serf can and cannot do - however, a serf is not the property of the lord but rather bound to the lord • Thus, serfs had some rights - for example, a serf's child could not be sold from him but a slave's child could be sold to another • Thus, serfdom differed from slavery in that technically, serfs had more freedoms than slaves

Shi'a Muslims

• Shi'a believe that leadership of the community should be through ʿAli, the Prophet's son-in-law • ʿAli was the fourth of the Righteously Guided caliphs and was assassinated • After the assassination of ʿAli, Shi'a believed that the rightful caliph was murdered and have sought to ensure a descendant from the Prophet's family as caliph

Definition - Shifting Cultivation

• Shifting cultivation is a form of slash and burn farming • Shifting cultivation is a form of agriculture, used especially in tropical Africa, in which an area of ground is cleared of vegetation and cultivated for a few years and then abandoned for a new area until its fertility has been naturally restored • Shifting cultivation was generally practiced in rain forests and their peripheries • In a rain forest, the trees must be cut and the underbrush cleared - then farming can occur but only for a few years because the soil is rendered infertile quickly • The community moves to a new area and repeats the process of cutting trees and clearing the underbrush, farming, and then moving on

Feature of Hinduism Rejected by Buddhism

• Siddhartha Gautama was a Hindu prince but he was unsatisfied with Hindu explanations for suffering and became the founder of Buddhism • As the Buddha, he stated the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism: life has suffering, desire causes suffering, suffering can end and follow the Noble Eightfold Path or the path to end suffering • While Buddha accepted the Hindu concept of reincarnation and karma, he rejected the Hindu caste system • Thus, a central feature of Hinduism that Buddhism rejected was the caste system • The caste system is a fixed social class system of Brahmins or priests, warriors, merchants and farmers - a person is born into his caste and remains in his caste a lifetime • Buddhists reject the caste system - there is no caste system in Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama

• Siddhartha Gautama was the founder of Buddhism • Buddhism is the Asian religion that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama • Siddhartha Gautama was born a Hindu prince but upon discovering suffering, sought an end to suffering and came to an understanding of the Four Noble Truths • Upon understanding the causation and cessation of suffering, Siddhartha became the Buddha or the Enlightened One • Buddha taught that all life has suffering but suffering can end

Similarities - Hinduism and Buddhism

• Siddhartha Gautama was the founder of Buddhism - he had been raised a Hindu prince and came to the conclusion that life was suffering - suffering caused by desire - but suffering could end • As Buddhism emerged from Hinduism, there are many beliefs that are shared by both belief systems • Both Hindus and Buddhists believe in reincarnation or samsara - that the soul is born, lives, and then is reborn at the physical death of the body • Yes, both religions accept that souls reach spiritual perfection through a cycle of life, death, and reincarnation • Moksha is union with Brahman and the end of samsara (reincarnation) for Hindus and nirvana is the end of suffering and end of samsara for Buddhists

Religions in Times of Disorder

• Sociologists who study religion have noted that religions that emphasize individual faith will sometimes spread rapidly in societies experiencing disorder and a decline in influence of traditional sources of authority. • The clearest example of this tendency is the spread of Buddhism in China after the end of the Han dynasty • The collapse of the Han Dynasty led to a period of disorder in China and a time of confusion as different lords and different families competed to gain control of China • In this time of suffering, Buddhism increased in popularity as Buddhism offered an end to suffering • Buddhism also emphasizes individual faith in that the individual is responsible for the end of suffering and is not dependent on a government or a nation - Buddhism is an individual's journey toward the end of suffering • Through the individual's practice of the Four Noble Truths and participation in a sangha or a Buddhist community, nirvana or an end to suffering can occur

Beliefs of Sikhs

• Sikhism is a religion that developed in northern India - a region where Hindus and Muslims lived • The Sikh faith began in the 15th century when Guru Nanak began teaching a faith that was quite distinct from Hinduism and Islam yet influenced by both religions • Like Hindus, Sikhs have the beliefs of karma and reincarnation • Like Muslims, Sikhs are monotheists • One morning, when he was twenty-eight years old, Nanak went down to the river to bathe and meditate - it was said that he was gone for three days and when he reappeared, it was believed that he was filled with the spirit of God • It was then that Guru Nanak began his missionary work and the religion of Sikhism was born • Sikhism is a monotheistic religion, and the basic Sikh belief is represented in the phrase Ik Onkar meaning "One God" • Sikhism was founded in the Punjab region in India in the 15th century by Guru Nanak Dev • Sikhism broke from Hinduism due, in part, to its rejection of the caste system • The primary source of Scripture for Sikhs is the Guru Granth Sahib, regarded as the living Guru, after the final Guru in human form, Guru Gobind Singh, passed away • A Sikh place of worship is known as the gurdwara - the word gurdwara means "doorway to God" • The Five Ks are the articles of faith that Sikhs wear as ordered by the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh • The Five Ks are Kesh or unshorn long hair, a kangha or a small wooden comb meant to keep the hair combed twice a day, a kara or an iron bangle to be worn on the hand used most, a kachera is a specific undergarment for modesty, and a kirpan or short dagger • Sikhs believe in defending the right of all peoples to religious freedom

Differences between Serfdom and Slavery

• Slavery is defined as the state of a person who is a chattel or property to another • A serf is a person bound to his lord's land - a serf is not property but cannot leave his lord's land • Both serfs and slaves are part of coerced labor systems - or labor systems where individuals are forced to work and the conditions are fairly miserable • But a serf is treated slightly better than a slave because a serf cannot be sold to another lord and thus a serf cannot be separated from his children • So, how did serfdom differ from slavery? - Technically, serfs had more freedoms than slaves • To be a slave was to be without any rights - property has no rights - and so a slave could watch as his children were sold away to another master - never to be seen again - to be a slave was to have a broken heart and to be treated horribly • A serf was treated terribly but he had some rights like a right to a family

Byzantine Influence on Slavic Peoples and Russia

• Slavs are Eastern Europeans • The Byzantine monks, Cyril and Methodius, brought the Orthodox Christian faith to the Slavs and in particular, the peoples of Russia • Thus, the Byzantines spread Orthodox Christianity to Russia and created an alphabet (the Cyrillic alphabet) for the Russian language in order for the Bible to be written in Russian • The Byzantines also introduced the idea of a Caesar or Czar (Tsar) to the Russian people • So, while the Byzantine Empire has collapsed, it lives somewhat in Russia

Inferiors and Superiors in Confucianism

• Social harmony is attained when superiors treat those below them with kindness, while inferiors respect those above them - this statement best encapsulates Confucian thought • Confucius lived during the "Age of Warring States" in the Zhou dynasty - it was a time of fighting among various lords in their competition for power with the dynasty • Confucius came to believed that order was the basis of peace and harmony • He believed that in society an individual must know and do what is expected of him - he must know his role and act accordingly • Superiors had to set good examples and be benevolent or kindly to inferiors and inferiors had to obey • There were Five Relationships: Emperor and subject, Father and son, Husband and wife, Elder brother and younger brother and friend and friend

Social stratification

• Social stratification refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy • A hierarchy is a ranking system • In the United States, there are some groups that have greater status, power, and wealth than other groups • The Hindu caste system is socially stratified with its Brahmins or priests, warriors, merchants, and farmers • Brahmins are ranked higher than merchants

Indian and Chinese Influences on Southeast Asia

• Southeast Asia is located between India and China • Southeast Asia was part of the Indian Ocean trade network • Cultural diffusion from India and China influenced Southeast Asia • The French even called their colony in Southeast Asia "Indochina" • Present-day nations in the region include Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar [Burma], Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand

The effect of the spread of Christianity among most Amerindian societies after 1500

• Spanish conquistadors came to the Americans in search of "God, Glory, and Gold" • Native American Indians were often forcibly converted to Roman Catholicism • While Native American Indians were converted to Christianity, they still retained elements of their previous animistic faiths • Syncretism or cultural blending occurred as cultural ideas rarely die • Thus, Amerindians or Native American Indians or the indigenous peoples of the Americas maintained local customs by combining indigenous beliefs with elements of Christianity

Specialization of Labor - Cities

• Specialization of labor means that people in a society perform different jobs • In a hunting and gathering society, there is very little specialization of labor as all men hunt and all women gather • With the advent of agriculture, specialization can occur - especially if farmers are successful and produce surplus • With agricultural surplus or more food than a farmer can eat, food can be sold and some people are freed from agricultural labor and can perform other jobs - like priests or government officials • The following correctly describes the emergence of the first cities - cities allowed for the specialization of labor - it is important to note that people who live in cities do NOT farm and therefore they must purchase food from the surplus that successful farmers produce

Sufis

• Sufis are Islamic mystics - they seek spiritual union with God • Sufis were very effective missionaries because they focused on loving God as opposed to the rules of religion and were very flexible in teaching people new to Islam • Sufis sought and emotional and mystical union with Allah - this is really the essence of a mystical religious experience • Sufis used emotional sermons and song and dance to encourage devotion - Whirling Dervishes are Sufi mystics who whirl for hours to achieve spiritual union with God • Sufis tolerated observances of some non-Islamic customs because their focus is on loving God and not solely the rules of religion

Sufis

• Sufism is the mystical branch of Islam • Mystics seek to experience God and to love God as opposed to merely follow the rules of the religion • Sufis were very effective missionaries as they tolerated observances of some non-Islamic customs • Sufis sought an emotional and mystical union with Allah • Sufis used emotional sermons and song and dance to encourage devotion

Swahili

• Swahili was a language that developed after 1000 C.E. as a direct result of expanding global trade patterns • Swahili is a Bantu language that has been greatly influenced by Arabic • The language dates from the contacts of Arabian traders with the inhabitants of the east coast of Africa over many centuries • Under Arab influence, Swahili originated as a lingua franca [a common language among speakers whose native languages are different] used by several closely related Bantu-speaking tribal groups • In the early 19th century, the spread of Swahili inland received a great impetus from its being the language of the Arab ivory and slave caravans, which penetrated as far north as Uganda and as far west as Congo

Gilgamesh

• The "Epic of Gilgamesh" is a poem that follows the adventures of a Sumerian king as he battles a forest monster and quests after the secret of eternal life. • Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, was two-thirds god and one-third man and he built magnificent ziggurats, or temple towers, surrounded his city with high walls, and laid out its orchards and fields - he was physically beautiful, immensely strong, and very wise but he was very cruel • The gods heard his subjects' pleas and decided to keep Gilgamesh in check by creating a wild man named Enkidu, who was as magnificent as Gilgamesh - Enkidu became Gilgamesh's great friend, and Gilgamesh's heart was shattered when Enkidu died of an illness inflicted by the gods • Gilgamesh then goes in search of immortality • But Gilgamesh learns that he can't live forever but that humankind will - now he sees that the city he had repudiated in his grief and terror is a magnificent, enduring achievement - the closest thing to immortality to which a mortal can aspire • Thus, Gilgamesh was a king of the city-state of Uruk, a hero in a popular Mesopotamian epic, a warrior in conflict with the city of Kish and a legendary loyal friend of Enkidu

"Era of Warring States" in China

• The "Era of Warring States" occurred during the Zhou Dynasty • As the dynasty weakened, lords began to compete for the emperor's power and warfare and chaos occurred • During this time period of a weak Zhou Dynasty and much fighting, the great philosophies of China developed • Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism developed during the Zhou Dynasty • Yes, Confucius lived during the late Zhou dynasty "Era of Warring States"

Facts about Persian Empire

• The Achaemenid Persian Empire was the largest that the ancient world had seen, extending from Anatolia and Egypt across western Asia to northern India and Central Asia - its formation began in 550 B.C.E. • Cyrus II and Darius were important Persian kings • All of the following are associated with Classical Persia: the royal road, Persepolis, and Zoroastrianism • To connect a vast empire, the Persians built roads - Persian roads allowed traders and troops to move more quickly from one part of the empire to another - the Royal Road stretched more than 1,600 miles • The capital was Persepolis • The Persian kings were very pious Zoroastrians, trying to rule justly and in accordance with the Zoroastrian law of asha (truth and righteousness) • Zoroastrianism is a religion that teaches that there are two cosmic forces in the world - the force of good or God and the force of evil - people must choose but those who obey God are rewarded with heaven while evildoers are punished in Hell • However, this is NOT the Persian Empire - the Upanishads - the Upanishads are Hindu sacred texts and Hinduism is Indian not Persian

Effects of Bantu Migration

• The Bantu originally lived in West Africa but as they learned to farm, they began to migrate throughout sub-Saharan Africa • As farmers, the Bantu needed more land as population increased • As the Bantu migrated, they spread agriculture, iron-making and their language to the lands and peoples of sub-Sahara • The spread of Bantu-speaking peoples over southern African can be best explained by their knowledge of agriculture • It was agriculture that led to the Bantu migration • The Bantu migration is dated from approximately 1000 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E.

Bantu Migration and Effects of Migration

• The Bantu originally lived in West Africa but migrated throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa • The Bantu were agriculturalists and as sedentary agriculture increases population, the Bantu moved in search of new lands to farm • The Bantu migration occurred between 1000 B.C.E. and 1000 C.E. - although some researchers suggest the Bantu began their migration even earlier • As the Bantu populated much of sub-Saharan Africa, they spread agriculture, iron-making and their language - thus, many people in sub-Saharan Africa speak a language derived from Bantu • The Bantus are important to African culture because they come the closest to resembling a common cultural source in sub-Saharan Africa - many peoples in sub-Saharan Africa have been influenced by Bantu culture and have elements of Bantu culture within their cultures

Effects of the Bantu Migrations

• The Bantu were agriculturalists originally from West Africa • They migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa as their population increased and they required more lands • These migrations occurred from approximately 1000 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E. • The Bantu spread iron, agriculture, and their language throughout sub-Saharan Africa • The Bantu provided a common linguistic root for the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa as many sub-Saharan African languages are derived from Bantu • The Bantu also spread banana cultivation which entered Africa from Southeast Asia

Facts about Bantu Migration

• The Bantu were agriculturalists originally from West Africa • They migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa as their population increased and they required more lands • These migrations occurred from approximately 1000 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E. • The Bantu spread iron, agriculture, and their language throughout sub-Saharan Africa • The Bantu provided a common linguistic root for the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa as many sub-Saharan African languages are derived from Bantu • The Bantu also spread banana cultivation which entered Africa from Southeast Asia

Facts about the Bantu Migration

• The Bantu were agriculturalists originally from West Africa • They migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa as their population increased and they required more lands • These migrations occurred from approximately 1000 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E. • The Bantu spread iron, agriculture, and their language throughout sub-Saharan Africa • The Bantu provided a common linguistic root for the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa as many sub-Saharan African languages are derived from Bantu • The Bantu also spread banana cultivation which entered Africa from Southeast Asia

Location of the Byzantine Empire

• The Byzantine Empire flourished as a crossroads of trade between the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia • Yes, the location of the Byzantine Empire included lands in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East or Southwest Asia and North America • And because the Byzantine Empire controlled the Eastern Mediterranean sea, it also controlled the end of the Silk Road trading network and thus, trade with Asia • This great location greatly benefitted the Byzantines • By controlling the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Byzantine Empire prospered economically

Location of Byzantine Empire

• The Byzantine Empire flourished as a crossroads of trade connecting the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia • The Byzantine Empire included lands in Europe, Asia, and North Africa • The empire was located on the crossroads of trade - connecting Europe and Asia and North Africa - the Byzantines controlled trade on the eastern Mediterranean Sea • The origins of the great civilization known as the Byzantine Empire can be traced to 330 C.E., when the Roman emperor Constantine I dedicated a "new Rome" on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium • The Byzantine Empire was thus formerly the Eastern Roman Empire • Though the western half of the Roman Empire crumbled and fell in 476 C.E., the eastern half survived for 1,000 more years, spawning a rich tradition of art, literature and learning and serving as a military buffer between the states of Europe and the threat of invasion from Asia • The Byzantine Empire finally fell in 1453, after an Ottoman army stormed Constantinople

Conversion of Slavs by Byzantine Missionaries

• The Byzantine Empire greatly affected the culture of the Russian people • Byzantine missionaries - Cyril and Methodius - brought Orthodox Christianity to Russia • In addition, as the Russian language did not have an alphabet, the monks created a Russian alphabet in order to write the Bible in Russia - that alphabet is known as the Cyrillic alphabet (named for the monk who created it and introduced Orthodox Christianity to the Slavs of Eastern Europe) • Yes, the Cyrillic alphabet owes its name to the 9th century Byzantine missionary St. Cyril, who, along with his brother, Methodius, created the first Slavic alphabet - the Glagolitic - in order to translate Greek religious text to Slavic - it is on the basis of this alphabet that the Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 10th century C.E. by the followers of the brothers, who were beatified (given a title to mark as good and holy people) as saints • The Byzantine Empire influenced Russia by bringing Orthodox Christianity, the Cyrillic alphabet, and the concept of a Caesar or "Tsar" in Russian - the idea of an absolute ruler - to the Russian people • Yes, the Byzantine Empire achieved the conversion of many Slavic peoples to Christianity

Location of Byzantine Empire

• The Byzantine Empire was formerly the Eastern Roman Empire • It was located between Europe and Asia at a crossroads of trade • Its capital, Constantinople, had a particularly great location • Constantinople was very defensible with water on three sides • Yes, the Byzantine Empire flourished as a crossroads of trade between the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia • Of course, it is important to find a map of the location of the Byzantine Empire in order to clearly see its location

Chinese Inventions

• The Chinese invented many important objects • The Chinese invented explosive powder • The Chinese invented the magnetic compass • The Chinese invented movable type • The Chinese invented paper money • But the Chinese did NOT invent steam-powered machinery - that was a European invention

"Son of Heaven" in Chinese history

• The Chinese king was called the "son of heaven" and served as a link between heaven and earth • The Chinese emperor was understood to be the "Son of Heaven" responsible for maintaining harmony between the human sphere and heaven - he ruled society with the "Mandate of Heaven" • The emperor as the Son of Heaven had received the Mandate of Heaven to rule society • The emperor, therefore, played a key role in linking the human social order to other domains of the cosmic order • Therefore, the emperor could be held fully responsible for disturbances in that order

Dates of the Classical Period and Date of the Fall of Rome Specifically

• The Classical Period is generally dated from around 500 B.C.E. to 500 C.E. • Usually, the fall of Rome is the date to mark the end of the classical period • Rome fell in 476 C.E. or around 500 C.E. • Sometimes it is dated at around 600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. • Again, the end date coincides with the fall of the Gupta Empire • The Gupta Empire fell around 550 C.E. or close to 600 C.E. • The Classical Civilizations are the Mauryan, Gupta, Han, Greek, and Romans and yes, Mayas • The Mayas collapsed around 900 C.E. • So, what is correct - ending around 500 or 600 or even 900 • So, it seems that what is determining the end date is how the historian feels about the fall of the western Roman Empire - is this the defining date or not?

Examples of Hammurabi's Laws

• The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest written law codes • It included statements like: "If anyone steals from a temple or the court, he shall be put to death, and also the one who receives the stolen thing from him shall be put to death." - this is clearly a protection of property because stealing is the taking of another person's property • Another statement was: "If anyone buys from the son or the slave of another man, without witness or contract, silver or gold...he is considered a thief and shall be put to death." - again to take what is not yours is to take another person's property • The laws cited above are evidence of the protection of property in Babylonian society • The Code of Hammurabi was written in Babylon, circa 1780 B.C.E. and it provided a consistent set of rules for society and protected property • The Code of Hammurabi also had harsh punishments and class divisions in that people were punished differently according to the social class of the accused

Code of Hammurabi

• The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest written law codes • It provided a consistent set of regulations and rules for society - it could not be changed in a moment's notice because the king's mood changed • It was developed in Babylon - a kingdom in Mesopotamia • The Code of Hammurabi had class divisions - it treated people differently according to class - thus for a poor man, it was an eye for an eye but for a rich man it could be an eye for a fine • The Code of Hammurabi had harsh punishments • The following is an excerpt from the Code of Hammurabi: "If anyone steals from a temple or the court, he shall be put to death, and also the one who receives the stolen thing from him shall be put to death...If anyone buys from the son or the slave of another man, without witnesses or contract, silver or gold...he is considered a thief and shall be put to death." ~Code of Hammurabi, Babylon, circa 1780 B.C.E. • The laws cited in this excerpt are evidence of the protection of property in Babylonian society

Hammurabi's Code

• The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest written law codes - it was created during the reign of Hammurabi, a Babylonian king • The code had harsh punishments and class divisions - in that it punished people differently according to the person's social class - rich people could often pay fines for punishments but a poor person might have an eye or hand removed • The Code of Hammurabi provided a consistent set of rules and regulations - as the laws were written and could not change from moment to moment • Yes, one of the main innovative ideas in Hammurabi's law code was that a consistent set of regulations should govern society • Rather than the king's mood determining the daily rules, a written law code established what the rules were

The Columbian Exchange

• The Columbian Exchange is the great global cultural diffusion that occurred as a result of Columbus' arrival in the Americas • Potatoes, corn, peanuts, and other agricultural crops were brought from the Americas to Europe, Asia, and Africa • Horses, rice, and wheat were brought from Eurasia to the Americas • Diseases also travelled too • As did people • The Columbian Exchange involved new connections in the era 1450-1750 such as between African population to the Western Hemisphere, Western Hemisphere food to Europe and Africa, and African and European diseases to the Western Hemisphere

Copts in Egypt

• The Copts were and still are a Christian minority in predominantly Islamic Egypt • Christianity first arrived in North Africa, in the 1st or early 2nd century C.E. • The Christian communities in North Africa were among the earliest in the world • In the 4th century C.E. the Ethiopian King Ezana made Christianity the kingdom's official religion • In Egypt, the Coptic Orthodox Church is the main Christian Church in Egypt, where it has between 6 and 11 million members - of course, the majority of people in Egypt today practice Islam but there are still practicing Copts in Egypt • The word "Copt" comes from the Greek word "Aigyptos", meaning Egyptian

The Causes of the Crusades

• The Crusades were a series of holy wars between Christians and Muslims for control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from 1095 to 1291 • The following are causes of the Crusades: racial and religious prejudice, geopolitical conflict between Europe and the Middle East, religious fervor, and the personal greed of many Europeans to gain wealth and land • But the Black Death was NOT a cause of the Crusades • The Black Death occurred long after the Crusades • Of course, knowing chronology or the order of events helps - the Black Death entered Western Europe in 1347 • 1347 is many years after the time period: 1095 to 1291

Reasons for the Crusades

• The Crusades were a series of holy wars between Christians and Muslims for control of the holy land (Jerusalem) from 1095 to 1291 • Pope Urban II called for a Crusade when rumors circulated that Muslims had denied Christian pilgrims access to the Holy Land • The Christian Crusaders fought seven major wars but never permanently gained control of the Holy Land and as such the Crusades are often referred to as "successful failures" - a failure in that it did not achieve the goal of permanent control of the land but a success in that the Christian Crusaders learned new ideas from Muslims and the golden age of Islam as well as rediscovered the works of classical Greek and Roman thinkers in Muslim libraries and tasted new foods and products such as lemons and coffee • There were many reasons for the Crusades such as religious motivations, racial and religious prejudice, geopolitical conflict between Europe and the Middle East, religious fervor, and the personal greed of many Europeans to gain wealth and land • But the Black Death was NOT a reason for the Crusades - the dates of the Crusades reveal why - the Crusades occurred from 1095 to 1291 and the Black Death entered Western Europe in 1347 as a result of trade flourishing on the Mongol controlled Silk Roads - the date of the Black Death is long after the Crusades

Causes of the Medieval Crusades

• The Crusades were a series of holy wars between Christians and Muslims over Jerusalem and the holy land between 1095 and 1291 • The reasons medieval popes launched the crusades was to fight Muslims, convert non-Catholics, and wipe out heresy • Heresy means adherence to or following a religious opinion that is contrary to church dogma or church teachings • The Crusades were "successful failures" for the Europeans • The Europeans never permanently regained control of the holy land • But Europeans gained new ideas from Muslims (the Islamic world was experiencing a golden age) and rekindled an interest in trade as they encountered new products like coffee, sherbet, dates, apricots, lemons, and sugar

Identify significant rivers in rise of early civilizations

• The Egyptians were to the Nile as the Chinese were to the Yellow or Huang He River • Yes, rivers were significant in early civilizations because rivers provided water for farming and for irrigation • The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers were important to the peoples of Mesopotamia and made agriculture and civilization possible in the region • The Indus River was significant for the peoples of the Indus River Valley and made agriculture and Harappan civilization possible • And the Yellow River was important to China - it was called the Huang He River and it is the location where the Chinese people first learned to farm and it was also, in the past, known as "China's Sorrow" because it was shallow and flooded easily thereby killing many people • Of course, the Nile River was important for Ancient Egyptian civilization and was known Egyptian civilization was known as the "Gift of the Nile"

Five Pillars of Islam and Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism

• The Five Pillars are to Muslims as the Noble Eightfold Path is to Buddhists • The Five Pillars are five obligations of Muslims: to believe in only one God; to pray five times a day facing the holy city of Mecca; to give charity to the poor; to fast from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan; and to take the pilgrimage to Mecca once in one's lifetime if able • The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the end of suffering in Buddhism and provides eight actions to reduce suffering: Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Contemplation • Both the Five Pillars and the Noble Eightfold Path provide frameworks for living • Both the Five Pillars and the Noble Eightfold Path provide guidelines for living and are specific actions for how to live as a pious Muslim or a practicing Buddhist

Five Relationships of Confucianism

• The Five Relationships of Confucianism were Emperor and subject; Father and son; Husband and wife; Elder brother and younger brother; and friend and friend • Confucius, the Chinese philosopher during the Zhou Dynasty, believed that these relationships formed the basis of every society • He also believed that society consisted of superiors and inferiors • Superiors (Emperor, Father, Husband, and Elder Brother) had to set good examples, rule wisely, and be benevolent or caring • Inferiors (subjects, sons, wives, and younger brothers) had to obey

Beliefs of Buddhism

• The Four Noble Truths - Life has suffering - Desire causes suffering - Suffering can end - Follow the Noble Eightfold Path - Eight actions to provide a path to end suffering such as Right Speech and Right Concentration • Nirvana is the end of suffering • There are two major sects of Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana • Theravada Buddhism requires practitioners to find their own way to nirvana but adhering to the dharma or the teachings of the Buddha • Mahayana Buddhism has a belief in Bodhisattvas or spiritual beings who have attained enlightenment but remain on Earth to bring other suffering beings to the shores of nirvana or to the end of suffering

Beliefs of Buddhism

• The Four Noble Truths - Life has suffering - Desire causes suffering - Suffering can end - Follow the Noble Eightfold Path - Eight actions to provide a path to end suffering such as Right Speech and Right Concentration • Nirvana is the end of suffering • There are two major sects of Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana • Theravada Buddhism requires practitioners to find their own way to nirvana but adhering to the dharma or the teachings of the Buddha • Mahayana Buddhism has a belief in Bodhisattvas or spiritual beings who have attained enlightenment but remain on Earth to bring other suffering beings to the shores of nirvana or to the end of suffering

Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

• The Four Noble Truths are the fundamental beliefs of Buddhism • The Four Noble Truths are - Life has suffering - Desire causes suffering - Suffering can end - Follow the Noble Eightfold Path or eight actions to end suffering • Yes, the Four Noble Truths are associated with Buddhism • Buddhism want to achieve an end of suffering through right concentration, right speech, and right mindfulness • Nirvana is the end of suffering

Four Noble Truths

• The Four Noble Truths are the fundamental beliefs of Buddhists • The Four Noble Truths address the causes of suffering and how suffering can end • Buddhists believe that life has suffering, that desire causes suffering, that suffering can end, and that by following the Noble Eightfold Path (or eight actions to end suffering like Right Speech and Right Concentration), suffering will end • The Four Noble Truths are associated with Buddhism • The founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama; he had been raised a Hindu but upon discovering the Four Noble Truths, he was called the "Buddha" or the Enlightened One and a new belief system was born

Accomplishments of Gupta India

• The Golden Age of India occurred during Gupta Dynasty (320 - 550 C.E.) • Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs • The peace and prosperity created under Gupta leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors • Gupta mathematicians developed the concept of zero in the use of math, and also developed the decimal system based on the number 10 • They also created a number writing system that was later adopted by the Islamic Empire - this system became known as Arabic Numerals, but is really a Gupta achievement • Gupta physicians developed a form of plastic surgery for the treatment of facial injuries • Physicians vaccinated against smallpox, a practice later used in China (10th century) and Europe (17th century) • Gupta architecture was dedicated to building stone temples to the various Hindu gods • Also, Buddhists built shrines to house the remains of select holy people - these structures were called Stupas • This form of architecture made its way to China where it was altered slightly and renamed the pagoda • Gupta literature consists of fables and folktales written in Sanskrit • The Gupta Dynasty declined due to weak rulers and a series of invasions, but many of their cultural and intellectual achievements were saved and transmitted to other cultures and live on today • The concept of zero is an idea that is credited to intellectuals of the Gupta Empire

Examination System in China

• The Han Dynasty adopted the examination system or the world's first civil service system in which a candidate for government service had to pass an examination to receive a government position • In preparing governmental officials, the imperial university of the Later Han enrolled more than three thousand students, with its curriculum primarily based on Confucianism and Chinese history • Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, had taught that men were pretty much alike but that education set them apart • For Confucius, the educated man was the highest and most noble men and such men should serve in government as benevolent superiors • Theoretically, the examination was open to all men - even a poor man could advance to government service and become a scholar gentry - however, education was private and costly - thus, unless a village could provide for the education of a poor man, it was difficult for poor men to achieve government service - difficult but not impossible - thus, the examination provided a modest measure of social mobility

Facts about the Hanseatic League

• The Hanseatic League dominated trade in the Baltic region • The Hanseatic League, also called Hansa, German Hanse, was an organization founded by north German towns and German merchant communities abroad to protect their mutual trading interests • The league dominated commercial activity in northern Europe from the 13th to the 15th century • Hanse was a medieval German word for "guild," or "association," derived from a Gothic word for "troop," or "company" • Northern German mastery of trade in the Baltic Sea was achieved with striking speed and completeness in the late 12th and early 13th centuries • While overseas, the German merchants had tended increasingly to form associations ("hanses") with each other in order to secure common action against robbers and pirates • From the mid-13th century this cooperation became much more extensive and regularized, and by 1265 all the north German towns having the "law of Lübeck" had agreed on common legislation for the defense of merchants and their goods • The Hanseatic League attempted to protect its ship convoys and caravans by quelling pirates and brigands, and it fostered safe navigation by building lighthouses and training pilots • Most importantly, it sought to organize and control trade throughout northern Europe by winning commercial privileges and monopolies and by establishing trading bases oversea • The Hanseatic League's aggressively protectionist trading practices often aroused opposition from foreign merchants • The league typically used gifts and loans to foreign political leaders to protect its commercial privileges, and when this proved inadequate, it threatened to withdraw its trade and occasionally became involved in embargoes and blockades • The league died slowly as England contested with the Netherlands for dominance in northern European commerce and Sweden emerged as the chief commercial power in the Baltic Sea region • The Hanseatic League's diet met for the last time in 1669

Hanseatic League

• The Hanseatic League was a trading association that dominated trade in the Baltic Sea region • The Hanseatic League was also called Hansa • The Hanseatic League was an organization founded by north German towns and German merchant communities abroad to protect their mutual trading interests • The league dominated commercial activity in northern Europe from the 13th to the 15th century • Hanse was a medieval German word for "guild," or "association" • A guild was a medieval association of craftsmen or merchants and it often had considerable power • The Hanseatic League largely controlled trade on the Baltic Sea

Comparison: Indian Caste System and the Confucian Social Hierarchy

• The Hindu caste system is a fixed social class system • A Hindu is born into his caste and remains in his caste a lifetime • Rebirth is determined by the individual's previous karma or deeds and dharma or adherence to the rules of his caste • The highest caste is the Brahmins or priests • The Confucian Social Hierarchy valued educated men or scholar gentry • In the Confucian Social Hierarchy, any man may take the examination for government service • As such, in the Confucian Social Hierarchy, there is limited social mobility • And therein lies the difference

Facts about the Indian Caste System

• The Hindu caste system was a fixed social class system - a person was born into a caste and stayed in the caste throughout the course of his lifetime • The caste system lacked mobility - in that a person could not change his caste in this lifetime • Thus, an accurate statement about the Indian caste system is that there was virtually no social mobility • The four castes or Varnas were Brahmins (Priests), Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas (Merchants), and Sudras (Farmers) • A person who belonged to no caste was an outcaste or untouchable • Hindus believe in reincarnation and they believe that the actions (karma) and performance of duties (dharma) determines a person's position in this lifetime

Hindu Doctrine of Dharma and Caste

• The Hindu concept of dharma fostered the formation of rigid social and economic groups • Dharma essentially refers to the rules of caste • Therefore, each caste has its own rules and regulations to follow thereby separating Hindus into different groups • Of course, caste is a fixed class system in that a person is born into his caste and remains in his caste throughout his lifetime • Dharma reinforces caste by stating that each caste has its own set of rules • Only samsara or rebirth can free a person from his caste status

Hindu Concept of Samsara

• The Hindu concept of samsara is BEST described as a belief that one's soul lives, dies, and is reborn many times, until it is pure enough to escape the cycle of rebirth • Both Hindus and Buddhists believe in samsara • Samsara means reincarnation • Hindus believe that the soul is born, dies and is reborn again - it is this cycle of samsara that Hindus seek to escape from • In Hinduism, moksha is the end of samsara - in moksha, the soul is reunited with the cosmic spirit that is Brahman (the supreme spirit) • For Buddhist, samsara ends when nirvana is achieved (the end of suffering)

Hindu Concept of Samsara

• The Hindu concept of samsara is BEST described as a belief that one's soul lives, dies, and is reborn many times, until it is pure enough to escape the cycle of rebirth • The process of reincarnation is called samsara, a continuous cycle in which the soul is reborn over and over again according to the law of action and reaction • In Hinduism, the prominent belief is that samsara is a feature of a life based on illusion (Maya) • Illusion enables a person to think he is an autonomous being instead of recognizing the connection between one's self and the rest of reality • Believing in the illusion of separateness that persists throughout samsara leads one to act in ways that generate karma and thus perpetuate the cycle of action and rebirth • By fully grasping the unity or oneness of all things, the believer has the potential to break the illusion upon which samsara is based and achieve moksha - liberation from samsara

Huang He River Valley Civilization

• The Huang He River Valley Civilization was an early river valley civilization that developed in the greatest state of isolation from the others • The Tigris-Euphrates River Valley Civilization, the Nile River Valley Civilization and the Indus River Valley Civilization had contact with other civilizations • Since their homeland was largely devoid of timber, stone and minerals, the Sumerians in the Tigris-Euphrates river valley were forced to create one of history's earliest trade networks over both land and sea • Sumerian merchants undertook months-long journeys to Anatolia and Lebanon to gather cedar wood and to Oman and the Indus Valley for gold and gemstones • The Sumerians were particularly fond of lapis lazuli -a blue-colored precious stone used in art and jewelry - and there is evidence that they may have roamed as far as Afghanistan to get it

Reasons for Inca Storehouses of Agricultural Surplus

• The Incas understood that a great harvest one year could be followed by a miserable harvest the next year • As such, the Incas built storehouses to store extra grains in good times for lean times • The Inca government maintained storehouses of agricultural surplus for public relief and social welfare • Storehouses ensured that in hard times or bad farming years, there would be relief for the public; there would be food • Storehouses also ensured that the widow, sick, orphan, and elderly would always have a meal • The Incas provided for all members of their empire that stretched across the Andes Mountains in South America

Gunpowder Empires

• The Islamic gunpowder empires were the Safavid, the Ottoman, and the Mughal • The gunpowder empires of Asia are the Safavid, Ottoman, Mughal and Tokugawa • These empires all had gunpowder weapons and gunpowder technology

The Islamic Umma

• The Islamic umma was the concept of the community of the faithful that transcended clan boundaries • Umma is the Arabic word for the Islamic community • Membership in the Umma is based on belief not birth • Umma means the "community of the faithful" • All Muslims are members of the umma

The Maya

• The Maya were Mesoamerican Indians and occupied a nearly continuous territory in southern Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize • Before the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Central America, the Maya possessed one of the greatest civilizations of the Western Hemisphere • They practiced agriculture, built great stone buildings and pyramid temples, worked gold and copper, and used a form of hieroglyphic writing that has now largely been deciphered - the Maya were an advanced pre-Columbian civilization • The strongest basis of the Mayan economy was agriculture, which produced maize, beans, and cocoa • The Maya developed independent city-states - much like the ancient Greeks - they were not unified with one king but rather had competing city-states • The rise of the Maya began about 250 C.E. and lasted until about 900 C.E. • Some important Mayan cities were Tikal, Uaxactún, and Copán • Each city had a population between 5,000 and 50,000

Facts about the Janissaries

• The Janissaries were Christian boys taken from conquered territories and raised as Special Forces • The Janissaries were highly skilled soldiers in the Ottoman Empire • The Janissary - also spelled Janizary or in Turkish, Yeniçeri - was a member of an elite corps in the standing army of the Ottoman Empire from the late 14th century to 1826 • Highly respected for their military prowess in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Janissaries became a powerful political force within the Ottoman state • The Janissary corps was originally staffed by Christian youths from the Balkan provinces who were converted to Islām on being drafted into the Ottoman service • The Janissary were part of the Devshirme System or the gathering or collecting of Christian boys in the Ottoman Empire • Subject to strict rules, including celibacy, they were organized into three unequal divisions (cemaat, bölükhalkı, segban) and commanded by an ağā • In the late 16th century the celibacy rule and other restrictions were relaxed, and by the early 18th century the original method of recruitment was abandoned • The Janissaries frequently engineered palace coups in the 17th and 18th centuries, and in the early 19th century they resisted the adoption of European reforms by the army • Their end came in June 1826 in the so-called Auspicious Incident • On learning of the formation of new, westernized troops, the Janissaries revolted • Sultan Mahmud II declared war on the rebels and, on their refusal to surrender, had cannon fire directed on their barracks • Most of the Janissaries were killed, and those who were taken prisoner were executed

Facts about West African Kingdom of Mali

• The Mali Empire was the second of three West African empires to emerge in the vast savanna grasslands located between the Sahara Desert to the north and the coastal rain forest in the south • The Mali Empire was strategically located between the West African gold mines and the agriculturally rich Niger River floodplain • Mali's rise begins when the political leaders of Ghana could not reestablish that empire's former glory following its conquest and occupation by the Almoravids in 1076 • Consequently a number of small states vied to control the salt and gold trade that accounted for Ghana's wealth and power • In 1235 Sundiata Keita, the leader of one of these states, Kangaba, defeated its principal rival, the neighboring kingdom of Susu, and began consolidating power in the region • Sundiata's conquest in 1235 is considered the founding of the Malian Empire • Under Sundiata's successors Mali extended its control west to the Atlantic, south into the rain forest region, including the Wangara gold fields, and east beyond the great bend of the Niger River • The emperor or mansa ruled • Trade was centered in three major cities, Timbuktu, Djenne and Gao • Between 1324 and 1325 Mansa Musa, the most famous of the Malian Emperors, made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca in Arabia, bringing thousands of followers and hundreds of camels carrying gold • Through the highly publicized pilgrimage and indirectly through an elaborate trade that sent gold to the capitals of Europe and Asia, Mali and its ruler became famous throughout the known world • Mali's power, however, was eventually weakened by palace intrigue that prevented an orderly succession of imperial power and by the desire of smaller states to break free of its rule to reap the benefits of the salt and gold trade

Mandate of Heaven and Zhou Dynasty

• The Mandate of Heaven is the Chinese belief that the gods choose the emperor to rule and thereby give the emperor the mandate or right to rule but the gods can remove the emperor's mandate or right to rule if the emperor is corrupt or inefficient • The Mandate of Heaven was established during the Zhou Dynasty - when the Zhou overthrew the Shang Dynasty, they claimed the right to overthrow the dynasty because the gods had now given the Mandate of Heaven to the Zhou rulers • In the Zhou dynasty, the Mandate of Heaven meant that rulers were allowed to keep their power if they ruled justly and wisely • Peace and harmony in a society are evidence that the emperor has the Mandate of Heaven • But floods and famine, war and chaos are evidence that the emperor has lost the Mandate of Heaven

Chinese Concept of Mandate of Heaven

• The Mandate of Heaven was a Chinese belief that the emperor was given the right to rule or the Mandate of Heaven by the gods • As long as the emperor ruled wisely and justly, he kept the mandate • If, however, he ruled poorly, he lost the mandate and the people were allowed to overthrow the dynasty • Thus, the Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion • The people would know if the emperor lost the mandate if there were floods, epidemics, famine, or warfare

Mandate of Heaven

• The Mandate of Heaven was a Chinese belief that the emperor was given the right to rule or the Mandate of Heaven by the gods • As long as the emperor ruled wisely and justly, he kept the mandate • If, however, he ruled poorly, he lost the mandate and the people were allowed to overthrow the dynasty • Thus, the Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion • The people would know if the emperor lost the mandate if there were floods, epidemics, famine, or warfare

Mandate of Heaven

• The Mandate of Heaven was the Chinese belief - established during the Zhou Dynasty - that the gods gave the emperor the mandate or right to rule • An emperor kept the mandate or right to rule if he ruled competently and well - this would be evident by good times in China • For example, if floods or famines or wars engulfed China, then the emperor had lost the Mandate of Heaven • The Mandate of Heaven therefore justified rebellion because if the emperor lost the mandate, the people could rebel • In the Zhou dynasty, the Mandate of Heaven meant that rulers were allowed to keep their power if they ruled justly and wisely

Mandate of Heaven

• The Mandate of Heaven was the Chinese belief that the gods gave the emperor and his family (dynasty: a ruling family) the right to rule or the mandate to rule but the gods could remove the mandate if the ruler ruled poorly • It was clear that an emperor had lost the Mandate of Heaven when too many devastating floods, famines, or wars occurred • A corrupt or incompetent ruler - a ruler who could not provide for his people in difficult times - had lost the Mandate of Heaven and the people could rebel • The Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion • One of the most important political legacies of the Zhou Dynasty in Ancient China is the Mandate of Heaven - the idea of the Mandate of Heaven was established by the Zhou • When the Zhou overthrew the Shang Dynasty (China's first known or archaeologically proven dynasty), the Zhou claimed the Mandate of Heaven - they argued that it was their right to overthrow the dynasty and proclaim a new dynasty because the Shang had lost the Mandate and the gods had given the Mandate to the Zhou

Medieval European Culture

• The Medieval period in Europe - also known as the Middle Ages - is generally dates from 476C.E. to 1500 C.E. • It was a period between the fall of Rome and the birth of the modern era - thus, in the middle • Medieval European culture was a fusion of Germanic and Roman cultures - the Germanic invaders (Barbarians according to the Romans) established kingdoms in Europe but also converted to Roman Catholicism - there was a blending of their cultures • Yes, the following statement best characterizes the ethnic development of Europe during the Early Middle Ages: It was a mix of Celts, Latins, the many peoples the Romans had conquered, and Germanic and Asiatic tribes migrating from north and east contributed to Europe's ethnic composition • Medieval culture reflected the history and groups of the region

Extent of the Mongol Empire

• The Mongol Empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea • But the Mongols never conquered Japan • The Mongols conquered China, Russia and Persia • The Mongols conquered lands that encompassed the entire length and breadth of the Silk Roads • Yet it is best to look at a map of the Mongol Empire at its height - a map will clearly reveal how impressive the Mongol Empire was • At its height, the Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history - contiguous means connected throughout in an unbroken sequence

Pax Mongolica

• The Mongol conquests of much of Eurasia in the thirteenth century tended to encourage trade along the Silk Roads primarily by decreasing the risk of bandit attacks and reducing the number of local rulers collecting tribute from trade caravans • Yes, trade flourished on the Silk Roads during the Pax Mongolia or Pax Mongolica period (time of peace in the Mongol Empire) • The Mongols controlled the length and breadth of the Silk Road and were able to provide security on the Silk Road • This increased security on the Silk Road reduced bandit attacks and thereby encouraged trade • In addition, the reduction in the number of local rulers collecting tribute from trade caravans also increased trade - as traders now paid fewer fees to travel and trade

Extent of Mongol Empire

• The Mongols conquered China, Russia, and Persia • The Mongols conquered a vast empire stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea • However, the Mongols never conquered Japan because severe storms aided the experienced Japanese naval forces • The Mongols conquered the length and breadth of the Silk Roads • Trade flourished on the Silk Roads as did the spread of disease such as the Black Death or Bubonic Plague

Mongols and the Silk Roads

• The Mongols conquered a vast empire stretching from the Pacific coast to the Black Sea • They conquered the lands of the Silk Roads • The Mongols provided peace and security on the trade routes of their empire • This time of peace and stability in the Mongol Empire is known as the Pax Mongolia or Pax Mongolica • As the Mongols increased security on the Silk Roads, bandit activity decreased as did the number of tolls and taxes merchants paid • Thus, trade flourished as the Mongols reestablished the importance of the Silk Roads and increased during the Pax Mongolia

Primary Centers of Learning in Medieval Western Europe

• The Roman Catholic Church unified Western Europeans in a time of political fragmentation and monasteries served as the primary centers of learning in Western Europe during the feudal era • Many monasteries performed important tasks within their community • They were the only source of some form of medical treatment • Some monasteries were renowned centers of learning and culture • Others, such as the priory at Lindisfarne, gained fame for the piety of the monks who lived and worked there • Life in a place such as Lindisfarne was harsh even if the monastery itself was wealthy. • Only Oxford and Cambridge Universities could surpass some monasteries as centers of learning • All monks had to read and write as these were fundamental skills for the role they had within the monastery

Reasons for Mongol Success

• The Mongols conquered the largest contiguous empire in world history due to being highly skilled warriors on horseback and highly disciplined soldiers • The Mongols used psychological warfare to frighten their enemies into submission • Yes, the Mongols were successful at conquest because they adopted advanced technology quickly, they organized their armies efficiently, and they were talented cavalrymen or warriors on horseback • Chinggis Khan's organized units of soldiers were based on the principle of ten • He organized his people into units of ten, a hundred, a thousand, and ten thousand, and the head of a unit of ten thousand would have a strong personal relationship with Chinggis himself • That kind of loyalty was to be extremely important in Chinggis's rise to power and in his ability to maintain authority over all the various segments of his domain • Chinggis's military tactics showcased his superiority in warfare • One particularly effective tactic Chinggis liked to use was the feigned withdrawal: Deep in the throes of a battle his troops would withdraw, pretending to have been defeated • As the enemy forces pursued the troops that seemed to be fleeing, they would quickly realize that they'd fallen into a trap, as whole detachments of men in armor or cavalries would suddenly appear and overwhelm them • Another key tactic was the use of the horse in warfare • The Mongols were superior warriors and conquered a vast empire stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea

Mongol's Unsuccessful Attempts to Conquer Japan

• The Mongols were skilled warriors on horseback and exceptionally talented warriors on land, however, the sea posed new challenges • The Mongols twice attempted to conquer Japan but failed • Stormy weather and kamikaze or divine winds prevented their conquest

The Near East

• The Near East is a rather ethnocentric term because it suggest that it is east of Europe but near to Europe • The Near East refers to the Middle East or Southwest Asia • The Middle East is another ethnocentric term for this region because it is from a European perspective; therefore it is more accurate to refer to the region as Southwest Asia • The countries of Southwest Asia are nations like Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Israel • The Near East was one of the earliest sites of agriculture • Wheat and barley were the grains associated with the development of sedentary agriculture in the Near East

Locations of earliest river valley civilizations

• The Neolithic Revolution led to the development of civilizations - civilizations are complex societies with class divisions or class systems, organized government, generally writing systems, and of course, cities • Most of the earliest civilizations developed in river valleys in warm, dry climates • This is not surprising as rivers provide water for farming and irrigation - and thus, it is generally easier to farm near a river than away from a river • The four river valley civilizations were located in Mesopotamia - the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in present-day Iraq - the Nile River Valley in Egypt, the Indus River Valley in the Indian subcontinent, and the Huang He River in China • Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from ordinary societies -the word civilization is sometimes defined as "a word that simply means 'living in cities'" - compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complex political structure, namely the state and state societies are more stratified in that there is a greater difference among social classes

"The Gift of the Nile"

• The Nile River is a critical source of water in Egypt as Egypt is mostly desert • Indeed, the Greek historian Herodotus proclaimed Egypt "the gift of the Nile" • Without the Nile, agriculture could never have developed in Egypt and without agriculture, civilization could not have developed • The Egyptians depended on the Nile for drinking water and water for farming • The reliable rhythm of the Nile created fertile land which supported a remarkably productive agricultural economy • Even an Egyptian myth had their people emerging out of the river • The process of desiccation forced Paleolithic human groups to migrate from the Sahara to the valley of the Nile • The Nile River was incredibly important for the development of Egyptian civilization

Facts about Paleolithic Age

• The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Era) occurred from the beginning of human existence until around 12,000 years ago • During this Paleolithic age, humans used stone to make tools • Paleolithic is a word that comes from the two Greek words palaios, meaning old, and lithos, meaning stone • During the Paleolithic age, humans did NOT know how to farm and those had to find food as foragers and hunters • Hunting and gathering societies were highly mobile and nomadic as people moved from place to place in search of food • Archaeological evidence indicates that Paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies used the controlled use of fire for warmth and as an aid in hunting and foraging • Fire was really important for the hunters and gatherers of the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Era - it kept humans warm; it provided a means for cooking food, and it could be used to keep animals away from camps

Similarities: Persian Empire and Roman Empire

• The Persian Empire and the Roman Empire were multiethnic empires that incorporated local elites in the imperial government • Empires are multiethnic in that the definition of an empire is a state that rules over diverse peoples and cultures • Like the Persians, the Romans allowed some of the local people to participate in the imperial (relating to empire) government • Local elites or local princes and high status individuals were incorporated into the governance of provinces • And both built roads to connect their empires

Persians v. Greeks

• The Persian Empire was the neighboring power that posed the greatest military threat over the course of classical Greek civilization • The Greco-Persian Wars, also called Persian Wars, (492-449 B.C.E.), were a series of wars fought by the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire over a period of almost half a century • The fighting was most intense during two invasions that Persia launched against mainland Greece • Although the Persian empire was at the peak of its strength, the collective defense mounted by the Greeks overcame seemingly impossible odds and even succeeded in liberating Greek city-states on the fringe of Persia itself • The Greek triumph ensured the survival of Greek culture and political structures long after the demise of the Persian Empire • The cause of the conflict was a revolt by some Greeks living in the Persian Empire - these Greeks were aided by the Greek city-states

Contribution of the Phoenicians

• The Phoenicians were a seafaring people from present-day Lebanon • The Phoenicians established cities throughout the Mediterranean and were traders in the region • But the most important legacy (handed down from the past) of the Phoenicians their development of an alphabetic writing system that was adapted by the Greeks • In an alphabetic writing system, each letter represents a sound and thus fewer symbols are needed for writing than when every word has its own character - yes, to this day, when children are taught to read in English (the alphabetic writing system adopted from the Greeks who adopted it from the Phoenicians), they are taught the sounds of the letters - this method for teaching reading is called phonics after the Phoenicians • Their major cities were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Arwad - all were fiercely independent, rival cities and, unlike the neighboring inland states, the Phoenicians represented a confederation of maritime traders rather than a defined country • The most significant Phoenician contribution was an alphabetic writing system • The Phoenician alphabetic writing system became the root of the Western alphabets when the Greeks adopted it • The main natural resources of the Phoenician cities in the eastern Mediterranean were the prized cedars of Lebanon and murex shells used to make the purple dye • The name Phoenician, used to describe these people in the first millennium B.C.E., is a Greek invention, from the word phoinix, possibly signifying the color purple-red and perhaps an allusion to their production of a highly prized purple dye

Importance of Phoenicians

• The Phoenicians were a seafaring people from present-day Lebanon • The Phoenicians were traders • However, they are most remembered for creating the world's first alphabet • In an alphabet, each letter represents a sound • Thus, when we teach children to read by introducing them to the sounds of letters, we call that method of instruction "Phonics" after the Phoenicians • The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet and we get our alphabet from the Greeks [alpha and beta are the first two letters of the Greek alphabet]

Early Migrations in World History (Polynesians, Bantu, Indo-Europeans)

• The Polynesians, Bantus, and Indo-Europeans are all known for their migrations • The Bantu migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa and spread iron, agriculture, and language • Over the span of 800 years, Polynesians explored 16 million square miles of ocean and settled on every habitable island in the Pacific • They brought their world view with them when they arrived in Hawai`i by voyaging canoe from the southern Pacific (primarily the Marquesas), settling the islands circa 300-600 C.E. • By about 2000 B.C.E., groups from the Indo-European linguistic family were nomadic herdsmen in the steppes which stretched from the Ukraine eastwards, to the regions north of the Black Sea and the Caspian • Over the coming centuries some of these tribes move south and west into more appealing areas - like Europe

First Emperor Qin Shihuangdi

• The Qin Dynasty - which lasted only from 221 to 206 B.C.E. but from which the name China is derived - established the approximate boundaries and basic administrative system that all subsequent Chinese dynasties were to follow for the next two millennia • The Qin came to power after the "Age of Warring States" period of the Zhou dynasty and brought unity to China • The First Emperor Qin Shihuangdi centralized his rule and supported the philosophy known as Legalism • Shihuangdi ordered the burning of most books - books that were at odds with his views • Shihuangdi also ordered workers to link defensive walls into one barrier - he is credited with building the Great Wall of China or at least, starting the construction of the Great Wall • He sentenced scholars to be buried alive • And he standardized the written script of the Chinese language • One ruler - one writing system - one system of weights and measures - one currency - one way of thinking - Shihuangdi centralized his rule

Facts about the Italian Renaissance

• The Renaissance began in the Italian city-states • Wealth from trade allowed wealthy families to sponsor artists • The Renaissance was a time of creativity in the arts • It was a cultural movement • During the Renaissance, art was realistic with perspective in drawing and painting • New ideas like humanism and secularism developed • Humanism is the belief in the inherent worth and dignity of every individual • Secularism is a non-religious perspective • The Renaissance began around 1350 • Machiavelli wrote The Prince during the Renaissance; it was a book about how rulers must maintain power not by being loved but feared and it encouraged the idea that ends justified the means or that to keep power, a ruler must rule by any means necessary

The Most Vital and Overland Silk Road

• The longest and most vital overland trade route before 1000 C.E. was the Silk Road • The Silk Road was established during the Han Dynasty • The Silk Road connected China to the Eastern Mediterranean coast • Luxury goods were transported on the Silk Road • Trade was conducted as a relay trade on the Silk Road as merchants passed goods to one another along the route • Every time a good was transferred to another merchant, its price rose as each merchant had to make a profit from the transaction

Western Europe after the Fall of Rome

• The Roman Empire was highly centralized but the western portion of the Roman Empire collapsed in 476 C.E. - the eastern empire became the Byzantine Empire (at least according to historians) but the western portion entered a period of feudalism and decentralization known as the European Middle Ages • By 600 C.E., Western Europe was the world region that had experienced the most extensive urban decline • As waves of Germanic invaders (known to the Romans as barbarians) entered Western Europe, city life decline as people found safety on manors • A manor was a lord's land in the countryside and as the lord had an army, people laboring for the lord were protected on his manor • Many peasants became serfs as they agreed to labor for the lord in return for protection - a serf was bound to the lord's land and could not leave and his children and grandchildren and future descendants were also all bound to the lord

Roman Republic

• The Romans invented the republic • A republic is a form of government where citizens elect representatives in government • In the Roman republic, only patricians or wealthy landowners could elect representatives • The Roman republic was established in 509 B.C.E. • It ended in 27 B.C.E. when the establishment of the Roman Empire and Roman emperors • Thus, the civilization that encouraged citizen participation in government was Rome

The Silk Roads after the Collapse of the Roman and Han

• The Silk Roads - an overland trade route that connected China through Central Asia to the Eastern Mediterranean coast • Began during the Han Dynasty • Flourished when surrounding empires were strong and could protect trade routes • Luxury goods travelled on the Silk Roads like silk and porcelain • The silk roads declined after the collapse of the Han and Roman empires because there was less activity, but trade revived along the routes in the sixth century C.E. • Yes, trade would flourish and decline depending on the strength of surrounding empires and under the Mongols in the 1200s and 1300s, the Silk Roads really flourished as the Mongols reduced banditry on the Silk Roads • The Silk Roads did not "die" until 1498 when Vasco da Gama, sailing for the Portuguese, discovered an all-water route to Asia - then the land route became unnecessary and too costly

Roman and Han and Silk Roads

• The Silk Roads were established during the Han Dynasty • These trade routes connected the Han Dynasty and the eastern Mediterranean coast • Thus, Romans received luxury goods from China via the Silk Roads • The Silk Roads trading network was a conduit for cultural diffusion • The Silk Roads flourished whenever powerful empires protected the routes like the T'ang, Song, and Yuan dynasties as well as, of course, the Han

Sumerians

• The Sumerians are generally credited with founding Mesopotamian civilizations in the Tigris-Euphrates river valley • Sometime around 4000 B.C.E., ancient Sumerian culture emerged on a sun-scorched floodplain along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now southern Iraq • These enigmatic Mesopotamians are best known for inventing cuneiform script - the world's oldest extant writing system • The Sumerians lived in city-states; each city had its own government and surrounding farmland but all cities shared the Sumerian culture - however, Sumerian city-states were frequently at war with one another • Major Sumerian city-states included Eridu, Ur, Nippur, Lagash and Kish, but one of the oldest and most sprawling was Uruk, a thriving trading hub that boasted six miles of defensive walls and a population of between 40,000 and 80,000 • One of the crowning achievements of Mesopotamian literature is the "Epic of Gilgamesh," a 3,000-line poem that follows the adventures of a Sumerian king as he battles a forest monster and quests after the secret of eternal life

T'ang Dynasty

• The T'ang Dynasty was part of the golden age of China (the T'ang and Song Dynasties); it was also highly centralized and had an organized bureaucracy (government officials in charge of different aspects of government) • The Byzantine Empire was the former Eastern Roman Empire and it too was highly centralized with an emperor and an organized bureaucracy • Thus, the following statement is accurate about the T'ang and the Byzantine: both of their governments consisted of bureaucrats who received a standardized education • In T'ang China, government officials had to pass the examination • In the Byzantine Empire, there existed one of history's most elaborate bureaucracies • Trained in Greek classics, philosophy, and science in a secular school system that paralleled but contrasted with church education for the priesthood, Byzantine bureaucrats could be recruited from all social classes • As in China, aristocrats predominated, but there was some openness to talent among this elite of highly educated scholars • Bureaucrats specialized in various fields of government

Facts of Turks

• The Turks were groups of people entered the Middle East in the eleventh century C.E. and came to dominate most of Anatolia • The Turks were Central Asian nomads • They migrated into Anatolia and under Osman Bey, established the Ottoman Empire • The Turks were skilled warriors on horseback • The Turks are considered the third carriers of Islam after the Arabs and Persians

The Vikings

• The Vikings were a seafaring people from Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) • The Vikings set sail from their homelands of Scandinavia and engaged in pillaging (attacking villages and monasteries in England and France) and trading in the Middle Ages • From the late eighth to the late 11th centuries, the Vikings dominated Europe and spread across the world, from the far reaches of Russia to the eastern coast of North America • Yes, the Vikings settled in England, France, Greenland and even Sicily • But the Vikings NOT settle in the Arabian Peninsula • Though their raids, often directed against religious targets, were undoubtedly brutal, many Vikings also traded, farmed and settled peacefully; making their mark on nearly every region and civilization they touched • Perhaps the most striking of Viking achievements was their state-of-the-art shipbuilding technology, which allowed them to travel greater distances than anyone before them - their signature longboats were faster, lighter, more flexible and more easily maneuverable than other ships of the time • The Viking also left their mark on the English language - the word "berserk" comes from the Old Norse (Viking) word berserker, meaning "bear shirt" or "bearskin" - these Viking warriors worshipped Odin, the god of war, and whipped themselves into a frenzied state before and during battle • In the year 1000 C.E., the ancient Norsemen abandoned their pagan gods and converted to Christianity

Chinese Concept of the Mandate of Heaven

• The Zhou Dynasty established a belief in the Mandate of Heaven or the idea that the gods selected the emperor to rule and gave the ruler the mandate or right to rule as long as the ruler ruled righteously and well • In the event of famine, floods, epidemics or too much war and conflict, however, the gods signified that the ruler had lost the mandate or right to rule and that the people could rebel • Thus, the Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion and led to the dynastic cycle in which dynasties claimed the mandate, ruled for a period of time, lost the mandate, rebellion occurred, and a new dynasty was established • The Mandate of Heaven was not permanently granted to a dynasty • So, yes, the Chinese concept of "Mandate of Heaven" was sometimes used to justify rebellion

Zhou Dynasty

• The Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang Dynasty and claimed that it had overthrown the Shang because it had the Mandate of Heaven • Yes, the Zhou rulers were the first Chinese rulers to speak of a Mandate of Heaven or the belief that the gods selected the ruler to rule and that the ruler kept the mandate or right to rule as long as he ruled effectively and well • Of course, a ruler could lose the mandate - as the Zhou claimed the Shang ruler had - a ruler lost the mandate when he ruled poorly - evidence for poor ruling was found in floods or epidemics or too many wars • Yes, in the Zhou dynasty, the Mandate of Heaven meant that rulers were allowed to keep their power if they ruled justly and wisely • A just and wise ruler had the Mandate of Heaven whereas a corrupt or ineffective ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven

Chavín

• The archaeological site of Chavín gave its name to the culture that developed between 1500 and 300 B.C.E. in a high valley of the Peruvian Andes • This former place of worship is one of the earliest and best-known pre-Columbian sites • During the period of the Chavín cult, large temple complexes were built • And carvings of wild animals were created • Weavers produced cotton textiles • And gold, silver, and copper jewelry was made

Impact of Arrival of Camel on Africa

• The camel was introduced to Africa from Arabia sometime before 200 C.E. • The camel is the perfect desert animal • Camels can travel great distances across hot, dry deserts with little food or water • Camels can walk easily on soft sand where trucks today would get stuck, and carry people and heavy loads to places that have no roads • The arrival of camels in Africa quickened the pace of communication across the Sahara • Before the arrival of the camel in Africa, a few brave or intrepid individuals crossed the desert but with the arrival of the camel, it was easier to cross the Sahara desert and so more people crossed the desert • Yes, the camel quickened the pace of trade and communication across the Sahara

Capital of the Abbasid Dynasty

• The capital of the Abbasid Caliphate was Baghdad • The Abbāsid Dynasty was the second of the two great dynasties of the Muslim Empire of the Caliphate • The Abbasid overthrew the Umayyad caliphate in 750 C.E. and reigned as the ʿAbbāsid caliphate until destroyed by the Mongol invasion in 1258 C.E. • The name of the Dynasty is derived from that of the uncle of the Prophet Muḥammad, al-ʿAbbās of the Hāshimite clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca • The capital was moved to the new city of Baghdad • The Umayyad Dynasty had its capital in Damascus in Syria • But under the Abbasid caliphate (750-1258), which succeeded the Umayyads (661-750) in 750, the focal point of Islamic political and cultural life shifted eastward from Syria to Iraq, where, in 762, Baghdad, the circular City of Peace (madinat al-salam), was founded as the new capital

The Indian Caste System

• The caste system is a fixed social class system of Hinduism • A person is born into a caste and remains in that caste throughout the course of a lifetime • Hindus believe that a person's past life and past deeds determine the caste into which the person is born • The four castes are Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras • A person who belongs to no caste is an untouchable • Yes, an accurate statement about the Indian caste system is that there was virtually no social mobility - a person could not change his caste in this lifetime

Caste in India yet Confucianism and Limited Mobility in China

• The caste system is the fixed social class system of India - it is fixed in that a person is born into his caste and remains in his caste throughout his lifetime - a person cannot change his caste in this lifetime - thus there is no social mobility • In dynastic China from the Han Dynasty to the last dynasty (the Qing) but excluding the Yuan or Mongol Dynasty, there was limited social mobility • A poor man could pass the examination for government service in China and thereby rise in the class system - he could become a scholar-gentry or a landowning, government worker - yes, he could rise from the peasant class to the gentry class • But this was limited because most poor men could not afford the education needed to pass the test • Yet a village must sponsor a talented peasant and pay for his education - after all, it is good to have friends in government service • Thus, the following is a major difference between the social structures of China and India between 600 B.C.E. and 600 C.E.: the Confucian social hierarchy privileged government officials • Yes, in the Hindu caste system, the most privileged men were Brahmins or priests - the highest caste - individuals who had been born into the privileged caste • But in dynastic China, the most privileged group was the group of men known as the scholar-gentry, men who had passed the examination for government service and were rewarded with lots of land

Chinampa System of Aztecs

• The chinampa system of agriculture created fertile plots of land from the mud dredged off the bottom of Lake Texcoco • The Aztecs used the chinampa system to increase the amount of fertile land available for farming • This advanced agricultural technique increased food production in the Aztec Empire of central Mexico

Comparison - Impact of fall of Rome and Collapse of Han on Respective Regions

• The collapse of empire was more severe in Western Europe than it was in the eastern Mediterranean or China because continual waves of nomadic invasions made recovery difficult • Both the Western Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty collapsed due to borderland invasions • Yes, invaders led to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty • However, in the Western Roman Empire, wave after wave of "barbarian" invaders threatened Western Europe and thus, in the early Medieval period in Western Europe it was a very dangerous time with people huddled together on manors for protection • In China, the collapse of the Han Dynasty was devastating but it led to internal power struggles for several centuries before a strong dynasty could reunify China again • The Medieval period in Western Europe lasted one thousand years and though over time, peace and stability returned to the land, political fragmentation continued whereas China was reunified again under the Sui Dynasty

The Belief System that Gained Influence after the Collapse of the Han Dynasty in China

• The collapse of the Han Dynasty was a profound shock to the Chinese • Confucianism had taught that when people adhere to proper behavior, there is peace and harmony • Yet the Han Dynasty collapsed due to invaders, high taxes, and incompetent rulers • During the years that followed, there was much fighting and warfare as competing lords sought to gain the imperial throne • During this time of suffering, Buddhism increased in popularity • Buddhism offers adherents a path to end suffering • Buddhism became a popular religion in China

Importance of Writing in Ancient China

• The continuing importance of written language in Chinese culture may be traced to its earliest use for divination; communication with the ancestors • Divination is the practice of seeking knowledge of the future or the unknown by supernatural means • The earliest form of Chinese writing is called the oracle bone script, used from 1500 to 1000 B.C.E. (during the Shang Dynasty) • This script was etched onto turtle shells and animals bones, which were then heated until cracks would appear • By interpreting the pattern of the cracks, Shang court officials would make divinations of future events, hence giving the name "oracle bones" to these animal bones • An oracle is a person through whom a deity (a god) is believed to speak

Champa Rice

• The crop that dominated Korean and Vietnamese agriculture in the 1400s was rice • In particular, a new variety of rice known as Champa rice • In the early part of the Song dynasty in China, a new variety of early-ripening rice was introduced into China from Champa, a kingdom located in what is now Vietnam • Champa rice was more drought-resistant • Champa rice could be grown in places where older varieties had failed, especially on higher land and on terraces that climb hilly slopes, and it ripened even faster than the other early-ripening varieties already grown in China • This made double-cropping possible in some areas, and in some places, even triple-cropping became possible • The hardiness and productivity of various varieties of rice were and are in large part responsible for the density of population in South, Southeast, and East Asia - or the increase of population - more food allows for more people to survive and thrive

Similarities - Christianity and Buddhism

• The development and spread of Christianity and Buddhism before 600 C.E. had many common characteristics • Both Christianity and Buddhism were outgrowths of other religions - Christianity evolved from Judaism and Buddhism evolved from Hinduism • Both were aided in their spread by existing trade networks - whether Mediterranean trade routes or Silk Road trade routes - trade helped spread ideas • And both developed monastic orders open to women - yes, both Christianity and Buddhism provided alternatives to marriage for women - for women could become nuns • However, they did NOT share the belief that the founders of both presented themselves as divine - Buddha always claimed to be a man, although an enlightened man

Benefits of Agriculture

• The discovery of agriculture bestowed many benefits upon early societies • Agriculture led to a greater ability to affect the environments in which humans lived - humans altered landscapes as they cleared land for farming and planted new crops or built irrigation canals redirecting water from one area to another area • Agriculture led to a more reliable way of obtaining a more diverse supply of food - plants do NOT run away - domestication of plants is controlled by humans • Agriculture led to the ability to establish permanent communities and the reasons to do so - farmers settle as they must tend to their lands throughout the year • And agriculture led to an increased tendency to cooperate and form more cohesive societies - farming requires many hands and many people and irrigation canals cannot be built by one individual

Bantu and Agriculture

• The earliest Bantu were agriculturalists • The Bantu originated in West Africa and around 1000 B.C.E., began to migrate throughout sub-Saharan Africa in search of new farm lands • An agricultural way of life leads to an increase in population and an increase in population leads to a new for more land • As the Bantu migrated, they spread agriculture, iron-making and language • In fact, many languages in sub-Saharan Africa are known as Bantu languages because the languages have been derived from or influenced by Bantu

The Effects of Epidemic Diseases on the Americas

• The effects of epidemic diseases were devastating on the Americas in that with the arrival of the European explorers and conquerors, new diseases were introduced to the Americas • Diseases such as smallpox and measles had devastating effects on the indigenous peoples of the Americas because the Native American Indians lacked immunities to these diseases • As a result of a lack of domesticated animals in the Americas prior to Columbus' arrival in 1492, Native American Indians were not exposed to the deadly epidemic diseases that had plagued Eurasia and Africa • Thus, the population of the indigenous peoples greatly declined in the Americas with the arrival of the Europeans • This great loss of population in the Americas is known as the "Great Dying" • A historian researching the effects of epidemic disease on the population levels of seventeenth-century colonial Peru therefore would probably find church records of baptisms and funerals most useful in determining the number of individuals affected by these diseases and overall population levels

The Freedom of Nuns

• The establishment of communities of nuns in both Christian and Buddhist societies by 600 C.E. had the following major consequences: Nuns were able to exercise power within their communities more extensively than in their respective societies • Christian and Buddhist societies were patriarchal in that men exercised power over women • Nowhere was patriarchy more evident than in marriage: women had to obey husbands • Yet in Christian and Buddhist societies by 600 C.E., there was an alternative to marriage and that alternative was the monastic lifestyle - to become a nun • In monasteries, nuns lived separately from men and in their monasteries, they made their own rules - to some extent - and had more freedoms because no men were present in their monasteries - they had some autonomy or freedom

Examination System in China

• The examination system in dynastic China which was based on Confucianism and Chinese history was open to all men • To work in government, a man had to pass the examination but as the examination was open to all men, in theory, any man could advance to government service • Thus, the examination system afforded a measure of social mobility in dynastic China • Yes, a male peasant could become a member of the scholar-gentry • Of course, it was difficult for a poor men to pass the examination as private tutors were expensive but a village might support a promising young peasant man (after all, it is good to have friends in government service)

The fall of Chinese Dynasties

• The fall of Chinese dynasties between 600 and 1450 C.E. was often aided by peasant revolts • It is important to remember that the Mandate of Heaven was an important concept during this time period - the Chinese believed that the gods had given the emperor the mandate or right to rule but could remove this right to rule - this would be made evident through floods, famine, war and disasters • When it appeared that an emperor had lost the mandate, the people were justified in rebelling • The majority of people in this time period were peasants and peasants suffered the most when disasters befell China; so, it is not surprising that peasants rebelled when it appeared that the Mandate of Heaven had been lost • Yes, peasant rebellions often led to the fall of Chinese dynasties

The Umma in Islam

• The following Arabic term refers to the "community of the faithful" - the Umma • The Umma is the Islamic community • The Umma is the whole community of Muslims bound together by the ties of the Islamic religion • Umma, in general, refers to Muslim's global community • The concept has derived from Qur'an and was implicated practically by the Prophet Muhammad for the first time through establishing the first Muslim state of Medina in the seventh century • For Islamic scholars, the Muslim world constitutes an Umma - a universal community based on a shared faith and the implementation of its law

Facts about Afro-Eurasian Urban Centers before 600 C.E.

• The following accurately describes a characteristic shared by Afro-Eurasian urban centers before 600 C.E.: cities served as centers of commercial activity • Yes, urban centers or cities were centers of commercial activity • In Afro-Eurasia, cities grew and multiplied partly because they developed increasingly strong commercial ties with one another, sometimes across long distances • About 100 C.E., the world's two biggest cities were almost certainly Rome, with a population nearing one million, and Luoyang in China's Han empire • The urban downswing that occurred from the third century C.E. was certainly related to the decline of the Han and Roman Empires • Most cities served as centers of government, religion, trade, manufacturing, education, and artistic display • In some cities, such as Rome or Alexandria (in Egypt), all these functions operated simultaneously • Other cities had more specialized purposes, for example, towns of the Mediterranean coast or Inner Eurasia, which functioned chiefly to transship goods along routes of trade

Rules for Islamic Art

• The following is an accurate statement about Islamic art and architecture: Islamic art focused on abstract geometric patterns and ornate calligraphy in Arabic • Islamic art seeks to portray the meaning and essence of things, rather than just their physical form • Calligraphy is a major art form because writing has high status in Islam • Geometry and patterns are important • People do not appear in specifically religious art • The Muslim artist does not attempt to replicate nature as it is, but tries to convey what it represents - this lets the artist, and those who experience the art, get closer to Allah or God • For Muslims, beauty has always been and will always be a quality of the divine - there is a hadith or saying of the Prophet Muhammad that says: "Allah is beautiful and he loves beauty."

Islamic Art

• The following is an accurate statement about Islamic art and architecture: Islamic art focused on abstract geometric patterns and ornate calligraphy in Arabic • The term Islamic art not only describes the art created specifically in the service of the Muslim faith (for example, a mosque and its furnishings) but also characterizes the art and architecture historically produced in the lands ruled by Muslims, produced for Muslim patrons, or created by Muslim artists • As it is not only a religion but a way of life, Islam fostered the development of a distinctive culture with its own unique artistic language that is reflected in art and architecture throughout the Muslim world • Islamic art seeks to portray the meaning and essence of things, rather than just their physical form • Calligraphy is a major art-form - writing has high status in Islam • Geometry and patterns are important • People do not appear in specifically religious art • So Islamic art focuses on the spiritual representation of objects and beings, and not their physical qualities; the Muslim artist does not attempt to replicate nature as it is, but tries to convey what it represents

Confucian Thought

• The following statement BEST encapsulates Confucian thought: Social harmony is attained when superiors treat those below them with kindness, while inferiors respect those above them • Confucius believed that an orderly society was a peaceful society • He believed that when individuals know their respective places in society and act according to their proper roles, peace and harmony ensure • Confucius taught that in relationships there is a superior and an inferior • The superior must rule and lead and set a good example • The superior must be kind and benevolent (well-meaning and kindly) • The inferior must show superiors respect • And inferiors must obey superiors

Origin of Human Species

• The following statement about early humans most scholars today would agree is accurate: Humans originated in Africa, then migrated to other continents • The "Out of Africa" thesis is a well-supported theory that argues that every living human being is descended from a small group in Africa, who then dispersed into the wider world displacing earlier forms such as Neanderthals • Yes, most scholars today believe that human life evolved in Africa • And from Africa, humans migrated to inhabit every habitable land in the world • Africa is the birthplace of humanity - according to this thesis

Code of Hammurabi and Justinian Code

• The following statement about the Code of Hammurabi and the Justinian Code are accurate: The importance of each was that they attempted to organize laws in ways that people could understand • The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest written law codes - written in Babylon, the Code protected property, had harsh punishments, and had class divisions in that it punished people differently according to class • In the Code of Hammurabi, a rich man could sometimes pay a fine as punishment but a poor man experienced "eye for an eye" justice • In the Byzantine Empire, the Code of Justinian was a codification of Roman laws - it had concepts like innocent until proven guilty and equality before the law • Both codes organized laws, were written law codes, and stated clearly what the laws and punishments were

Islamic Culture

• The following statement accurately characterize Islamic culture during the tenth through the thirteenth centuries - the level of scientific knowledge was much higher than in Christian Europe • Yes, the Islamic world was experiencing a golden age - a time of great mathematical, scientific and literary achievements • And yes, Omar Khayyám composed the poetic cycle known as the Rubaiyat • And most definitely, Muslim philosophers, physicians, and architects had a great impact on the development of medieval European culture • And undoubtedly, Muslim scholars were conversant with the learning of the ancient Greek • All of these statements are accurate

Classical China

• The following were developments in classical China (before 1000 C.E.) that had long-lasting implications for Chinese civilization: the supreme ruler was an emperor; Han rulers installed an effective bureaucracy, postal service, and tax-collecting system; an improved infrastructure and fortifications helped defend China from invasion; and trade expanded greatly during the T'ang dynasty • Yes, an emperor ruled as the supreme ruler • Yes, the Han created the examination system and an imperial academy to train future scholar-gentry in the arts of China's bureaucracy or government service • Yes, the Great Wall was built to prevent invasions • And trade greatly expanded - the T'ang dynasty was part of China's golden age - and trade flourished on the Silk Roads when a successful and strong dynasty ruled

Buddhism

• The founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince • Siddhartha had been raised a Hindu but came to discover the existence of suffering and was unable to find the answer to ending suffering in his Hindu belief system • He eventually founded a new belief system, Buddhism • In Buddhism, desire causes suffering but suffering can end through right concentration and right mindfulness • The truths that the Buddha claimed either draw on or depart from the fundamental principles of Hinduism - while Buddha (the name given to Siddhartha upon his Enlightenment, meaning "The Enlightened One") rejected the caste system and came to new ideas about suffering and its end through his Four Noble Truths, he did accept the Hindu concepts of karma and samsara or reincarnation

Andean Societies

• The heartland of early Andean society was the region now occupied by the states of Peru and Bolivia • The main Chavín ceremonial site, the magnificent Chavín de Huántar, is about 10,000 feet above sea level in Peru's Cordillera Blanca • Its temple architecture, begun in about 900 B.C.E. is characterized by huge raised platforms • After the decline of Chavín de Huántar, the Andean region develops several more localized cultures • Of these the two most distinctive are the Mochica in the north and the Nazca to the south • The Mochica, centered upon Moche on the coast in northern Peru, are known in particular for brilliantly realistic pottery sculpture

Impact on Disease in Sixteenth-Century Mesoamerica

• The largest decline in percentage of global population in history occurred as a result of epidemics in sixteenth-century Mesoamerica • New diseases from Western Europeans decimated the indigenous populations of the Americas • Smallpox in particular was a devastating disease • In some parts of the Americas, 90% of the indigenous population died - leading some historians to refer to this tragedy as the "Great Dying"

The Silk Roads

• The longest and most vital overland trade route before 1000 C.E. was the Silk Road • The Silk Road is the modern name for the trade route between the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and China • The first users of the road must have lived in the first half of the first millennium B.C.E. • Its most famous traveler lived more than twelve hundred years later: Marco Polo of Venice (1254-1324) • Chang'an was the capital of China under the rule of the emperors of the Han dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) • Under the emperor Wu Di (141-87), the Silk road was really opened • The Silk Road was a relay trade where goods were exchanged from one merchant to the next and when goods arrived in the Eastern Mediterranean, they were quite expensive • Thus, the Silk Road was a luxury trade route

Silk Roads

• The longest and most vital overland trade route before 1000 C.E. was the Silk Road • The Silk Road was a network of trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China • As the Silk Road was not a single thoroughfare from east to west, the term "Silk Routes" has become increasingly favored by historians, though "Silk Road" is the more common and recognized name • Both terms for this network of roads were coined by the German geographer and traveler, Ferdinand von Richthofen, in 1877 CE, who designated them "Seidenstrasse" (Silk Road) or "Seidenstrassen" (Silk Routes) • The network was used regularly from 130 B.C.E., when the Han officially opened trade with the west, to 1453 C.E., when the Ottoman Empire boycotted trade with the west and closed the routes • The Silk Road connected China through Central Asia to the Eastern Mediterranean coast • Silk, porcelain, and other goods travelled on the Silk Roads

Civilizations in the Americas

• The many societies of the Americas are considered unusual because they reached an advanced state of civilization without developing systems of writing • Yes, in the Americas, there were great civilizations before the arrival of Columbus - these pre-Colombian civilizations like the Incas and Aztecs flourished but often lacked writing systems • Generally, writing is considered a characteristic of civilization but in the Americas, many societies lacked writing • This is partially due to geographic isolation - the Sumerian writing system known as cuneiform spread to many lands and as such, many writing systems in Asia, Europe, and Africa had their roots in cuneiform • But isolation in the Americas led to being cut off from this kind of diffusion

Paleolithic Era

• The most significant defining characteristic of the Paleolithic era was that peoples relied on hunting and gathering for subsistence • The Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Era) occurred from the beginning of human existence until around 12,000 years ago • During this time, humans used stone to make tools and stone was used many times as part of the actual tools - tools are objects that make our lives easier • Paleolithic is a word that comes from the two Greek words palaios, meaning old, and lithos, meaning stone • Humans were hunters and gatherers during the Paleolithic era - humans were highly mobile as they moved from place to place in search of animals and plants for survival

Facts about the Medieval Catholic Church

• The only Christian Church in Western Europe during the Middle Ages • The largest landowner as lords often bestowed land titles upon the church • A very wealthy institution as the Church collected tithes or church taxes • Unified Western Europeans in a time of political fragmentation with a common church • Possessed the greatest unified organizational capacity across the largest land area in Western Europe in the centuries immediately following the fall of the Roman Empire • Provided alternatives to marriage for women - becoming nuns • Monasticism - monks and nuns • Latin was the language of the Roman Catholic Church • Hierarchical organization with a Pope, Cardinals, Bishops, Priests and Monks • An intermediary between God and the people

Pueblos in the Southwest

• The peoples of the Southwest lived in complex dwellings called pueblos • Pueblo Indians are Native American Indians who live in pueblos and have a long tradition of farming; Pueblo Indians who lived long ago are sometimes called the "ancestral Pueblo" because they are the ancestors of today's Pueblo people • Another name for the ancestral Pueblo people is Anasazi • Pueblo is the Spanish word for "village" or "town" • In the Southwest, a pueblo is a settlement that has houses made of stone, adobe, and wood and the houses have flat roofs and can be one or more stories tall

Sunni and Shi'a

• The religious schism or split that stemmed from disputes over legitimate succession of leadership after the death of its key or founding figure was the schism between Sunni and Shia • The Prophet Muhammad died unexpectedly and without naming an heir • The Prophet also did not have any sons that had survived to adulthood • Thus, a problem arose in the umma or Islamic community: Who was the rightful ruler of the umma? • Sunni Muslims concluded that any pious or worshipful Muslim man could lead the community • The Shi'a disagreed - they believed that only a descendant from the Prophet's family through his son-in-law 'Ali could rule • The vast majority of Muslims are Sunni Muslim • However, Iran is a Shi'a country • And in some countries like Iraq, there are Sunni and Shi'a • Sunni and Shi'a disagree greatly over this point of succession

Facts about the Mongol Empire

• The rise of the Mongol Empire contributed to the following: an empire that extended across parts of Europe and Asia, an unsuccessful attempt to conquer Japan, the spread of the plague, and the growth of trade across Central Asia • The Mongols conquered a vast empire from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea but never conquered Japan • The Mongol Empire extended across Eurasia and included the length and breadth of the Silk Roads • The Mongols created a time of peace in their empire known as the Pax Mongolia - this time of peace and security reduced bandit attacks on the Silk Roads and therefore increased trade • With trade flourishing on the Silk Roads, disease spread too - as more contact between more people allowed for the spread of bubonic plague or the Black Death • And the Mongols never conquered Japan - although the Mongols tried twice to conquer it • But the Mongols did NOT contribute to the spread of Christianity • The Mongols were religiously tolerant and did not spread their shamanistic religion or Christianity - they did not spread the Christian religion

Status of Merchants in Han China

• The rulers of the Han Dynasty in China adopted Confucianism as the official philosophy of China • According to Confucius, merchants were social parasites - or individuals who profited off of the hard work of others - they did not make goods; they moved and sold goods • Merchants were also considered of low status to Confucius because they violated filial piety - the Confucian concept of honoring and obeying parents and ancestors - merchants travelled far from home and thus could not properly honor parents and ancestors • Yes, in Han China, merchants and traders placed in a lower social class than even farmers and artisans • Merchants and traders were not considered productive members of society

Reasons for Sunni and Shi'a Split

• The split between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims occurred as a result of disagreement over leadership succession issues • Muhammad died unexpectedly without naming a successor • The majority of Muslims are Sunni Muslims and they believe that any pious and capable Muslim man may lead the umma or Islamic community • Shi'a believe that the leader of the umma must be a descendant from the Prophet Muhammad's family through his beloved son-in-law, 'Ali • The Prophet Muhammad had no sons that survived to adulthood and thus, 'Ali, the beloved son-in-law of his beloved daughter, Fatima, was the family line through whence the next leader would come • This division has created tension in the Islamic world as Sunnis and Shi'a greatly differ on the issue of leadership succession

Impact of Islamic Civilization on Medieval Europe

• The transmittal of Greek and Arab learning is the most important effect of Islamic expansion on the civilization of medieval Europe • When Rome fell, learning declined in the early centuries of the Medieval period in Western Europe and many of the classical books written by Greeks and Romans were destroyed during the Germanic invasions • Yet the classical ideas of the Greeks and Romans were preserved in the libraries of the Byzantines (formerly Eastern Roman Empire peoples) and the Islamic kingdoms • So, when the Crusaders traveled to the Holy Land - they not only encountered Muslim armies but their own books in the libraries of Muslims • The introduction to their own ideas eventually transformed the people of Western Europe and by 1350, the Renaissance or "rebirth" of classical ideas in the West occurred

Symbols of Buddhism

• The wheel symbolizes the auspiciousness of the turning of the precious wheel of Buddha's doctrines • The golden fish symbolizes the auspiciousness of all living beings in a state of fearlessness without danger of drowning in the ocean of sufferings • The lotus flower symbolises the complete purification of the defilements of the body, speech and mind, and the full blossoming of wholesome deeds in blissful liberation • The endless knot represents the union of wisdom and method and at the time of enlightenment, the complete union of wisdom and great compassion • The conch symbolises the deep, far-reaching and melodious sound of the Dharma teachings which awakens practitioners from the deep slumber of ignorance and urges them to accomplish their own and others' welfare

The Religious Symbols of Buddhism

• The wheel symbolizes the auspiciousness of the turning of the precious wheel of Buddha's doctrines • The golden fish symbolizes the auspiciousness of all living beings in a state of fearlessness without danger of drowning in the ocean of sufferings • The lotus flower symbolizes the complete purification of the defilements of the body, speech and mind, and the full blossoming of wholesome deeds in blissful liberation • The endless knot represents the union of wisdom and method and at the time of enlightenment, the complete union of wisdom and great compassion • The conch symbolizes the deep, far-reaching and melodious sound of the Dharma teachings which awakens practitioners from the deep slumber of ignorance and urges them to accomplish their own and others' welfare

Merchant Diaspora Communities

• The word "diaspora" means a scattering of people • The dictionary defines "diaspora" as a group of people who live outside the area in which they had lived for a long time or in which their ancestors lived • Merchants, of course, are travelers - they travel to new lands to trade and sometimes, they settle in these new lands • However, even though they settle in new lands, they still maintain many of their previous cultural ways • Yes, in the period 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E., merchant diaspora communities, such as those of Muslims in India, Chinese in Southeast Asia, and Jews in the Mediterranean, had the following in common: they generally introduced their own cultural practices into the local cultures • Yes, merchants were a vector for spreading cultural ideas - when merchants settled in new lands, they introduced their religions and cultural ways to new lands

Monasticism in Buddhism and Christianity

• The word monasticism is derived from the Greek monachos ("living alone") • A monastic can be a monk or nun but it is always a person who has dedicated his or her life to the religious life • The term monasticism implies celibacy, or living alone in the sense of lacking a spouse, which became a socially and historically crucial feature of the monastic life • Monastics do not have husbands or wives - they dedicate their lives to religion • Monasticism is a characteristic of Catholicism - a branch of Christianity • Monasticism is also a characteristic of Buddhism • Women are allowed to be monastics or nuns in both Catholicism and Buddhism • In other words, there are alternatives for marriage for women in Catholicism and Buddhism

Largest Desert

• The world's largest desert is the Sahara desert • The name Sahara derives from the Arabic noun ṣaḥrāʾ, meaning desert, and its plural, ṣaḥārāʾ • Filling nearly all of northern Africa, it measures approximately 3,000 from east to west and between 800 and 1,200 miles from north to south and has a total area of some 3,320,000 square miles • The Sahara is bordered in the west by the Atlantic Ocean, in the north by the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, in the east by the Red Sea, and in the south by the Sahel - a semiarid region that forms a transitional zone between the Sahara to the north and the belt of humid savannas (grasslands) to the south • In the 21st century, there was recognition that the Sahara and its border region to the south, the Sahel, were creeping southward owing to desertification (the process by which fertile land becomes desert)

Athenian Dramas

• Theater, plays, myths and art - these endeavors are not always factual rather inspired by imagination - yet a person's imagination is influenced by his/her culture and the time and place within which the person lives • And thus historians can benefit from studying dramas, comedies, and the arts of a people • For example, a historian of ancient Greece would probably find Athenian dramas to be most useful as a source of information about Greek religious beliefs and moral values • Art is often a reflection of culture • Artistic activities reveal a great deal about a people's culture

A similarity between the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty

• There are many obvious differences - the Qin actively supported Legalism and the Han actively endorsed Confucianism • But patriarchy or male dominance existed in both dynasties and landowners had more power than peasants • It is also accurate of both the Qin and Han dynasties to state that the central government was powerful • The Qin unified China with a strong central government and it is from the Qin Dynasty that China has been given its name • But the Han Dynasty also had a strong central government - it adopted Confucianism and the examination system; it determined who worked in government service • Both dynasties had strong central governments

Rights of Women in Islam

• Women in Islam had many rights such as the right to legally inherit property and divorce husbands • Women in Islam could engage in business ventures • Women in Islam were equal to men before Allah and not the property of men • The Prophet Muhammad forbade female infanticide or the killing of female infants • A woman could testify in court although her testimony was worth half a man's testimony • A woman could inherit but daughters inherited half of what sons inherited • Yet despite these many rights, a woman could NOT take up to four husbands just as a man could take up to four wives • A woman could only have one husband and patriarchy still existed

Similarities - Inca and Aztec

• There are obvious differences • The Aztecs built an empire in Central Mexico and the Incas built an empire along the Andes Mountains in South America • The Aztecs built chinampas or floating islands for farming and the Incas engaged in terrace farming • Aztec conquest was motivated by a desire for human sacrifice victims to nourish the Sun God in order to ensure that the sun would rise • The Aztecs were more interested in receiving tribute from conquered subjects while the Incas were more interested in assimilating conquered subjects • The Incas had a welfare system that provided for the sick, elderly, widow, and orphan • The Incas used the quipu or knotted cord for recording information • However, there were significant similarities • Both the Aztecs and Incas were polytheists • Both the Aztecs and Incas lacked writing systems and domesticated animals • Both the Aztecs and Incas were skilled builders with the Aztecs building pyramids and the Incas building monuments without mortar that endure to the present day • Both the Aztecs and Incas acquired empires by means of military conquest

Benefits of Agriculture

• There were many benefits that the discovery of agriculture bestowed upon early societies • One benefit was that farmers had a greater ability to affect the environments in which they lived - they could clear land for farming or redirect rivers for irrigation • Another benefit was a more reliable way of obtaining a more diverse supply of food - hunters and gatherers have to find food but farmers grow food • Still another benefit of agriculture was the ability to establish permanent communities and the reasons to do so - farmers settle because they must tend to crops and fields throughout the year • And a final benefit of agriculture was that it increased the tendency to cooperate and form more cohesive (well-integrated or unified) societies - farmers need irrigation canals and sometimes terraces - to build an irrigation canal or terrace requires cooperation

Similarities - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

• These Abrahamic faiths are monotheistic • The share a belief in monotheism and ethical and moral conduct • Jews, Christians, and Muslims recognize Jewish Prophets such as Abraham and Moses • Yes, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share the following belief: these religions all recognize the existence of Adam and of Moses • Three of the world's major religions - the monotheist traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam - were all born in the Middle East (Southwest Asia) and are all inextricably linked to one another • Christianity was born from within the Jewish tradition, and Islam developed from both Christianity and Judaism

Chronology of Early Islam

• This statement places events from Islamic history in the correct order: Gabriel's revelation to Mohammed; the Hegira; the split between Sunni and Shiite Muslims; the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate • Clearly, the first step of the correct order is that Muhammad, according to Muslims, heard the word of God • Then Muhammad founded a new religious community, experienced persecution or mistreatment in Mecca, and fled to the city of Medina (Hegira or Hijrah refers to Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina) • In Medina, the Prophet became a powerful religious and political leader and returned to conquer Mecca and the Arabian peninsula - unifying the Arab tribes with a common religion • When the Prophet died unexpectedly, the community differed over the issue of political succession - Sunni Muslims concluded that any pious Muslim man could lead the umma or Islamic community while the Shi'a believed that the leader must be a descendant of the Prophet's family through his son-in-law 'Ali • After the death of the Prophet, four Righteously Guided Caliphs ruled followed by the first Islamic dynasty, the Umayyad Dynasty and then the Abbasid Dynasty

Constantinople

• Throughout most of its history the capital of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople • When the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, they renamed the city Istanbul - today the city is known as Istanbul • Because Constantinople lay on the European side of the Strait of Bosporus, the Emperor Constantine understood its strategic importance and built his new capital, Constantinople there in 324 C.E. • Constantinople had a great location for trade and was a well-fortified city • It was not conquered by the Ottomans until 1453 C.E.

Economic Effect of Food Surpluses on Early Agricultural societies

• When people learned to farm and domesticate animals (the Neolithic Revolution), they also learned - over time - to farm more efficiently and to produce more food • Within a period of time, some farmers were producing more food than they could consume or eat - so, extra food existed - this is called surplus food • Surplus food meant that some people did not have to farm - some people were released from farming - and these people could live in cities and buy food - they could perform other jobs • An economic effect that food surpluses had on early agricultural societies was that trade practices emerged with the capacity to feed artisans who then had time to practice craft specialization • Yes, trade emerged in order to sell a farmer's surplus food to a person who was not a farmer - like an artisan or a craftsman - and this artisan could then make beautiful jewelry or furniture - this artisan could specialize or concentrate on a particular skill

Facts about the Tokugawa Shogunate

• Tokugawa Japan spanned from 1600 to 1868 • For Japan, the Tokugawa era brought 250 years of peace and order, a long-term stability that fostered great changes in Japanese society, readying it for entering the modern era • Before the Tokugawa period, Japan was a country of warring states, it was not unified, it was medieval • The Tokugawa shoguns created a centralized state • The Tokugawa period is between the medieval and the modern eras • During the Tokugawa era, shoguns ruled • A shogun is a military dictator who ruled Japan while the emperor was a mere figurehead, highly respected but without power • The Tokugawa shogunate was a gunpowder empire but the shoguns had a monopoly on the gunpowder and did not rely on gunpowder weapons • The Tokugawa shoguns isolated Japan: no foreigners were allowed in and no Japanese were allowed out • Although the Dutch and Chinese were allowed to trade at the port of Nagasaki • Still the Tokugawa shoguns did not want foreign ideas to lead to divisions within Japan • The primary goal of the Tokugawa shoguns was to keep Japan unified and prevent civil war • The isolationism of the Tokugawa government included forbidding Japanese from going abroad

Trans-Saharan Trade and Muslim Merchants

• Trans-Saharan Trade routes connected North Africa and West Africa • The West African Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai flourished as a result the kingdoms' ability to control the trade • Islam entered West Africa along the Trans-Saharan trade routes as North Africans brought goods and their religious beliefs into the West African kingdoms • Muslim merchants dominated the trade routes • North African salt was exchanged for West African gold as well as other goods • Many West Africans converted to Islam • The West African king of Mali, Mansa Musa, made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca

Umma

• Umma is the Arabic term that refers to the "community of the faithful" • Hijab is the traditional covering for the hair and neck that is worn by Muslim women • Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca • Hadith refer to the words and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad • Zakat is charity • Only the word "Umma" refers to the "community of the faithful"

The Umma

• Umma is the Arabic word for the Islamic community • Membership in the Umma is based on belief not birth • Umma means the "community of the faithful"

The Umma in Islam

• Umma is the Arabic word for the Islamic community • Membership in the Umma is based on belief not birth • Umma means the "community of the faithful"

Facts about Urban Centers before 600 C.E.

• Urban centers are cities • And cities served as centers of commercial activity • The city as a center of commercial activity is a characteristic shared by Afro-Eurasian urban centers before 600 C.E. • Cities have played an important role in human history • Jericho, the oldest city on record with a population of 2,000, was the center of commerce and learning in its day • In cities, goods can be exchanged and business transactions can occur as cities provide meeting places for people from diverse lands

Similarities - Islam and Christianity

• With Judaism, Abrahamic religions • Influenced by Judaism • Accept Abraham and Moses as prophets • Monotheistic and ethical religions • Belief in a single omnipotent deity

The European Arrival in the Americas - Effects

• With the arrival of Columbus in the Caribbean in 1492 and the subsequent arrival of the conquistadors, great changes occurred • The indigenous population of the Americans [Native American Indians] greatly declined as new diseases introduced by European explorers and conquerors decimated Native American Indians • New diseases such as smallpox and measles decimated indigenous peoples as they lacked immunities to these diseases due to a lack of exposure due to a lack of domesticated animals • In addition, the Americas were brought into a global trading network • Thus, 1492 marks the beginning of a truly global trade network • Therefore, the late 1400s marked the beginning of a new period in world history, a new period of the incorporation of the Americas into a broader global network of exchange

Atlantic Slave Trade

• With the decimation of Native American Indian populations in the Americas due to the arrival of new diseases carried in the bodies of European explorers and conquerors as well as the brutality of the conquest and colonization of the Americas, a labor shortage existed in the Americas • The deaths of many Native American Indians led to labor shortages in the Americas as Europeans did not want to work on the plantations and haciendas or in the mines of the Americas • The deaths of Native American Indians led to the importation of African slaves to labor on the plantations of the Americas • Cash crop farming on plantations was very profitable for plantation owners • A useful source of evidence for research about the profits of Portuguese and British slave traders in the period 1600-1800 would be European slave traders' account books as these records would provide historians with the number of slaves brought to the Americas to replace a dying Native American Indian population

Status of Women in Sub-Saharan Africa

• With the rise of agriculture, patriarchy was born - patriarchy is male dominance and in patriarchal societies, women have fewer rights than men • However, not all patriarchal societies were the same • Women in the small communities of sub-Saharan Africa tended to be treated better than women in other patriarchal societies • Women in sub-Saharan Africa were valued as fieldworkers and for educating children • This is primarily because in sub-Saharan Africa the digging stick was still used and it had not been replaced by the plow • A plow requires a tremendous amount of upper-body strength and in societies where the plow was used, men took over farming • But in sub-Saharan Africa, women were still primarily the farmers (until much later in the 1800s with the Age of European Imperialism - when men replaced women as farmers in the new cash crop farming systems) • Thus, since women were vitally important as farmers, they were respected more - of course, there was still patriarchy but it was not as severe as in other regions of the world

Status of Women in Medieval Europe

• Women in medieval Europe had some legal protections, but their rights often depended on where they lived and which class they belonged to • The law, set by men, also greatly limited the freedom of women • Women were not allowed to marry without their parents' consent, not allowed to divorce their husbands, and could not own property of any kind unless they were widows • Wives from rich families usually did not look after their children • Women from a poor families not only had to look after the children but had to continue doing work both in the home and on the land • Many women from poor families did not live past the age of forty • Producing a male heir within a rich family was considered vital • So many women spent a great deal of their married life pregnant • However, childbirth was dangerous as medical care was so poor; it is thought that as many as 20% of all women died in childbirth and it was the most common cause of death among young women

Status of Women in Sub-Saharan Africa in the Post-Classical and Early Modern Eras

• Women in the small communities of sub-Saharan Africa tended to be valued as fieldworkers and for educating children • In these eras, women were primarily responsible for farming while men herded and tended to other activities • Since food production is highly valued, women were more valued in sub-Saharan Africa than their counterparts elsewhere in the world • In Africa, the plow did NOT replace the digging stick and as such, women continued to farm - that is until the Age of European Imperialism when men replaced women in the farming of valuable cash crops • Yet until that time, women were valued as fieldworkers • Yes, there was patriarchy but it was a lighter patriarchy than elsewhere in the world

Contributions of Women to development of agriculture

• Women were important contributors to the agricultural revolution because they were likely the gender who gathered edible plants and knew where grains grew • Yes, women were the gatherers in hunting and gathering communities • Women gathered plants - they observed plants and understood plants • Therefore, it is logical that their experiences with plants led to understanding of how plants grow • Women more than likely planting the first seeds ever even though once farming was established men took over farming in many societies due to the introduction of the plow and its dependence on lots of upper body strength

Role of Women in Hunting and Gathering Societies

• Women were very important in hunting and gathering societies as they provided many of the community's calories - gathering was a bit more reliable than hunting in that sometimes the hunter is not successful • In fact, some historians think the more accurate term is gathering and hunting societies because women were vital for the survival of hunting and gathering societies • As in hunter-gatherer societies of the recent past, men likely hunted large animals while women gathered small game and plants, enabling a more efficient use of available food sources and when small game and plant foods were scarce, women and older children were often involved in other vital activities, such as producing clothing and shelter • Yes, women in hunting and gathering societies probably contributed more toward the subsistence of the group than did males • Women were vital for the survival of the group even though men tended to hold more power - these communities were more egalitarian when it came to gender • The social and economic status of women was highest in hunting and gathering communities

Wu Di

• Wu Di was an important emperor of the Han Dynasty • The Han Dynasty represents the classical age of Chinese culture • Many important ideas were adopted by the Han that continued after the Han • Wu Di established an imperial academy in China to train men for the examinations for government service - the examinations were based on Confucianism and Chinese history • Chandra Gupta has nothing to do with Wu Di; Chandra Gupta was the founder of the Mauryan Empire - an Indian empire • One of the most important rulers of the Mauryan Empire (323 - 185 B.C.E.) was Asoka • Thus, this is the following pair of historical figures that did NOT impact the same region: Wu Di and Chandra Gupta • Wu Di's impact was on China and Chandra Gupta's impact was on the Indian subcontinent

Beliefs of Islam

• A single, omnipotent deity • Monotheism • Five Pillars of the Faith - One God - Prayer five times a day facing the holy city of Mecca - Charity or alms to the poor - Fasting during the holy month of Ramadan from sunrise to sunset - Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca • Qur'an - holy book • Muhammad is the "Seal of the Prophets" or last Prophet • All Muslims are equal in the eyes of Islam only actions determine God's judgement

Reasons for European Conquest of the Americas

• "God, Glory and Gold" • To convert the indigenous peoples to Christianity • To gain fame and fortune • To acquire precious metals like gold and silver • To gain the natural resources of the area • To establish large farms [haciendas or plantations] • Even the adventure of it all - for Europeans • For the Native American Indians, all of these reasons led to the loss of their lands and cultures - well, not entirely, cultures never completely die and many of the indigenous ideas blended with European ideas [syncretism or cultural blending occurred]

Neoconfucianism

• "Neo-Confucianism" is the name commonly applied to the revival of the various strands of Confucian philosophy and political culture that began in the middle of the 9th century and reached new levels of intellectual and social creativity in the 11th century in the Northern Song Dynasty • Neoconfucianism is a blending of Confucian thought with Buddhist and Daoist ideas • As the collapse of the Han dynasty had slightly discredited Confucianism and Buddhist and Daoist ideas became increasingly popular in the chaos that ensued following the collapse of the Han dynasty, the return of Confucianism as a favored philosophy inevitably involved the acceptance and incorporation of Buddhist and Daoist ideas • When the Sui dynasty reunited China and the T'ang and Song dynasties continued earlier patterns of Chinese government, the examination system and Confucianism gained favor once again • Yet again, this new Confucianism was influenced by Buddhist and Daoist ideas as these philosophies had also become a vital part of Chinese culture • The need for administrators and competent government officials led to the return of the examination system and Confucian ideas of governance but these ideas were accompanied by Buddhist and Daoist philosophies

The T'ang Dynasty

• 618-907 C.E. • Chinese dynasty that succeeded the short-lived Sui Dynasty • Developed a successful form of government and administration on the Sui model, and stimulated a cultural and artistic flowering that amounted to a golden age • The years of the Tang were brilliant times for the arts and culture • Major imperial ceremonies saw a revival and elaboration of the ancient orchestras and companies of courtly dancers • China in this period was hospitable to foreign ideas, as Arabian and Persian seamen roved its ports and "western" music and dance found their way into China from Central Asia • In the taverns of the western capital at Chang'an, western songs and dances were performed to the accompaniment of western musicians on strange instruments • Poetry was the greatest glory of the period • Painting played a major role in the culture of the era, and painters were important court figure • Pottery made huge strides • The T'ang rulers utilized the examination system and valued Confucianism • Neo-Confucianism, a blending of Confucianism with Daoism and Buddhism, was increasingly popular • The capital city of the T'ang rulers, Chang'an, was highly urbanized • Many Chinese lived in this beautiful city with its spacious streets and impressive buildings • Great technological innovations also occurred during the T'ang Dynasty

Daoism

• A philosophy that developed in China during the Zhou Dynasty in the period known as the "Age of Warring States" • Sought a solution to China's warfare in living harmoniously in nature • Daoism encourages individuals to live naturally and to live close to nature • Daoists believe that the government that governs best governs least and allows individuals to live naturally without restrictions and unnecessary rules • Daoism encourages wu wei or to do nothing but also wu bu wei or to do everything • The Yin-Yang is often a symbol in Daoism for it suggests non-duality • In dynastic China, a scholar could be Confucian by day in his scholarly work but Daoist at night as he painted and danced • A key philosophical and religious element of Daoism is emphasis on harmony between humanity and nature

Shogun

• A shogun was a hereditary military dictator of Japan from 1192 to 1867 C.E. • A shogun was the most powerful lord in feudal Japan • Legally the shogunate or shogun's government [bakufu] was under the control of the emperor, and the shogun's authority was limited to control of the military forces of the country • But the increasingly feudal character of Japanese society created a situation in which control of the military became tantamount to control of the country, and the Emperor remained in his palace in Kyōto chiefly as a symbol of sovereignty behind the shogun • The emperor was a mere figurehead • But the shogun ruled Japan

Women and Agriculture

• Women were gatherers in Paleolithic hunting and gathering days • As gatherers, women knew plants and watched plants • Thus, it is not surprising that women were important contributors to the agricultural revolution because they were likely the gender who gathered edible plants and knew where grains grew

Meritocracy

• A system in which the talented are chosen and moved ahead on the basis of their achievement • In a meritocracy, government positions are awarded to individuals who demonstrate their competence and intelligence as opposed to simply knowing powerful people • A meritocracy is based on skill or talent or ability and not birth • The Chinese civil service examination system was a meritocracy • In theory, any man could take the test • If a man succeeded on the examination, he was awarded a government position • The scholar-gentry of China were men who had passed the examination and worked in government • The examination ensured that only educated and qualified candidates were given government jobs • In China, the examination was based on Confucianism and Chinese history

The Last Prophet of Islam

• According to Islam, Muhammad is the last prophet • There will be no other prophets after Muhammad according to Islam • Muhammad, therefore, is the "Seal of the Prophets" • Again, after Muhammad, there will be no other prophets • Muhammad is the final prophet

The Edicts of Ashoka

• Also known rock edicts • Narrative histories and announcements carved into cliff rock, onto pillars, and in caves throughout the Indian subcontinent by Emperor Ashoka (reigned 269 B.C.E. - 232 B.C.E), the most powerful emperor of the Mauryan dynasty and a highly influential promulgator of Indian Buddhism • Ashoka's first years as king were marked by his brutal slaughter of thousands of people during the conquest of Kalinga • After being exposed to the moral teachings of Buddhism - teachings based on the necessity for nonviolence and compassion - Ashoka was moved to deep remorse for his actions • He converted to Buddhism, and, as a record of his understanding of moral law, he carved lessons into stone in the hope that he could provide inspiration and guidance to the people of his extensive kingdom • The rock edicts are important sources for modern understanding of ancient Indian political and religious history, particularly with regard to the influence of the Buddha's teachings on the king and, through him, on the people at large • Buddhism had elements of Hindu teachings and as such, it was perhaps easier to spread in that Hindus had some familiarity with Buddhist concepts; it is important to remember that Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was raised Hindu

Mosque

• An Islamic house of worship • Geometric patterns and designs are used to decorate a mosque • Domes and arches are used in the building of mosques • In general, Islam discourages human representation in art and therefore geometric patterns and designs are preferred

The Mongol Empire

• An empire arose in the steppes of Mongolia in the thirteenth century that forever changed the map of the world, opened intercontinental trade, and impacted history • At its height, the Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history, stretching from the Pacific coast to the Black Sea • Chinggis [Genghis] Khan unified the Mongols and then proceeded to conquer a vast empire • The Mongols were skilled warriors on horseback and engaged in psychological warfare to frighten their enemies to surrender ["Surrender and be spared. Resist and perish."] • Chinggis Khan and his successors conquered China, Russia, and Persia • The Mongols, however, never conquered Japan although they twice tried • The Mongols were primarily interested in the collection of tribute from their conquered subjects • In China, the Mongols established the Yuan Dynasty under Khubilai [Kublai] Khan • In China, the Mongols never adopted the examination system although claimed the Mandate of Heaven and moved the capital to Beijing, closer to their homeland in the steppes of Central Asia • In Russia, the Mongols destroyed the city of Kiev as the princes resisted but elevated the city of Moscow as Moscow became the primary tribute collector for the empire • In Persia, the Mongols converted to Islam • The Mongols were religiously tolerant • The Mongols secured the Silk Roads and therefore reduced risk from bandits and reduced the number of tolls • Thus, trade flourished on the Silk Roads during the Pax Mongolica • Gunpowder technology travelled on the Silk Roads as did Chinese goods • The Mongols strengthened trade routes • The Mongols increased cultural diffusion between Asia and Europe • The bubonic plague travelled on the Silk Roads • The Mongol Empire greatly impacted history

Landholding Aristocracies

• An important continuity in the social structure of states and empires in the period 600 B.C.E. to 1450 C.E. was that landholding aristocracies tended to be the dominant class • This is perhaps not surprising • In the Post-Classical era, agriculture was the primary occupation of most people in all civilizations • In agrarian societies, landowners are more powerful and wealthier than the people who farm the land • Often kings or rulers gave land to fellow nobility - brothers, cousins, and sons of kings and rulers • An aristocrat is a member of the ruling elite - often nobility - often a relative of the king and always a landowner • Of course, in China, any man who passed the examination became an aristocrat or a scholar-gentry - thus, sometimes and in some societies, a person could rise to this class but for most members, birth determined high status and nobility

The Chronological Order of the World's Belief Systems and Sacred Texts

• Animism and polytheism are the oldest of the world's religious beliefs • Judaism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Jainism, and Christianity follow [in chronological order] • Islam is one of the youngest of the world religions as it was not founded until the 600s C.E. in Arabia • Thus, the Vedas [Hindu sacred texts], the Analects of Confucius, the Eightfold Path [Buddhism], and the Gospels of the New Testament - all in chronological order - are older than the Qur'an of Islam • The Qur'an was introduced after the Vedas, Analects, Eightfold Path, and Gospels

Nuns in Roman Catholicism and Buddhism

• Both Roman Catholic Christianity and Buddhism offered women an alternative to marriage • Women could become nuns and dedicate their lives to religious practice • This was very appealing for many women as in convents or communities of nuns, women had more freedom, more autonomy, and more of the power to make their own decisions • Yes, women were still subordinate to men in the religion but men did not live in their convents • Thus, monasticism provided women with greater freedoms than most women

Sumerians and Olmecs

• Both first civilizations - the Sumerians were the world's first civilization in Mesopotamia • The Olmecs were the world's first civilization in Mesoamerica • The Sumerians had a writing system, cuneiform • The Olmecs developed elements of a writing system too • The Sumerians lived in city-states • The Olmecs, many historians believe, were a collection of chiefdoms • Both Sumerians and Olmecs farmed • The Sumerians had the wheel; the Olmecs did not • Both had mathematical advances

The "Great Dying"

• As the Americas lacked domesticated animals, the arrival of the Europeans and their germs devastated the indigenous populations of the Americans • Historians refer to this tragic loss of life as the "Great Dying" • Indeed, the largest decline in global population due to disease occurred in the Americas as a result of the new diseases introduced into the Americas by the European conquerors and colonizers • One of the most striking aspect of the period from 1400 to 1800 was the enormous extension of networks of communication and exchange that linked individuals and societies more and more tightly • Every region of the world became intricately connected to every other region, a development that is called the Great Global Convergence • As a result of the Columbian Exchange (the global cultural diffusion of plants, animals, and microorganisms between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas), great changes occurred • The ecological and demographic consequences of the Great Global Convergence were huge, especially the "Great Dying" of much of the indigenous population of the Americas • Europeans benefited from this disaster by peopling the Western Hemisphere with new immigrants, both free European settlers and Africans slaves • Europeans also gained access to important new sources of food and fiber • These crops included maize (corn), tobacco, and the potato, crops that were indigenous to the Americas and sugar and cotton which came from Afro-Eurasia but thrived in American soil • As a result of the "Great Dying," the demographic composition of the Americas changed greatly as the Native American Indian population declined and the European population and African slave population increased • 1492 was a year that greatly changed world history

Augustus Caesar

• As the first Roman emperor (though he never claimed the title for himself), Augustus led Rome's transformation from republic to empire during the tumultuous years following the assassination of his great-uncle and adoptive father Julius Caesar • He shrewdly combined military might, institution-building and lawmaking to become Rome's sole ruler, laying the foundations of the 200-year Pax Romana (Roman Peace) and an empire that lasted, in various forms, for nearly 1,500 years • Beginning in 26 B.C.E., the Roman Senate conferred on him the name Augustus, the august or exalted one • His birth name was Octavius and when Julius Caesar adopted him, he was called Octavian but history knows him as Augustus Caesar • Historians date the start of Octavian's monarchy to either 31 B.C.E. (the victory at Actium) or 27 B.C.E., when he was granted the name Augustus • In that four-year span, Octavian secured his rule on multiple fronts • Cleopatra's seized treasure allowed him to pay his soldiers, securing their loyalty • To mollify Rome's Senate and ruling classes, he passed laws harkening back—at least on the surface—to the traditions of the Roman Republic • And to win over the people, he worked to improve and beautify the city of Rome • During his 40-years reign, Augustus nearly doubled the size of the empire, adding territories in Europe and Asia Minor and securing alliances that gave him effective rule from Britain to India • He expanded the Roman network of roads, founded the Praetorian Guard and the Roman postal service and remade Rome with both grand (a new forum) and practical gestures (police and fire departments) • Augustus Caesar died in 14 C.E., his empire secured and at peace • His reported last words were twofold: to his subjects he said, "I found Rome of clay; I leave it to you of marble," but to the friends who had stayed with him in his rise to power he added, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud me as I exit." • Soon after that acknowledgement of human frailty, the Roman Senate officially declared their departed emperor, like Julius Caesar before him, to be a god • His reign started a period of 200 years of peace in the Roman Empire - Pax Romana

Ashoka

• Ashoka, also spelled Aśoka was the last significant emperor in the Mauryan dynasty of the Indian subcontinent • His vigorous patronage of Buddhism (269 B.C.E. - 232 B.C.E) furthered the expansion of Buddhism • Following his successful but bloody conquest of the Kalinga, Ashoka renounced armed conquest and adopted a policy that he called "conquest by dharma" (i.e., by principles of right life) • In order to gain wide publicity for his teachings and his work, Ashoka made them known by means of oral announcements and by engravings on rocks and pillars at suitable sites • These inscriptions - known as the rock edicts or the Pillars of Ashoka - contain statements regarding his thoughts and actions and provide information on his life and acts • The sufferings inflicted on the defeated people at the Battle of Kalinga moved Ashoka to such remorse that he renounced armed conquests • It was at this time that he came in contact with Buddhism and adopted it • Ashoka repeatedly declared that he understood dharma to be the energetic practice of the sociomoral virtues of honesty, truthfulness, compassion, mercifulness, benevolence, nonviolence, considerate behavior toward all, "little sin and many good deeds," nonextravagance, nonacquisitiveness, and noninjury to animals • Toward all religious sects he adopted a policy of respect and guaranteed them full freedom to live according to their own principles • Moreover, he encouraged religious toleration • Among his works of public utility were the founding of hospitals for men and animals and the supplying of medicines, and the planting of roadside trees and groves, digging of wells, and construction of watering sheds and rest houses • Orders were also issued for preventing cruelty to animals • With the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire disintegrated and his work was discontinued • Most enduring were Ashoka's services to Buddhism • He built a number of stupas (commemorative Buddhist burial mounds) and monasteries and erected pillars on which he ordered inscribed his understanding of religious doctrines • The Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa says that when the order decided to send preaching missions abroad, Ashoka helped them enthusiastically and sent his own son and daughter as missionaries to Sri Lanka • It is as a result of Ashoka's patronage that Buddhism, which until then was a small sect confined to particular localities, spread throughout India and subsequently beyond the frontiers of the country

Rome and Its Conquered Subjects

• At the height of the Roman Empire, a quarter of the world's population lived under Roman law • This made the empire one of the most culturally diverse societies ever seen • Initially regarded as inferior, foreign citizens were eventually admitted to the highest ranks of Roman society • Under Emperor Trajan, the Roman Empire reached its peak • It stretched from the Middle East to northern Britain and from Egypt to Germany • Under the "Pax Romana", meaning "the peace of Rome", inhabitants of conquered lands were not automatically considered Roman citizens • But they were subject to Roman laws and paid Roman taxes • Some of these paid for public utilities, like roads and waterworks - being part of the empire did have some advantages • While local inhabitants behaved themselves and paid their taxes, they were allowed to continue with their local customs and religions, as long as these did not directly violate or compromise Roman law • To help Rome govern its provinces, it often appointed "client kings" • These would decide on local or religious matters that did not require Roman input • This arrangement did not always work • For instance, the head of the Iceni tribe in Britain was a client king, but after his death, his wife, Boudicca, led a rebellion that almost defeated the Romans in Britain • The trial of Jesus shows how the use of client kings worked. Jesus was first brought before Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judaea, on charges of treason - a crime against Roman law • After hearing the evidence, Pilate found no proof of treason • He considered the case to be a religious dispute and passed it on to Herod, a client king • Herod could rule on accusations of blasphemy against the Jewish religion • However, the death sentence could only be used under Roman law, so Herod passed this back to Pilate, who ordered Jesus' crucifixion • A major change in the Pax Romana came under the rule of the Emperor Claudius • For a long time, the Senate had resisted new blood among its membership, especially foreign blood • Claudius was much more prepared to allow conquered peoples to become Roman citizens than his predecessors had been • In 48 C.E., he took this a step further, arguing that men from Gaul (now modern France) should be admitted to the Senate, claiming it was the smart and right thing to do • He was opposed by the Senators • One claimed that Claudius "was determined to see all Greeks, Gauls, Spaniards and Britons wearing the toga" • In the end, Claudius won • It was an important move towards integrating the many countries of the empire and one that would ultimately see Trajan, a foreign born general, take the throne

Shared Beliefs of Christianity and Islam

• Both Christianity and Islam are Abrahamic religions (the Abrahamic religions are Judaism, Christianity and Islam) • Both Christians and Muslims believe in the existence of Adam and Moses • Both are ethical religions with rules for moral behavior • Both religions are monotheistic and believe in a single, omnipotent or all-powerful God • Both religions have many followers in the world today

Chinese Views on Proper Governance in Dynastic Times

• Confucian scholars and Daoist thinkers differed regarding the role of government in people's lives • In Daoist thought, the government that governs least, governs best • In Daoist thought, individuals should be free to pursue the natural way • Confucian scholars believed that educated men were best placed in government positions and that superiors set examples for inferiors to follow • Superiors provided for inferiors and were benevolent or kind and inferiors obeyed and respected superiors • Confucian scholar-gentry made rules to which the people adhered

Confucianism

• Confucius lived during the Zhou Dynasty in the period known as the "Age of Warring States" • In this time of chaos and disorder, Confucius sought to restore peace and harmony • He came to believe that when people act according to their stations in life, there is order and when there is order, there is peace • He spoke of Five Relationships (Emperor-Subject, Father-Son, Husband-Wife, Elder Brother-Younger Brother, and Friend and Friend) • In a relationship, there is a superior and an inferior • When the superior acts like a superior and rules benevolently by providing for the inferior and guiding the inferior and the inferior obeys the superior, there is peace and harmony in society • Confucius also believed that men were pretty much alike but that education them better men • Patriarchy was definitely a feature of Confucianism as a woman is always an inferior according to the Five Relationships • Confucius encouraged his followers to follow the ethical rules that promoted harmony and order

The Superior Man According to Confucianism

• Confucius was a thinker, political figure, and educator • His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live his life and interact with others, and the forms of society and government in which he should participate • Fung Yu-lan, one of the great 20th century authorities on the history of Chinese thought, compares Confucius' influence in Chinese history with that of Socrates in the West • A hallmark of Confucius' thought is his emphasis on education and study • He disparages those who have faith in natural understanding or intuition and argues that the only real understanding of a subject comes from long and careful study • Study, for Confucius, means finding a good teacher and imitating his words and deeds • A good teacher is someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of the ancients • "He who learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger" (Lunyu 2.15) • Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts • Confucius' goal is to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things • His strong dislike of the sycophantic "petty men," whose clever talk and pretentious manner win them an audience, is reflected in numerous Lunyu passages • Confucius finds himself in an age in which values are out of joint; actions and behavior no longer correspond to the labels originally attached to them: "Rulers do not rule and subjects do not serve," he observes. (Lunyu 12.11; cf. also 13.3) • Moral education is important to Confucius because it is the means by which one can rectify this situation and restore meaning to language and values to society

Technological Innovations of the T'ang and Song Dynasties

• Considered the golden age of China, the T'ang and Song dynasties of China were noted for their great innovations, their great inventions • Beautiful scroll paintings of the T'ang Era • Gunpowder too • The magnetic compass and movable-type printing during the Song Era • In the 11th century movable type (one piece of type for each character) was invented • Movable type was never widely used in China because whole-block printing was less expensive, but when movable type reached Europe in the 15th century, it revolutionized the communication of ideas • Landscape painting • The use of the magnetic compass for navigation and gunpowder was developed

Constantinople

• Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine Empire • Located between Europe and Asia • Very defensible with water on three sides • Not on the map today • Renamed Istanbul when conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1453

The Portrayal of the Buddha

• Early Buddhist art emerged in India and Sri Lanka and following the death of the Buddha • This original, formative period of Buddhist art avoided direct representation of the human figure • However, following the Alexander's invasion of northwestern India and Buddhist contact with Hellenistic culture, Buddhist art portrayed the Buddha in human form

Ethnocentrism

• Ethnocentrism is the idea of cultural superiority, that one culture is superior to another culture • In world history, this idea is rejected • In world history, there is recognition that all cultures are influenced by other cultures - that every culture is like a tapestry with many different cultural influences as threads • Thus, cultural diffusion makes the thinking individual realize that a culture is never purely one thing but rather many influences

The Byzantine Empire

• Formerly the Eastern Roman Empire • Survived after the fall of Rome [476 C.E.] and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire • Justinian was its most significant emperor • Justinian codified all Roman laws in the Code of Justinian, ordered construction of the beautiful Hagia Sophia Church, and reconquered many territories lost to the "barbarians" - although a plague led to the eventual loss of those lands • The Byzantines practiced Orthodox Christianity • The Byzantines greatly influenced Russia when two Byzantine monks travelled to Russia and spread the Orthodox Christian faith • The monks also created an alphabet for the Russian language known as the Cyrillic alphabet [named for one of the monks - Cyril and Methodius] • The Byzantine emperor practice Caesaropapism or the political theory that the emperor is both leader of the empire and leader of the Church • The Byzantines preserved Greek and Roman learning when Rome's libraries were destroyed by the Germanic invaders ["Barbarians"] • The Byzantine Empire survived a thousand years after the fall of Rome • Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine Empire • The Byzantine Empire had a great location for trade as it was between Europe and Asia • With the advance of Muslim armies, the Byzantines began to lose territory • By 1453, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire fell • The Ottomans renamed the city of Constantinople, Istanbul

Horses from Central Asia

• Horses were first domesticated in Central Asia • Horses facilitated transportation and trade • Central Asian nomads often traded horses with powerful neighboring empires • Horses were regularly sold to Chinese dynasties • Horses were a favorite commodity on the Silk Roads

Ibn Battuta

• Ibn Battuta was the great Muslim traveler who travelled 75,000 miles throughout Dar al-Islam • Ibn Battuta started on his travels when he was 20 years old in 1325 • His main reason to travel was to go on a Hajj or a Pilgrimage to Mecca, as all good Muslims want to do • But his traveling went on for about 29 years and he covered about 75,000 miles visiting the equivalent of 44 modern countries which were then mostly under the governments of Muslim leaders of the World of Islam, or "Dar al-Islam" • During the life of Ibn Battuta, Islamic civilization stretched from the Atlantic coast of West Africa across northern Africa, the Middle East, and India to Southeast Asia • This constituted the Dar al-Islam or "Abode of Islam" • In addition, there were important communities of Muslims in cities and towns beyond the frontiers of Dar al-Islam • People in the whole "umma," or community of people believing in one god and his sacred law ("shari'a"), shared doctrinal beliefs, religious rituals, moral values, and everyday manners • In the early 1300s this community was expanding dramatically • Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier, part of modern-day Morocco, on February 25, 1304 • The men in Ibn Battuta's family were legal scholars and he was raised with a focus on education; however, there was no "madrasa," or college of higher learning, in Tangier • Thus, Ibn Battuta's urge to travel was spurred by interest in finding the best teachers and the best libraries, which were then in Alexandria, Cairo, and Damascus • He also wanted to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, called the "hajj," as soon as possible, out of eagerness and devotion to his faith • Ibn Battuta led a complete life while traveling • He studied and prayed; he practiced his legal profession; he had astonishing outdoor adventures; he married at least 10 times and left children growing up all over Afro-Eurasia • Ibn Battuta traveled to Sub-Saharan Africa and in particular, the kingdom of Mali; he traveled to Mecca and Persia and India and even China • Even after a series of failures in the Maldive Islands and in India - having lost everything he owned to pirates and shipwrecks - Ibn Battuta resolved to go to China on his own • Muslim travelers, such as Ibn Battuta, knew that they could find Muslim hospitality in the major sea ports • The Prophet Muhammad had even encouraged travel and learning in China in a saying: "Seek knowledge, even as far as China." • So traveling to China, like elsewhere Ibn Battuta had traveled, would not be difficult • He could depend on the charity of fellow-Muslims in Malaysian ports on his way to China, as he had in every other part of the world he traveled • After a book was written about Ibn Battuta's life, Ibn Battuta worked as a judge in Morocco • Since he was not yet 50 when he stopped traveling, he is thought to have married again and to have had more children • He died in 1368 or 1369; the place of his death is not known, nor the location of his grave • Ibn Battuta was one of the world's greatest travelers

Facts about Zheng He

• From 1405 until 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven ocean expeditions for the Ming emperor • Over sixty of the three hundred seventeen ships on the first voyage were enormous "Treasure Ships," sailing vessels over 400 hundred feet long, 160 feet wide, with several stories, nine masts and twelve sails, and luxurious staterooms complete with balconies • During the first expeditions, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast • In his fourth voyage, he traveled to the Persian Gulf • But for the three last voyages, Zheng went even further, all the way to the east coast of Africa • Zheng He was the great voyager and explorer of early Ming China • Zheng He even brought a giraffe from Africa to the Beijing zoo thereby delighting Emperor Yongle

Vikings

• From around 800 to the 11th century C.E., a vast number of Scandinavians left their homelands to seek their fortunes elsewhere • These seafaring warriors - known collectively as Vikings or Norsemen ("Northmen") - began by raiding coastal sites, especially undefended monasteries, in the British Isles • Over the next three centuries, they would leave their mark as pirates, raiders, traders and settlers on much of Britain and the European continent, as well as parts of modern-day Russia, Iceland, Greenland and Newfoundland • More than the raiders of tradition, the Vikings were also traders and colonists who left an enduring mark on history • The countries of Scandinavia are Denmark, Norway, and Sweden • The Vikings began raiding and conquering as a result of population pressures in their homelands • The Vikings even traveled to North America • Like the Arabs, the Vikings relied on their trade routes to help in their expansion

A Gothic Cathedral

• From roughly 1000 to 1400, several significant cathedrals and churches were built, particularly in Britain and France, offering architects and masons a chance to work out ever more complex and daring designs • The most fundamental element of the Gothic style of architecture is the pointed arch, which was likely borrowed from Islamic architecture that would have been seen in Spain at this time • This new architectural style allowed for larger windows and more light • The windows, tracery, carvings, and ribs make up a dizzying display of decoration that one encounters in a Gothic church • In late Gothic buildings, almost every surface is decorated • Of course, when Europeans conquered other lands, especially European Catholics, cathedral building often travelled with them • In architecture, historians can see evidence of when and if cultural diffusion occurred • So, look carefully at an image to determine what it is and then look to read where it is located - did diffusion occur or not?

The First Americans

• Genetic evidence supports a theory that ancestors of Native Americans lived for 15,000 years on the Bering Land Bridge between Asia and North America until the last ice age ended • For nearly a century now, most scholars have agreed that the ancestors of Native Americans likely hailed from Siberia, trekking across the Bering Strait to Alaska via a long-gone land bridge • But certain aspects of the historic migration - including the settlers' specific region of origin, when exactly they left it and what drove them to seek new lands - remain matters of debate to this day • A new DNA-based study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics offers new insight into these questions • Russia's mountainous Altai Republic borders China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan • Inhabited since the Paleolithic, the region is barely larger than Maine but served as a vital gateway to Siberia and the cradle of widespread human lineages found across northern Eurasia • "It's a place where people have been coming and going for thousands and thousands of years," said study co-author Theodore Schurr, an anthropology professor at the University of Pennsylvania • According to one prevailing theory, it is also the area where ancestral Native Americans lived before peopling the New World • The results revealed genetic ties linking Native Americans to all Altaians, with a significantly stronger relationship connecting the migrants to residents of southern Altai • This timeline for ancestral Native Americans' departure adds to a growing body of evidence that humans colonized the Americas earlier than previously thought • In the past, archaeological evidence seemed to indicate that people arrived roughly 13,000 years ago, bringing the so-called Clovis culture - known for its signature spear points and associated with various sites in North America - with them • Recent discoveries together with genetic research have made the case for an earlier wave of immigrants, Schurr said • No matter when the first trip across the Arctic land bridge occurred, the reasons for the mass exodus are shrouded in mystery - and the submersion 10,000 years ago of Beringia and the archaeological sites it contained further complicates the issue • One theory holds that overcrowding pushed Native Americans' ancestors to seek out new territory • While Siberia emerged as the leading contender for Native Americans' ancestral home many decades ago, alternative hypotheses offer starkly different models • According to one, Southeast Asians traveling by boat reached North America some 20,000 years ago. • Another suggests that Europeans traversed ice sheets covering the North Atlantic during the last glacial maximum

Tribute in the Mongol Empire

• Genghis Khan (born Temujin and lived from 1162-1227) united Mongol chieftains under his rule in 1206 • He then began a series of raids against neighboring civilizations • Genghis Khan or Chinggis Khan differed from traditional patterns of Mongol raiding in that previous Mongol raiders looted and the left the area • But Genghis Khan imposed taxes and tribute systems on conquered territories • Tribute is a payment made to the conquerors to acknowledge their superiority and enrich their coffers or their wealth • The Mongol Empire was an empire primarily interested in the collection of tribute - valuable goods and valuable gems • As such, the Mongol rulers were generally religiously tolerant and allowed conquered people to worship freely as long as the tribute was paid • When the city of Kiev resisted paying the tribute, the city was destroyed • Moscow, however, collected the tribute and was therefore elevated by the Mongols • And of course, the Mongol seizure and control of the Silk Roads further expanded wealth but also guaranteeing easier and safer trade

Arabic Numerals

• Hindu mathematicians in India invented "Arabic" numbers at least 1,700 years ago • The Arabs played an essential part in passing this number system to Western Europeans • By about 1500 years ago, the Arabs had a translation into Arabic of a Hindu text describing the nine-number system • Arab mathematician Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khowarizmi helped to get the book into European hands • Around 850, while teaching mathematics in Baghdad, he wrote an arithmetic book that explains the Hindu number system • By chance, merchants carried the manuscript to Europe where scholars translated it into Latin - Algoritmi de numero Indorum, meaning, "On Hindu number calculations" • Reading the Latin version but noticing the book had been translated from Arabic, Europeans jumped to the conclusion that Arabs invented these numbers • But this, of course, wasn't the case

Similarities and Differences: Hinduism and Buddhism

• Hinduism is an ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent • Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was raised a Hindu • As such, Buddhism can be viewed as a modification of Hinduism • Like Hindus, Buddhists believe in karma or that deeds have consequences in the future (the law of consequences) • Buddhists also use the Hindu term "dharma" • However, for Buddhists, dharma refers to the Buddha's teachings while to Hindus, dharma refers to the rules of the caste • Like Hindus, Buddhists believe in reincarnation or samsara • Buddhists do NOT believe in the Hindu caste system • Buddhists reject the Hindu caste system

1492 and its Impact on World History

• In 1492, Christopher Columbus - sailing for Spain - accidentally arrived in the Americas • By traveling westward, Columbus hoped to arrive in the East [Asia] • When Columbus accidentally landed on an island in the Caribbean, history was forever changed • The Americas were incorporated into the global trading network • Thus, the incorporation of the Americas into a broader global network of exchange justifies the claim that the late 1400s mark the beginning of a new period in world history • It was a new period that greatly benefitted the Europeans as they claimed land and the fruits of enslaved labor in the Americas • For Native American Indians, it was a devastating change: as population declined due to new diseases and the encomienda system enslaved Indians • The loss of the lives of the indigenous Americans led to the importation of African slaves and the brutality of the Atlantic Slave Trade

Classical Persia or the Achaemenid Empire

• In 549 BCE, the Persians, led by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid family, overthrew the Median court of Western Iran • Cyrus thus founded the first Persian Empire • The Achaemenid kings are known to have been very pious Zoroastrians, trying to rule justly and in accordance with the Zoroastrian law of asha (truth and righteousness) • The Avesta is the holy book of Zoroastrianism • Zoroastrians believe there is one God called Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord) and He created the world • They believe that the world is a cosmic battleground between good and evil and that people are free to choose to follow good or evil • However, those who follow good will be rewarded with Heaven and evildoers will be punished in Hell • Cyrus the Great was relatively tolerant • While he himself ruled according to Zoroastrian beliefs, he made no attempt to impose Zoroastrianism on the people of his subject territories • The Jews most famously benefited from this; Cyrus permitted them to return to Jerusalem from exile in Babylon, and rebuild their temple • Darius the Great, another significant emperor, was also famously pious and showed the same general tolerance for other faiths as his predecessor Cyrus • Under Darius the empire was stabilized, with roads for communication and a system of governors (satraps) established • Darius initiated two major building projects: the construction of royal buildings at Susa and the creation of the new dynastic center of Persepolis • A culturally diverse empire • However, in 498 B.C.E., the eastern Greek Ionian cities, supported in part by Athens, revolted • It took the Persians four years to crush the rebellion, although an attack against mainland Greece was repulsed at Marathon in 490 B.C.E. • The Royal Road was a road of a distance of more than 1,500 miles • The Royal Road connected the empire • Royal messengers, who, according to the Greek historian Herodotus, were stopped by "neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night," traversed the entire road in nine days, thanks to a system of relays

Why the collapse of political institutions was more devastating to the Roman civilization than to Han China or Gupta India

• In Han China, Confucianism served as the basis of the examination system and the government • Confucianism provided a set of rules regarding proper conduct • Even when the Han Dynasty collapsed and Buddhism increased in popularity, Confucianism still informed the Chinese character and provided a common understanding of the world • When the Gupta Empire collapsed, Hinduism and the caste system still survived • Like Confucianism, the Hindu caste system provided clear guidelines for each member of society • But when the Roman Empire collapsed, there was no comparable system • Thus, in India and China, there were religious and philosophical traditions that provided continuity but this was not the case in the Roman Empire • Yes, Roman Catholicism provided unity during the medieval period but it was not able to reunify the empire

Appeal of Islam to Untouchables in India

• In Hinduism, a caste system exists • A Hindu is born into his caste and remains in his caste throughout his lifetime • There is no social mobility; the caste system lacks social mobility in that a Hindu cannot change his caste during his lifetime • A Hindu's past life determines his current life in that through his actions (karma) and his dharma (adherence to the rules of his caste), a Hindus reincarnation or samsara is determined • In the Hindu caste system, there are four castes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras • A person who belongs to no caste is an untouchable or outcaste and an untouchable is viewed negatively and forced to perform jobs deemed unacceptable to other caste members • Thus, for an untouchable, Islam held great appeal • In Islam, there is no caste system • In Islam, all believers are equal in the eyes of Islam • Islam in India had a strong appeal to members of lower castes because Islam promised the spiritual equality of all believers

African Societies Not Affected by Islam or Christianity

• In Post-Classical Africa, societies that were not affected by Islam or Christianity often lacked writing • In societies that lacked writing, griots or oral historians preserved the history of the people • Griots were praise singers and oral historians

The Five Pillars of the Faith

• In contrast to many other religions, the basic practice of Islam is simplicity itself • The believer worships God directly without the intercession of priests or clergy or saints • The believer's duties are summed up in five simple rules, the so-called Five Pillars of Islam: Belief, Worship, Fasting, Almsgiving, and Pilgrimage • The five pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan al-din, "pillars of religion") comprise five official acts considered obligatory for all Muslims • The Qur'an presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to faith • The five pillars are the shahadah (witnessing the oneness of God and the prophethood of Muhammad), regular observance of the five prescribed daily prayers (salat), paying zakat (almsgiving), fasting (sawm; siyyam) during the month of Ramadan, and performance of the hajj (pilgrimage during the prescribed month) at least once in a lifetime

Facts about the Status of Women in the Islamic World

• In the eyes of Allah, women and men are equal • In Islam, women have an equal chance of entering Heaven as men do • Female infanticide (the killing of female infants) is forbidden • Women can sue for divorce • Women can inherit property; however, daughters inherit half of what sons inherit • Women can testify in court; however, a woman's testimony in court only counts as half of a man's testimony • A woman can only marry one husband whereas a man can marry up to four wives • Women can engage in business ventures • Of course, the rise of Islam occurred in the 600s C.E. • Thus, the 600s C.E. saw many changes for women in the Islamic world • Over time, veiling became acceptable although veiling and seclusion were pre-Islamic traditions and practices • Patriarchal traditions proved hard to change

Value of Literature for Historians

• Literature is not factual but it reveals the beliefs, values, and customs of the cultures that produced those works of literature • A historian of ancient Greece would probably find Athenian dramas to be most useful as a source of information about Greek religious beliefs and moral values • Stories reveal the cultural beliefs of people

Dhimmis

• Islamic law made a distinction between two categories of non-Muslim subjects - pagans and dhimmis ("protected peoples," or "peoples of the book"; i.e., those peoples who based their religious beliefs on sacred texts, such as Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians) • The Muslim rulers tolerated the dhimmis and allowed them to practice their religion • In return for protection and as a mark of their submission, the dhimmis were required to pay a special poll tax known as the jizya • The jizya was a head or poll tax • A dhimmi or "protected person" refers to specific individuals living in Muslim Lands that were granted special status and safety in Islamic law in return for paying a tax This status was originally only made available to non-Muslims who were People of the Book, namely, Jews and Christians), but was later extended to include Zoroastrians and in some areas, even Hindus

Facts about the Paleolithic Age

• It is known as the "Old Stone Age" • People hunted and gathered during the Paleolithic Period • Nomadic cultures • Class distinctions did not exist as a highly mobile people can accumulate few possessions to distinguish members from one another • Gender divisions existed but not patriarchy • Men hunted and women gathered but both were valued • Slavery did not exist • Groups were small in numbers • Birthrates were low • Humans learned to use fire to aid in cooking and to provide warmth

Inca and Roman Empires

• It is said that all roads lead to Rome • But the Incas might disagree • The Incas also were road-builders and built many roads to connect their extensive empire over mountains • Yes, the Inca and the Romans were known for their roads

Cultural Diffusion

• It is the exchange of cultural ideas and objects • Diffusion occurs easily through trade but also through conquest • Whenever individuals of diverse cultures meet, diffusion can occur • The Columbian Exchange was a global diffusion - affecting many regions • But even the spread of Buddhism to China is an example of diffusion • The truth is that all cultures have been influenced by other cultures • The world is connected and history is connected

History of Sugar

• It is thought that cane sugar was first used by man in Polynesia from where it spread to India • In 510 B.C.E., the Emperor Darius of Persia invaded India where he found "the reed which gives honey without bees" • It was the major expansion of the Arab peoples in the seventh century C.E. that exposed more people to sugar • When the Arabs invaded Persia in 642 C.E., they discovered how sugar was made • As their expansion continued, the Arabs established sugar production in other lands that they conquered including North Africa and Spain • Sugar was only discovered by western Europeans as a result of the Crusades in the 11th century C.E. • Crusaders returning home talked of this "new spice" and how pleasant it was • In the 15th century C.E., Columbus sailed to the Americas and it is recorded that in 1493 he took sugar cane plants to grow in the Caribbean • The climate there was so advantageous for the growth of the cane that an industry was quickly established • Sugar became the most important crop in the Caribbean and the Europeans loved it • Tragically, a reliance on sugar in the Caribbean also increased a demand for African slaves and led to tragedy that was the Atlantic Slave trade - the trafficking of humans to replace a dying Native American Indian population and to grow crops like sugar on plantations

The Mongols and China

• It is true that the Mongols, in their conquest of both North and South China, did considerable damage to these territories, and that great loss of life certainly ensued • The population of North China did decline somewhat, though earlier estimates that there was a catastrophic decline in population have subsequently been revised • It is also true that the Mongols eliminated one of the most basic of Chinese institutions - the civil service examinations • The examinations remained banned until 1315, and even after the ban was lifted, they were no longer the only means to officialdom for the Yuan Dynasty, the dynasty that the Mongols founded in 1271 C.E., as they had been in the past • The Mongols perceived China as just one section of their vast empire • And they classified the population of their domain in China into a hierarchy of four groups - with the native Chinese at the bottom • The Mongols, of course, were at the top; then came the non-Han, mostly Islamic population that was brought to China by the Mongols to help them rule; third were the northern Chinese; and at the very bottom of the rung were the southern Chinese • The Mongol rulers were somewhat distrustful of the Confucian scholar-officials of China because they represented a different path for China than that which they themselves had conceived. These scholars, and other native Chinese, thus were not eligible for some of the top positions in the ruling government • Notwithstanding the aspects of their rule that were certainly negative for China, the Mongols did initiate many policies - especially under the rule of Khubilai Khan - that supported and helped the Chinese economy, as well as social and political life in China • Khubilai Khan also founded ancestral temples for his predecessors - his father and Chinggis (Genghis) Khan (his grandfather) - in order to carry out the practices of ancestor worship that were so critical for the Chinese • And in an even greater effort to ingratiate himself personally to the Chinese, Khubilai insisted on giving his second son, Jin Chin, a Chinese-style education. Confucian scholars tutored the young boy, and he was introduced to the tenets of both Confucianism and Buddhism • Khubilai also set up institutions to rule China that were very familiar to the Chinese, adapting or borrowing wholesale many of the traditional governmental institutions of China • The Chinese, therefore, found much of the Yuan Dynasty's political structures to be familiar • Traditionally, merchants were accorded a relatively low social status in China • The Mongols, however, had a more favorable attitude toward merchants and commerce - their nomadic way of life, which is much reliant on trade with sedentary peoples, had caused them to recognize the importance of trade from the very earliest times • Thus, the Mongols worked to improve the social status of merchants and traders throughout their domains • The Yuan dynasty was the Mongol dynasty of China • Khubilai's economic policies in China promoted the interests of China

The Columbian Exchange

• It was a great global cultural diffusion that occurred as a result of Columbus' arrival in the Americas • It connected the Americas to Europe, Asia, and Africa • Includes: African population to the Western Hemisphere; Western Hemisphere food to Europe and Africa; and African and European diseases to the Western Hemisphere • African slaves were brought to the Americas to replace a dying Native American Indian population • Corn, potatoes, and peanuts were brought from the Americas to Europe, Asia, and Africa - impacting population as potatoes provide many calories to feed many people and led to an increase in population in Europe and Asia [in Africa, the slave trade led to a loss of population that was offset by the new crops from the Americas - thus not an increase but not a decrease either] • New diseases decimated the indigenous population of the Americas leading historians to refer to the loss of Native American lives from disease as the "Great Dying" • Crops, livestock, disease, and people "travelled" during this exchange

The Confucian Social Order

• Know your place and act accordingly • Superiors act with benevolence and protect inferiors • Inferiors respect superiors and obey • The Five Relationships - Emperor and subject - Father and son - Husband and wife - Elder brother and younger brother - Friend and friend • There is limited social mobility for men because educated men are valued and are considered the ideal in society • Thus, a man from the peasant class could take the examination for government service and if he passed, he became a scholar-gentry - a respected member of government, a landowner, and nobility • The examination system was open to all men • Women, however, were always inferior • Women had to obey fathers and then husbands and then even grown sons as widows • Female infants were placed under beds at birth to reveal their low status • Women had to be chaste [refraining from extramarital affairs] and only engage in intimate relations with their husbands • Women were to serve men and to be quiet • Husbands, however, did not have to be chaste • Age had to be respected • Filial piety or sons had to obey parents and ancestors • Sons were preferred over daughters as only sons could perform the ancestral rituals • Confucius believed that when individuals acted according to their societal roles, peace and harmony ensued • Thus, when the social order was preserved, all was peaceful and harmonious in China

Islam and Sub-Saharan Africa

• Largely as a result of trade, Islam entered sub-Saharan Africa • Whether on Trans-Saharan trade routes [connecting North Africa and West Africa in an exchange of salt for gold] or on Indian Ocean trade routes that connected East Africa and the Swahili city-states to Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia, Muslim merchants brought not only goods but beliefs • In sub-Saharan Africa, contact with Islam generally led to conversion and many sub-Saharan Africans willingly converted to Islam • Conversely, when Christian Crusaders encountered Muslim soldiers during the Crusades, contact did not lead to conversion • Of course, Christian Crusaders did take Islamic scholarship and new products and foods as a result of their encounters • But not religion • Thus, the spread of Islam in sub-Saharan Africa was largely voluntary and along trade routes

The Ka'ba

• Located inside the compound of the Grand Mosque at Mecca, the Kaaba or Ka'ba (literally, "cube") is a cube-shaped structure known as the House of God • It contains the sacred Black Stone, a meteorite that Muslims believe was placed by Abraham and Ismail in a corner of the Kaaba, a symbol of God's covenant with Abraham and Ismail and by extension with the Muslim community itself • The Kaaba is draped with a woven black cloth embellished with Quranic verses embroidered in gold • The Kaaba is considered the first house of worship of the one God, originally built by Adam and replicating the heavenly House of God, which contains the divine throne that is circumambulated by the angels • This heavenly ritual is reenacted during the hajj by pilgrims, who circumambulate the Kaaba seven times • This symbolizes their entry into the divine presence • Muslims believe that Adam's Kaaba was destroyed by the neglect of believers and the flood, and according to the Quran (2:127) Abraham and his son Ismail rebuilt the holy house • However, by the time of Muhammad the Kaaba was under the control of the Quraysh of Mecca, who used it as a shrine for the tribal gods and idols of Arabia • The Quraysh held an annual pilgrimage to the Kaaba and a fair that attracted pilgrims from all over Arabia • Muslim tradition tells us that one of the first things Muhammad did when he returned from exile and triumphantly entered Mecca was to cleanse the Kaaba of its 360 idols and restore the "religion of Abraham," the worship of the one true God

Patriarchy

• Men are accorded superior status • Male dominance • Women are viewed as weak and inferior and must be protected by men • Women are lowly • Sons are favored

Sunni and Shi'a Divide in Islam

• Muhammad died unexpectedly before picking a successor • Thus, disagreement over leadership succession issues arose • Sunni Muslims believe that any pious Muslim man can lead the Islamic umma or community • Shi'a Muslims believe that leadership of the community should be through ʿAli, the Prophet's son-in-law • ʿAli was the fourth of the Righteously Guided caliphs and was assassinated • After the assassination of ʿAli, Shi'a believed that the rightful caliph was murdered and have believed that only a descendant from the Prophet's family should rule the Islamic umma • Thus, a clear line of succession was NOT established after Muhammad's death

Indian Ocean Trade from 1000 to 1450

• Navigators relied on monsoon winds • Connected East Africa, Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia • Admiral Zheng He, sailing for the Ming Dynasty, entered the Indian Ocean network and dominated the network from 1405 to 1433 • The Europeans, however, did not participate in the trading network until 1498 • In 1498, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, rounded the tip of Africa and arrived in the Indian subcontinent • In the 1500s, the Portuguese were able to dominate Indian Ocean trade due to their gunpowder weapons and cannons [ironically gunpowder was acquired from Asia] • But until 1450, the participants were East Africans, Muslims, Indians, and Southeast Asians and India was the fulcrum or center of the network

Impact of Introduction of Western Hemisphere Crops on China

• New crops from the Americas - such as potatoes, corn, peanuts, and cassava - greatly benefitted Europe, Asia, and Africa • In China, new crops from the Americas increased population in China • The new crops from the Americas were high in calories and were relatively easy to grow • These new crops provided peasants with cheap and nutritious sources of food and prevented many Chinese peasants from dying from starvation

"The Age of Warring States" in China

• Occurring during the Zhou dynasty, China collapsed into a period of intense fighting between powerful lords • Seven or more small feuding Chinese kingdoms fought one another • Yet the Warring States period was one of the most fertile and influential in Chinese history • It not only saw the rise of many of the great philosophers of Chinese civilization, including the Confucian thinkers Mencius and Xunzi, but also witnessed the establishment of many of the governmental structures and cultural patterns that were to characterize China for the next 2,000 years • The name Warring States is derived from an ancient work known as the Zhanguoce ("Intrigues of the Warring States") • In these intrigues, two states, Qin and Chu, eventually emerged supreme • Qin finally defeated all the other states and established the first unified Chinese empire in 221 B.C.E. • During "The Age of Warring States," Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism became important philosophies in China for all three sought to restore peace • In Confucian thought, when there is order and people act according to their status in society, there is peace and harmony • In Daoism, when people act naturally, there is peace and harmony • In Legalism, when people obey the law, there is peace

Code of Hammurabi

• One of the earliest written law codes • Hammurabi was a king of Babylon • Babylon existed in Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers • Hammurabi's Law Code had class divisions • Punishments varied according to the individual's class • Thus, for a peasant, it was an "eye for an eye" • But for a nobleman, it might be "an eye for a fine" • However, harsh punishments nonetheless were frequently found in the Code of Hammurabi • Hammurabi's dictates are often cited as the oldest written laws on record, but they were predated by at least two other ancient codes of conduct from the Middle East • The earliest, created by the Sumerian ruler Ur-Nammu of the city of Ur, dates all the way back to the 21st century B.C.E., and evidence also shows that the Sumerian Code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin was drawn up nearly two centuries before Hammurabi came to power • Hammurabi's Code took a brutal approach to justice, but the severity of criminal penalties often depended on the identity of both the lawbreaker and the victim • Hammurabi's Code was surprisingly ahead of its time when it came to laws addressing subjects like divorce, property rights and the prohibition of incest, but perhaps most progressive of all was a stipulation mandating an ancient form of minimum wage

The Bantu and the Cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa

• Originating in West Africa, between the savanna and the forests, the Bantu began migrating after about 1000 B.C.E. • For centuries, the Bantu migrated south and east, ultimately spreading throughout sub-Saharan Africa • By 1000 C.E., they had reached central Natal, in what is now the Republic of South Africa • During their migrations, the Bantu absorbed or displaced other peoples of eastern and southern Africa, driving pygmies, Bushmen, and Khoisan-speaking pastoralists into the southern jungle, the Kalahari Desert, or the extreme southwestern savanna • Thus Bantu migrants provided most of sub-Saharan Africa with a common cultural identity • The Bantu migrations spread agriculture and iron-working • Developing agriculture expanded Bantu populations; iron tools and weapons provided the means to acquire new lands; and the resulting migrations spread both technologies through the whole sub-Sahara region • The Bantu also spread their languages and as such provided a common linguistic root for many languages in Sub-Saharan Africa

China in the Post-Classical Age

• Particularly from 1000 to 1450 C.E., China was one of the most advanced societies in the world • It was also the most urbanized as more Chinese lived in cities than in any other region • The cities were also immaculately maintained and beautifully constructed • The Chinese were also advanced in manufacturing and created beautiful products that were greatly desired around the world • China had experienced a golden age in this time period and was the destination of many merchants who wanted beautiful Chinese porcelain and silk • Whether on the Silk Roads or Indian Ocean trade routes, Chinese products found homes in many lands

Pastoralists

• Pastoralists are able to produce food where crop production is not possible • In other words, Pastoralists domesticate animals but not plants • Pastoralists are herders • Pastoralists are frequently mobile • Pastoralists are frequently nomads • Pastoral livestock convert large amounts of resources nonedible by humans into high value animal-source foods • Pastoralists produce food in the world's harshest environments • Pastoral production supports the livelihoods of rural populations on almost half of the world's land • A pastoralist is a person who herds animals

Pre-Islamic Arabia

• Pre-Islamic Arabia was a mixture of animistic and polytheistic religious ideas • Worshipping hundreds of deities and the forces of nature, pre-Islamic Arabia was in the crossroads of trade • As such, Arabs were introduced to Jewish and Christian merchants and thus were influenced by new religious ideas • Pre-Islamic Arabia was also largely nomadic although important trading cities developed on coastal lands or near oases • Animism, polytheism, and nomadism though predominated

Greeks: Rationalism versus Quarrelling Gods on Mount Olympus

• Rationalism is the use of reason and logic in understanding the natural world • The ancient Greeks are credited with being one of the earliest group of rationalists • But the Greeks also believed in quarrelling gods on Mount Olympus and used charms and had superstitions • So, where does the truth lie? • Perhaps it is a reminder of the complexity of facts - yes, the Greeks were often rationale but sometimes they wore charms and had superstitions • Rarely are people easily categorized • We are full of contradictions • As Walt Whitman wrote, "Do I contradict myself? Very well then I contradict myself, (I am large, I contain multitudes.)"

Greek Rationalism

• Rationalism is the view that regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge • Reason is the basis for understanding science and the natural world according to the Rationalist • Reason is intelligent and logical thinking • Although the ancient Greeks worshipped the many quarrelling gods on Mount Olympus, Greek philosophers and scientists sought to understand the natural world through reason • Thus, the ancient Greeks valued rationalism or reason • The Greek approach to science was characterized by its application of rational thought to speculations about nature's order

What Buddhism Did and Did Not Carry over From Hinduism

• Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was raised a Hindu • Buddhists therefore have been influenced by some Hindu ideas • Yes, Buddhism can be viewed as a modification of Hinduism • Buddhists accept the Hindu concept of karma or that all actions have consequences in the present or the future • Buddhists also use the Hindu term "dharma," however, Buddhist refer to Dharma as the teachings of the Buddha and not the rules of caste • Buddhists most definitely do not accept the Hindu caste system • There is no caste system in Buddhism • Buddhists also accept the idea of reincarnation or "samsara" • However, where moksha ends reincarnation for Hindus; nirvana is the state where suffering ends and therefore when reincarnation stops • Buddhism also differs in that it has monastic opportunities for men and women • And Buddhism focuses on suffering and the end of suffering [the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path - the fourth Noble Truth, and nirvana]

Samurai and Knights

• Skilled warriors during feudal periods, both samurai and knights were loyal to their lords, courageous, brave, and capable warriors • Samurai were loyal to their daimyo (Japanese lords) and the shogun (the most powerful lord of Japan) • Knight were loyal to their lords and protected the lords' lands or fiefs • Feudalism developed in Western Europe after the fall of Rome in 476 C.E. • Feudalism developed in Japan in the 1100s C.E. • Samurai followed the Code of Bushido, the warrior's code and had to be brave, loyal, and show no emotion • If a samurai violated the Code of Bushido, he lost honor and could only regain honor through ritual suicide or seppuku • The knight followed the code of Chivalry and had to be loyal and courageous but also protect women and children • With the demise of feudalism, knights and samurai gave way to modern armies

The Roman Empire and Slavery

• Slavery had a long history in the ancient world and was practiced in Ancient Egypt and Greece, as well as Rome • Most slaves during the Roman Empire were foreigners and, unlike in modern times, Roman slavery was not based on race • Slaves in Rome might include prisoners of war, sailors captured and sold by pirates, or slaves bought outside Roman territory • In hard times, it was not uncommon for desperate Roman citizens to raise money by selling their children into slavery • The Romans relied very heavily on slaves and this dependence on slaves was perhaps one reason why the Romans were less interested in inventions as slaves performed many tasks • China was known for its inventions but rarely relied on slaves for labor

The Appeal of Certain Religions in Times of Stress

• Sociologists who study religion have noted that religions that emphasize individual faith will sometimes spread rapidly in societies experiencing disorder and a decline in influence of traditional sources of authority • Buddhism spread rapidly after the collapse of the Han Dynasty • The collapse of the Han Dynasty seemed unnatural to the Chinese who had been taught by Confucian scholars that when people act according to their status, peace and harmony ensues • The Chinese had come to believe if that acted properly, all would be well • But Buddhism taught a different message: it taught that life is suffering and in times of suffering, its promise to end suffering through the teachings of the Buddha or the dharma was very appealing • Of course, in times of great stress, religion can be a great comfort, especially if that religion teaches that faith can lead to a better state than the present state

Peasant Rebellions in Medieval Europe

• Sometimes peasants were tired of being exploited • Sometimes peasants were tired of the class hierarchy • At times, religion might be used as a means of igniting rebellion • After all, were not Adam and Eve - according to Christians - the first parents of all God's children and were not peasants thus God's children too

Before 1492

• The Americas were isolated before 1492 • Geographically removed from Europe, Africa, and Asia, the Americas developed without influence from these regions • Of course, with the arrival of Columbus and other Europeans, new diseases decimated the indigenous populations of the Americas • Lacking domesticated animals, smallpox devastated the Native American Indians • For the Native American Indians, 1492 was a date of terrible change that led to the loss of the lands, cultures, and lives

The Fall of the Aztec Empire

• The Aztecs, who probably originated as a nomadic tribe in northern Mexico, arrived in Mesoamerica around the beginning of the 13th century • From their magnificent capital city, Tenochtitlán, the Aztecs emerged as the dominant force in central Mexico, developing an intricate social, political, religious and commercial organization that brought many of the region's city-states under their control by the 15th century • Invaders led by the Spanish conquistador, Hernán Cortés, overthrew the Aztecs by force and captured Tenochtitlán in 1521, bringing an end to Mesoamerica's last great native civilization • Many factors weakened Aztec resistance to the Spaniards • New diseases from Europe - like smallpox - devastated the Aztecs and made it difficult for Aztec soldiers to fight • The superior weaponry of the Spaniards harmed the Aztecs • Military assistance from other Native American Indians who helped the Spaniards because they hated the Aztec conquerors also played a role • In addition, the Aztecs initially believed Cortés was one of their gods gave the Spaniards an opportunity to enter the capital city without resistance • In November 1519, Cortes and his men arrived in Tenochtitlán, where Montezuma and his people greeted them as honored guests according to Aztec custom (partially due to Cortés' physical resemblance to the light-skinned Quetzalcoatl, whose return was prophesied in Aztec legend). • Though the Aztecs had superior numbers, their weapons were inferior, and Cortés was able to immediately take Montezuma and his entourage of lords hostage, gaining control of Tenochtitlán • The Spaniards then murdered thousands of Aztec nobles during a ritual dance ceremony, and Montezuma died under uncertain circumstances while in custody • Cuauhtémoc, his young nephew, took over as emperor, and the Aztecs drove the Spaniards from the city • With the help of the Aztecs' native rivals, Cortés mounted an offensive against Tenochtitlán, finally defeating Cuauhtémoc's resistance on August 13, 1521 • In all, some 240,000 people were believed to have died in the city's conquest, which effectively ended the Aztec civilization • After his victory, Cortés razed Tenochtitlán and built Mexico City on its ruins; it quickly became the premier European center in the "New World"

The Bantu

• The Bantu were agriculturalists originally from West Africa • They migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa as their population increased and they required more lands • These migrations occurred from approximately 1000 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E. • The Bantu spread iron, agriculture, and their language throughout sub-Saharan Africa • The Bantu provided a common linguistic root for the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa as many sub-Saharan African languages are derived from Bantu • The Bantu also spread banana cultivation which entered Africa from Southeast Asia • Archaeological evidence of early forges and smelting operations reveal information about Bantu migration - where and when the Bantu travelled

Buddhism

• The Four Noble Truths - Life has suffering - Desire causes suffering - Suffering can end - Follow the Noble Eightfold Path - Eight actions to provide a path to end suffering such as Right Speech and Right Concentration • Nirvana is the end of suffering • There are two major sects of Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana • Theravada Buddhism requires practitioners to find their own way to nirvana but adhering to the dharma or the teachings of the Buddha • Mahayana Buddhism has a belief in Bodhisattvas or spiritual beings who have attained enlightenment but remain on Earth to bring other suffering beings to the shores of nirvana or to the end of suffering

The Hajj

• The Hajj is the Arabic term for the pilgrimage to Mecca • One of the five pillars of Islam is that each believer is called, at least once in their lives, to make the Hajj, the annual pilgrimage that starts and ends in the holy city of Mecca located in today's Saudi Arabia • The journey recreates Muhammad's own path as the native son returned to his tribal home as the leader of a vibrant new religion • Unlike other sacred sites, Mecca is closed off to believers of other faiths: only Muslims are permitted on the Hajj • The Kaaba[Ka'ba] is seen as the most sacred space in the Muslim world, the site to which hundreds of millions of Muslims throughout the world turn each day when they pray, and it is circumambulated by the pilgrim during the Hajj

Umma

• The Islamic umma was the concept of the community of the faithful that transcended clan boundaries • Umma is the Arabic word for the Islamic community • Membership in the Umma is based on belief not birth • Umma means the "community of the faithful" • All Muslims are members of the umma

The High Middle Ages

• The Middle Ages lasted a thousand years • From 476 to 1500 C.E. • Yet the entire period was not the same • The early Medieval period was known for invasions and warfare • It was a very dangerous time • Yet the High Middle Ages was more stable and as such, trade and urbanization [movement to cities] increased • By 1100 the decline of culture following the 9th century invasions had begun to be reversed • The economic system based on manorialism and the political system based on feudalism was producing a small surplus • There was a revival of trade, fairs were held, and town life was returning • The importance of the rise of towns cannot be overemphasized • In addition to the clergy, nobility, and serfs, a new social class of townsmen, burghers, or bourgeois - a new Middle Class of craftsmen, artisans, traders, and merchants - was making its appearance • The culture of the High Middle Ages is in many ways a town based culture • Gothic Cathedrals and universities were located in cities • And even though religion remained the most important institution of society, new ideas were being nurtured • Within towns, the Guild System developed • Craftsmen were organized into masters, journeymen, and apprentices • The guild [a medieval association of craftsmen or merchants] prescribed both quality and price of products • Communal government in tows was based on these guilds • New ideas of republican government made their reappearance • "Town air makes free." • This principle allowed runaway serfs to become free townspeople if they could live a year and a day on their own

The Mongols and Russia

• The Mongols conquered Russia but ruled Russia from their beloved steppes • The Mongols thought Russia had nothing of value and therefore only collected tribute from Russia • When the city of Kiev resisted Mongol rule, the Mongols destroyed the city of Kieve • Moscow, however, became the primary city for the Mongol's collection of tribute in Russia • Thus, the Mongols elevated the city of Moscow and Moscow eventually became the center of Russia after the Mongol Empire in Russia collapsed • In addition, the Mongols were religiously tolerant in Russia and exempted the Orthodox Christian Church from taxation • Thus, the Orthodox Christian Church also became increasingly powerful under Mongol rule • The Mongols also separated Russia culturally from the rest of Europe • Thus, Russia did not participate in the Renaissance

The Mongols and the Silk Roads

• The Mongols conquered a vast empire stretching from the Pacific coast to the Black Sea • They conquered the lands of the Silk Roads • The Mongols provided peace and security on the trade routes of their empire • This time of peace and stability in the Mongol Empire is known as the Pax Mongolia or Pax Mongolica • As the Mongols increased security on the Silk Roads, bandit activity decreased as did the number of tolls and taxes merchants paid • Thus, trade flourished as the Mongols reestablished the importance of the Silk Roads and increased during the Pax Mongolia

Facts about the Phoenicians

• The Phoenicians were a seafaring people from present-day Lebanon • The Phoenicians were traders • However, they are most remembered for creating the world's first alphabet • In an alphabet, each letter represents a sound • Thus, when we teach children to read by introducing them to the sounds of letters, we call that method of instruction "Phonics" after the Phoenicians • The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet and we get our alphabet from the Greeks [alpha and beta are the first two letters of the Greek alphabet]

The Renaissance in the Italian City-States

• The Renaissance was a time of rediscovery in Western Europe • Western Europeans rediscovered the classical works of the Greeks and Romans • It was also a time of great creativity in the art and art became more realistic • New ideas developed in the Renaissance • Humanism was the idea that all humans have worth and dignity • Secularism was a non-religious perspective • The word "Renaissance" means rebirth • The Renaissance began in the Italian city-states in 1350 as a result of wealth from trade • Wealthy Italians could support artists in their magnificent creations • The Renaissance revival of Classical Rome was as important in architecture as it was in literature • A pilgrimage to Rome to study the ancient buildings and ruins, especially the Colosseum and Pantheon, was considered essential to an architect's training • Classical orders and architectural elements such as columns, pilasters, pediments, entablatures, arches, and domes form the vocabulary of Renaissance buildings • During the Renaissance, architects trained as humanists helped raise the status of their profession from skilled laborer to artist • They hoped to create structures that would appeal to both emotion and reason • The Renaissance was a new way of thinking • It marked a transition in Western European thought

Facts about Timbuktu in West Africa

• The historic town of Timbuktu is located at the precise point where the Niger flows northward into the southern edge of the Sahara desert • As a result of its unique geographical position, Timbuktu has been a natural meeting point of Songhai, Wangara, Fulani, Tuareg and Arabs • According to the inhabitants of Timbuktu, gold came from the south, the salt from the north and Divine knowledge from Timbuktu • Timbuktu is also the crossroad where the camel met the canoe • From the 11th century and onward, Timbuktu became an important port where goods from West Africa and North Africa were traded • Goods coming the Mediterranean shores and salt were traded in Timbuktu for gold • The prosperity of the city attracted African and Arabs who were both scholars and merchants • This unique combination of scholarship and business were the cornerstones that made Timbuktu a city of wealth and truth and therefore a booming desert port • Salt, books and gold were the main commodities that were traded in Timbuktu • Salt was extracted from the mines of Tegaza and Taoudenit in the north, gold from the immense gold mines of the Boure and Banbuk and books were the refined work of African and Arabs scholars • Timbuktu flourished as a result of its strategic position

The Lateen Sail

• The lateen sail is a triangular sail that was of decisive importance in navigation • The sail, its free corner secured near the stern, was capable of taking the wind on either side, and, by enabling the vessel to tack into the wind, the lateen immensely increased the potential of the sailing ship • The lateen sail was used on ships sailing in the Indian Ocean • It was a sailing technology that allowed the sailors on the Indian Ocean to travel long distances by taking advantage of monsoon winds

Trade and the Axis

• The shape of the continents may have had a fundamental impact on the progress of human societies • Continents that are spread out in an east-west direction, such as Eurasia, had a developmental advantage because of the ease with which crops, animals, ideas and technologies could spread between areas of similar latitude • Continents that spread out in a north-south direction, such as the Americas, had an inherent climatic disadvantage • Any crops, animals, ideas and technologies had to travel through dramatically changing climatic conditions in the Americas to spread from one extreme to the other

Church Records of Baptisms and Funerals

• These records can be very important for historians • These records reveal facts about demographics, about population • A historian researching the effects of epidemic disease on the population levels of seventeenth-century colonial Peru would need these records • For in these records, a historian can determine how many people died and whether births of new infants were enough to offset the terrible loss of lives or if population declined to dangerously low levels • Historians rely on many forms of data to determine facts about the past

Fragmentation in India

• Throughout much of its history, India was politically fragmented • There were many princes and many kingdoms but rarely an empire ruling over all Indians • Of course, there was the Mauryan Empire and then centuries later, the Gupta but generally political fragmentation was the norm • There are many reasons for this fragmentation such as the geography divided the different regions of the subcontinent or the diversity of its peoples • Even the caste system helps to explain fragmentation because caste served as a way of controlling people effectively on a local level without need of an empire or an emperor • Even jati or the various guilds of the subcontinent served as a mechanism of control or ensuring that people acted according to certain roles • Yes, in India, in the past, political fragmentation was the norm

Status of Women in Post-Classical China

• Women had low status • Post-Classical China was noted for its patriarchal attitudes • Women were considered inferior to men • Foot-binding was popularized by the Song Dynasty and foot-binding greatly limited the mobility of women • Yet all women were not subjected to the same treatment; class impacted the status of women too • Women of the lower classes tended to be freer from restrictions than those from the upper classes because women from lower classes had to work in the fields; they had to contribute to the household; and they had to have some measure of mobility to perform all of their duties • Women were needed and perhaps more valued in peasant households • Yes, poor peasants needed their wives and the more valued a worker is, the more respected the worker will typically be given

Medieval Monasteries

• To give up his worldly routine in order to embrace Christ's example as fully as possible was the life of the monk • In the Middle Ages in Western Europe, growing numbers of men and women became monks and nuns • This way of life, called monasticism, imposed rigors and privations but offered spiritual purpose and a better hope of salvation • Monks and nuns performed many practical services in the Middle Ages, for they housed travelers, nursed the sick, and assisted the poor; abbots and abbesses dispensed advice to secular ruler • But monasticism also offered society a spiritual outlet and ideal with important consequences for medieval culture as a whole • Monasteries encouraged literacy, promoted learning, and preserved the classics of ancient literature, including the works of Cicero, Virgil, Ovid, and Aristotle • The need for books and buildings made religious houses active patrons of the arts, and the monastic obligation to perform manual work allowed many monks and nuns to serve God as creative artists • Every monastic community consisted of men or women vowed to celibacy and bound by a set of regulations • In a monastic setting, the very exercise of producing a book became a means of meditation on scripture, and the embellishment of the text often highlights this fact • Only Oxford and Cambridge Universities could surpass some monasteries as centers of learning • All monks had to read and write as these were fundamental skills for the role they had within the monastery

Similarities: Western Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa during the Post-Classical Era

• To think of Western Europe during the Post-Classical Era is to think of political fragmentation during the Medieval period • In this period, Western Europe was divided into kingdoms that - at least in the early Medieval period - were frequently warring • In this period of feudalism, there was decentralization • In other words, there was no longer one Roman emperor ruling all of the people but rather many kings and many kingdoms • In sub-Saharan Africa in the Post-Classical Era, there were also many villages and many kingdoms but not one central government • Sub-Saharan Africa was also politically divided

Events between 600 and 1450 C.E. that distinguish it as a New Period in World History

• Two very important events in the Post-Classical Era are the rise of Islam and the rise of the Mongol Empire • The rise of Islam is usually dated at 622 C.E. or the year of Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina [the Hijrah or Hegira] • The Mongol Empire was at its height in the 1200s and 1300s • These two events had an enormous impact on world history and thus, mark the period as a new era • Of course, there were other significant events in this period for world history is never the history of one peoples but still some events have a big impact on the period and the time • Even to this day, the events of the Post-Classical Era shape us • Islam is still an important religion today • And the Mongols greatly increased diffusion from Asia to Europe that led in many ways to the rise of Europe - with its new technologies from Asia

The Classical Era

• Usually dated as the period from 600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E., the classical era is known as the second-wave of civilizations; a time when empires are larger, many inventions and ideas are created that still influence societies today and enduring patterns are created • Historians often debate when the classical period ends as it can be often focused on the fall of Rome in 476 C.E. - sometimes leading to 500 C.E. as the ending date; regardless, whether 500 or 600 C.E., the Maya classical age is excluded as it fell in 900 C.E. • Trade increased during the classical era as new belief systems developed around the world too • Empires were more prominent during this period as were new inventions • The classical era still influences the world today

500 C.E. or 600 C.E.

• When does the classical period end? • Historians debate the end date of the classical period • If the fall of Rome is emphasized, then 476 C.E. is closest to 500 C.E. • But if the fall of the Gupta is emphasized, then 550 C.E. is closest to 600 C.E. • And what about the Maya - the Maya did not collapse until 900s C.E. • So, periodization poses problems for historians - when do periods begin and end - it can depend on your point of view

Point of View

• When reading a primary source, it is important to make note of the author of the text • If the text is written by a lord, conclusions might be influenced by the individual's class and status in society • It is important to look for words that reveal opinions - for example, does a powerful man refer to a rebel as crazy - this might reveal disdain or hostility for lower classes who question authority • Point of view analysis makes note of the author's position and interpretation • It is in examining a text closely and carefully that the reader learns about the recorder • Some words reveal praise or criticism - read words carefully to discover point of view • By examining the words of the text and noticing words that reveal opinions or bias, readers can gain insight into how the person recording the event may have been influenced by his own status in society or his own beliefs

How Christian Missionaries Communicated Religious Ideas to Native American Indians

• When the Spanish conquistadors arrived, so, too did the Roman Catholic missionaries • The missionaries wanted to convert the Native American Indians to Roman Catholicism in Latin America • The Native American Indians did not necessarily want to be converted • There were also language barriers • Pictorial records of the Mexica and Statues produced by local artists in New Spain were ways of communicating without words • Of course, it is difficult to know much about the exact process but there are letters that were written by Franciscan friars and histories written in Spanish and Nahuatl that can provide insight into the process of conversion

The Fujiwara Era in Japan

• When the emperor moved his government from Nara to Heian (Eighth Century C.E.), the aristocracy took over most of the positions of the central government • It was during the imperial court's time in Heian that the Fujiwara clan emerged as a powerful family in Japan • The power and authority of the Fujiwara family rested not on military prowess but on political strategy and on the family's special relationship to the imperial family, which it carefully cultivated and exploited • This relationship stemmed from the Fujiwara policy of maintaining attachment to the imperial family through the marriage of Fujiwara daughters to emperors • It meant that the Fujiwara daughters were empresses, that their grandsons and nephews were emperors, and that members of their family, including its lesser branches, received all the patronage • Thus, the Fujiwara clan chieftain, whether he held office or not, could manipulate the reins of government • During the Heian period, Japan experienced a golden age and Lady Murasaki wrote the first novel, The Tale of the Genji

Filial Piety

• Xiao is the Confucian term for filial piety • In Confucianism, filial piety is the attitude of obedience, devotion, and care toward one's parents and elder family members that is the basis of individual moral conduct and social harmony • Xiao consists in putting the needs of parents and family elders over self, spouse, and children, deferring to parents' judgment, and observing toward them the prescribed behavioral proprieties (li) • Xiao was rooted in China's past, in which land was held by large clans whose internal life was structured hierarchically and in a patriarchal fashion • Confucius raised Xiao to a moral precept by citing it as the basis of ren ("humanity" or "benevolence"), the cultivated love of other people that was the Confucian moral ideal • To honor and obey parents and ancestors is filial piety • It is to respect and to care for parents and ancestors