MY ANTHROPOLOGY 210 POWERPOINTS

The Various Primates 2

*Prosimians resemble other mammals more than anthropoid primates do and include *Lemurlike Forms *Lorislike Forms *Tarsiers

Race and Racism

*Race as a Construct of Biology *Race, Conquest, and the Role of Infectious Disease *Race and Behavior *Race and Intelligence

The Future of Human Variation

*What are the implications of practices, such as cloning and genetic engineering, for the genetic future of humans *The creation of the "perfect human" might be an evolutionary dead end

Archaeology

Archaeologists try to reconstruct history from the remains of human cultures. *Most studies deal with prehistory *Some specialize in historical archaeology

Relationships between Language and Culture 2

Cultural Influences on Language *Basic Words for Colors, Plants, and Animals *Grammar

Defining Culture

Culture is a set of learned behaviors and ideas that are characteristic of a particular society or other social group. Some anthropologists include material culture in defining culture.

How and Why Cultures Change 2

Discovery and Invention *Unconscious Invention *Intentional Invention *Who Adopts Innovations? *Costs and Benefits

How and Why Cultures Change

Discovery and Invention Diffusion Acculturation

Cultural Constraints

Emile Durkheim stressed that culture is something outside us, exerting a strong coercive power on us. *Norms are standards or rules about what is acceptable behavior.

2. Primatology is the study of plants and insects. T/F

False

Gender Concepts

Gender differences refer to cultural expectations and experiences of females and males. Sex differences refer to purely biological differences.

The Various Primates 3

Hominoids include: *Hylobates (gibbons &Siamangs) *Pongids (Orangutans, Gorillas, & Chimpanzees) *Hominids (Humans)

Historical Linguistics

How do languages change over time? *Language Families and Culture History

11. The stone tool tradition identified with Homo erectus is _____.

NOT Lower Paleolithic Ar

The Worldwide Trend Toward Commercialization

One of the most important changes resulting from the expansion of Western societies and the capitalist system is the increasingly worldwide dependence on commercial exchange. Commercialization occurs due to: *Migratory Labor *Nonagricultural Commercial Production *Supplementary Cash Crops *Introduction of Commercial and Industrial Agriculture

2. Early New World hunters are called________.

Paleo-Indians

Resolution of Conflict

Peaceful Resolution of Conflict Violent Resolution of Conflict

Proconsul

Probably appearance of Proconsul, a dryopithecine A genus of early Miocene proconsulids from Africa, ancestral to catarrhines.

Chapter 5 Human Variation and Adaptation

Processes in Human Variation and Adaptation Physical Variation in Human Populations Race and Racism The Future of Human Variation

Relationships between Language and Culture 3

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Language is a force in its own right, and it affects how individuals in a society perceive and conceive reality.

The Ethnography of Speaking

Sociolinguistics is concerned with the ethnography of speaking, or cultural and subcultural patterns of speech variation in different social contexts.

Anthropological Linguistics

The anthropological study of language *Historical Linguistics *Descriptive or Structural Linguistics *Sociolinguistics

The Origins of Language

The origins of spoken language are unknown. *Pidgin and Creole Languages *Children's Acquisition of Language

Fig. 7.3 Continental Drift

The supercontinent Pangea split into Laurasia and Gondwanaland 135 million years ago (mya). These further divided into the continents as we know them today.

Communication

The word communicate comes from the Latin verb communicare, "to impart," "to share'" "to make common." Nonverbal Human Communication Nonhuman Communication

20. Conflicts within a society can be resolved through avoidance, community action, and mediation. T/F

True

Biological Anthropology

Two Primary Focuses of Study: *Human Paleontology *Human Variation

6. Skin color has often been considered an indicator of "race". However, there are problems with this because

all of the above

3. During the Upper Paleolithic, the world experienced the last ice age. This caused the world's temperature to be a. an average of 50 degrees below today's b. no different than today's c. an average of 10 degrees warmer than today's d. no one is really certain of its effects

an average of 50 degrees below today's

16. Which of the following hominid characteristics came first? a. modification of the female pelvis b. expansion of the brain c. reduction of the face d. bipedalism

bipedalism

6. Why do we think it possible that Neanderthals had funeral rituals?

fossil evidence shows what looks like planned burial sites

21. Slavery

has existed in various forms in many times and places

18. Private ownership of land would most likely be found where people make their living through a. horticulture b. specialized pastoralism c. intensive agriculture d. shifting agriculture

intensive agriculture

pygmy marmoset

world's smallest monkey

Distinctive Hominid Traits 2

*Physical features include: *completely bipedal *large and complex brain *teeth are not specialized *male-female bonding

Culture is Patterned 2

Adaptation to the Environment Maladaptive Customs-those that diminish the chances of survival and reproduction. Adaptive Customs - those that enhance survival.

CH. 6 The Living Primates

*Common Primate Traits *Classification of Primates *The Various Primates *Distinctive Hominid Traits *Primate Adaptations

Globalization: Problems and Opportunities

Globalization is the spread of cultural features around the world. The diffusion of a cultural trait does not mean that it is incorporated in exactly the same way.

Archaeological Inferences about Civilization 3

How can archaeologists tell, from the information provided by material remains, whether a society was a state or not? This depends, in part, on what is used as the criterion for a state (i.e. levels of admin, differences in settlement size, clay seals, etc.) Archaeologists do not always agree on how a state should be defined. However, most agree that hierarchical and centralized decision making affecting a substantial population is the key.

The Emergence of Anthropoids: Oligocene Epoch (34-24 million years ago)

Oligocene Anthropoids *Parapithecids (monkeylike) *Small, generally weighing less than 3 pounds, resembling squirrel monkeys *Ate mostly fruits and seeds and did a considerable amount of leaping Propliopithecids (apelike) *Aegyptopithecus, the best-known propliopithecid *Aegyptopithecus, the best-known propliopithecid *Moved quadrupedally in the trees, weighed about 13 pounds, was active during hte day, and ate mostly fruit

Upper Paleolithic Europe

People remained hunters and gatherers and fishers and lived in highly mobile bands. They made their camps out in the open and in caves and rock shelters.

Racism and Inequality

Racism is the belief that some "races" are inferior to others; almost invariably associated with social stratification Race as a Construct of Biology - for many biological anthropologists, "race" is not scientifically useful for classifying humans Race as a Social Category - "racial" classifications should be recognized as social categories to which individuals are assigned, by themselves and others, on the basis of supposedly shared biological traits

Module 2 Quiz 1. Which of the following is NOT a hominoid characteristic?

a tail

Module 3 Quiz 1. Gracile australopthecines include all of the following except aethiopicus anamensis afarensis africanus

aethiopicus

23. Which of the following is not considered a classification of political organization? a. bands b. tribes c. clans d. states

clans

Module 5 Quiz 1. Which of the following is not considered a classification of political organization? a. bands b. tribes c. clans d. states

clans

Module 4 Quiz 1. A consequence of the rise in food production include: a. declining health b. a smaller population growth c. more equality socioeconomically d. all of the above

declining health

6. Slavery a. is most common in societies with intensive agriculture b. is extremely rare in the anthropological record c. has been found most often in horticultural societies d. has existed in various forms in many times and places

has existed in various forms in many times and places

24. Political life includes all of the following except: a. party politics b. the various branches of government c. the issue of parking tickets d. the resolution of disputes

the issue of parking tickets

3. In many countries, like the US educational attainment predicts one's social class better than parent's occupation does because a. the more education you have, it is harder to find work and thus, the poorer you will be b. the more education you have, the higher the average lifetime income you will earn c. parent's occupation never means much in understanding social class d. these countries have complex social systems which make it difficult to predict social class

the more education you have, the higher the average lifetime income you will earn

Old World Monkeys (Catarrhines)

*Have narrow noses with nostrils facing downward *Include monkeys of the Old World (Africa, Asia, and Europe) as well as apes and humans *Related more closely to humans than to New World monkeys *Two premolars *Not as diverse but live in a greater variety of habitats *Two major subfamilies: colobine and cercopithecine monkeys

CH. 8 The First Hominids

*The Evoluton of Bipedal Locomotion *The Transition from Hominoids to Hominids *Australopithecus: The First Definite Hominid *One Model of Human Evolution

CH. 4 Genetics and Evolution

*The Principles of Natural Selection *Heredity *Sources of Variability *The Origin of Species *Natural Selection of Behavioral Traits

What Is Protected?

*The actual protection that cultural resources are afforded differs from state to state and from site to site. *In general, archaeological sites on government lands, including national and state parks, forests, reservoirs, and military bases, are well protected. *The largest gap in cultural resource protection in the United States is on private lands. * Archaeological resources on private land have come to be thought of as part of that land and therefore, the private property of the owner.

Normalizing Selection

*The average value does not change, but natural selection removes the extremes. *Example: birth weight of babies *Both very low birth weights and very high birth weights are disadvantageous and would be selected against

The Miocene Anthropoids: Middle Miocene Apes

*The first definitely ape-like finds come from the middle Miocene, 16 million to 10 million years ago *Pierolapithecus *Capable of brachiation, probably spent most of its time in trees, good candidate for the ancestor of later forest-dwelling apes *Kenyapithecus *More terrestrial, diet of hard, tough foods

The Divergence of Hominids form the Other Hominoids

*The fossil record does not tell us much about the first hominids *The hominid-ape split is thought to have occurred during the late Miocene (about 6 million years ago)

Archaeological Inferences about Civilization

Civilization refers to the first inscriptions, or writing; cities; many kinds of full-time craft specialists; monumental architecture; great differences in wealth and status; and the kind of strong, hierarchical, centralized political system we call the State.

Ch. 18 Social Stratification

*A long enduring value in the United States is the belief that "all men are created equal" *Does not mean that all people are equal in wealth or status but rather that all are supposed to be equal before the law *Without exception, recent and modern industrial and postindustrial societies such as our own are socially stratified. *Systems of social stratification are strongly linked to the customary ways in which economic resources are allocated, distributed, and converted through labor into goods and services. *But stratification cannot be understood solely in terms of economic resources; there are other benefits such as prestige and power that may be unequally distributed

Regional Controlled Comparisons

*An ethnographic comparison between societies in the same or similar region

Ethics in Anthropological Research

*Anthropologists have many ethical obligations *to the people they study *to their anthropological colleagues *to the public and the world community *to their employers **Most important ethical obligation is to the people they study *Honest, objective reporting is also an obligation *Archaeologists have increased ethical obligations to the descendants of those they study. *When physical anthropologists and archaeologists work with skeletal and even fossil materials, the ethical considerations can become complex.

Artifacts

*Anything made or modified by humans

The Emergence of Primates: What in Particular May Have Favored the Emergence of Primates?

*Arboreal Theory - primates evolved from insectivores that took to the trees *Visual Predation Theory - primates selected to hunt insects on slender vines and branches

Finding the Evidence of the Past

*Archaeologists and paleontologists usually restrict their searches to sites. Sites are known or suspected locations of human activity in the past that contain a record of that activity.

The Emergence of Primates The Environment

*Around the beginning of the Paleocene epoch, temperatures began to fluctuate, the climate became drier, swamplands disappeared *The beginning of the Eocene was warmer and less seasonal than the Paleocene, and vast tropical forests abounded. *Expansion and diversification of deciduous trees and flowering plants

Studying the Distant Past

*Artifacts *Ecofacts *Fossils *Features *Finding the Evidence of the Past *Dating the Evidence from the Past

Race and Racism Race and Behavior

*As an outgrowth of earlier attempts to show that inferior "races" have "primitive" cultures, some scholars have attempted to demonstrate behavioral differences between "races" *No evidence to support that "race" can predict variation in human behavior

Race and Racism Race as a Construct of Biology

*As applied to humans, racial classifications have often been confounded with racism, the belief that some "races" are innately inferior to others. *Racial classification is also problematic because there is sometimes more physical, physiological, and genetic diversity within a single geographic group that might be called a "race" than there is between supposed "racial" groups *"Race", when applied to humans, is a social category, not a scientific one

Distinctive Hominid Traits 3

*Behavioral abilities include: *behavior is learned and culturally patterned *use of tools to make others *spoken, symbolic language *division of labor in food-getting and food- sharing

Fields of Anthropology

*Biological (Physical) Anthropology *Cultural Anthropology *Applied or Practicing Anthropology (see Fig. 1.1) The four major subdisciplines of anthropology (in bold letters) may be classified according to subject matter (physical or cultural) and according to the period with which each is concerned (distant past versus recent past and present). There are applications of anthropology in all four subdisciplines)

The Evolution of Evolution

*Charles Darwin's theory of Evolution suggested that different species developed, one from another, over long periods of time. *Darwin later rejected his original notion, focusing instead on a process of natural selection.

Ch. 20 Sex, Gender, and Culture

*In the US and many Western societies, there are only two genders - female or male. Your gender is assigned at birth based on external biological attributes. *however, not all individuals feel comfortable with their gender assignment. The term transgender is now used to describe people who don't feel that their assigned gender fits them well. *As we discuss differences and similarities between females and males, keep in mind that not all cultures conceive of gender as including just two categories. Sometimes "maleness" and "femaleness" are thought of as opposite ends of a continuum, or there might be three or more categories of gender, such as "female", "male"' and "other".

Directional Selection

*Increases the frequency of a trait; the trait is said to be positively favored, or adaptive *The average value shifts over time toward the adaptive trait, example: Kettlewell Moth Experiments *In 1850, an almost black moth was spotted for the first time in Manchester. It was unusual because most of the moths were speckled gray. A century later, 95% of the moths in industrial parts of Britain were black; only in the rural areas were the moths mostly gray. How is this to be explained? *In the rural areas, the gray-speckled moth is hard to spot by bird predators against the lichen growing on the bark of trees. But in industrial areas, lichen is killed by pollution. The gray-speckled moths, formerly well adapted to blend into their environment, became clearly visible against the darker environment of the lichen-free trees and were easier prey for birds. In contrast, the black moths, which previously had a disadvantage against the lighter bark, were now better adapted for survival. Their dark color was an advantage, and subsequently the darker moths became the predominant variety in industrial regions.

Anthropology

-A discipline of infinite curiosity and human beings -Broader in scope than other disciplines -Every part of the world containing human populations is of interest to anthropological study

5. Cro-Magnon first appeared in Europe about ______ years ago

35,000

Processes in Human Variation and Adaptation 2

Acclimatization: involves physiological adjustments to environmental conditions in individuals Influence of the Cultural Environment: culture allows humans to modify their environments, and such modifications may lessen the likelihood of genetic adaptations and physiological acclimitizations.

Processes in Human Variation and Adaptation 1

Adaptations are genetic changes that give their carriers a better chance to survive and reproduce than individuals without the genetic change.

Variation in Political Process

Anthropologists are increasingly interested in the politics, or political processes, of the societies they study: who acquires influence or power, how they acquire it, and how political decision are made. *Getting to be a Leader *"Big Men" and "Big Women" in tribal societies Political Participation *Degree of political participation seems to be high in small-scale societies, as well in modern democratic nation-states, but not in between (feudal states and preindustrial empires). Why?

Variation in Degree of Social Inequality 2

Anthropologists conventionally distinguish three types of societies in terms of the degree to which different social groups have unequal access to advantages: *Egalitarian societies *Rank societies *Class societies

10. The first definite hominid was ______.

Australopithecus

8. ___________describes what seems to be a general relationship between body size and temperature.

Bergmann's rule

Class Societies

Class societies have unequal access to all three advantages - economic resources, power, and prestige There is unequal access to prestige and is characterized by groups of people that have substantially greater or lesser access to economic resources and power - that is, not every social group has the same opportunity to obtain land, animals, money, or other economic benefits or the same opportunity to exercise power that other groups have. Fully stratified or class societies range from somewhat open to virtually closed class, or caste, system. A class is a category of people who all have about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power, and prestige. *Open Class Systems *Caste Systems *Slavery

Table 18-1 Stratification in Three Types of Societies

Egalitarian - no economic resources - no power - no prestige - ex: !Kung, Mbuti, Australian aborigines, Inuit, Ache, Yanomamo Rank - no economic resources - no power - no prestige ex: Samoans, Tahiti, Trobriand Islands, Ifaluk Class/caste - Yes Economic resources - Yes Power = Yes Prestige ex: United States, Canada, Greece, India, Inca

Egalitarian Societies

Egalitarian societies contain no social groups with greater or lesser access to economic resources, power, or prestige Does not mean that all people within such societies are the same; there will always be differences among individuals in age, gender, and in such abilities or traits as hunting skill, perception, health, creativity, physical prowess, attractiveness, and intelligence However, there is still equal access to status positions for people of the same ability Keeps inequality at a minimal level

Ethnicity and Inequality

Ethnicity refers to common origins and language, a shared history, and selected cultural differences, such as difference in religion, that characterize a group of people In multiethnic societies, ethnic differences are usually associated with inequities in wealth, power, and prestige. In other words, ethnicity is part of the system of stratification.

Ethnogenesis: The Emergence of New Cultures

Ethnogenesis is a process whereby new cultures are created usually in the aftermath of violent events such as depopulation, relocation, enslavement, and genocide

Variation in Types of Political Organization

Factors Association with Variation in Political Organization Aspects of variation in political organization are generally associated with shifts from food collection to more intensive food production, from small to large communities, from low to high population densities.

10. Harry Harlow's experiments demonstrated that play was unimportant to the development of young monkeys. T/F

False

3. The earliest identifiable stone tools from East Africa date from about 4.5 million years ago. T/F

False

5. If the two genes, or alleles, for a trait are the same, the organism is heterozygous. T/F

False

7. Sivaithecus is probably the ancestor of modern chimpanzees. T/F

False

8. If all social groups in a society have equal access to wealth, prestige, and power, then anthropologists call that society communistic T/F

False

8. The Neanderthal period in Africa is called the Neolithic. T/F

False

Original locations of the World's Main Food Crops

Fig. 12.2 Original Locations of the World's Main Food Crops Shows the regions of the world that domesticated today's main food crops and the color map gives more detail on how plants and animals spread from their regions of domestication *Barley, wheat, peas, lentils, chickpeas *Millets, sorghum, groundnuts, yams, dates, coffee, melons *Millets, rice *Rice, bananas, sugar cane, citrus fruits, coconuts, taro, yams *Maize or corn, squash, beans, pumpkins *Lima beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes, manioc, peanuts

Physical differences between Apes and Humans - The Skull

Gorilla Homo erectus Homo sapiens

Physical Differences between Apes and Humans - The pelvis and backbone

HUMANS: Backbone is S shaped Pelvis is broad, shallow from top to bottom and bowl-shaped Centre of gravity is just behind the lower back above the legs Have large gluteus maximus muscles ot support femur and pelvis APES: Backbone is arched Pelvis is narrow and elongated Centre of gravity is in the middle of the spine Small gluteus maximus and support body with arms instead

Physical Differences Between Apes and Humans - the skull

HUMANS: Occipital Condyle forward Foramen Magnum positioned underneath skull Area of attachment for neck (nuchal) muscles is small Large Brains - 1400 cm3 Modern human has chin and nose that sticks out Face is flat with forehead rising up from the eyes. Some early human had wide cheek bones called Zygomatic Arch APES: Occipital Condyle far back Foramen Magnum positioned rowards the back Area for attachment for neck (nuchal) muscles is large. Apes also have large sagittal crest for attachment on heavy chewing muscles Smaller Brains - 400 - 500 cm3 Apes have no chin and a flat nose Forehead slopes back from the eyes, large brow ridges. Apes are prognathic - lower face and jaw project in front of upper parts of face.

19. Which of the following is not characteristic of the chief? a. His people invest him with "ownership" of the land b. His position may be hereditary c. He is set apart from the others by the special regalia he wears d. His position carries considerable prestige

He is set apart from the others by the special regalia he wears

Describing a Culture 3

How to Discover Cultural Patterns Two Methods of Discovery: *Direct Observation *Sample

Physical differences between Apes and Humans - The pelvis and backbone

In gorillas the ischium bone is long and the entire pelvis is tilted horizontal In humans the ischium bone is much shorter and the pelvis is vertical

Describing a Culture

Individual Variation Ideal Versus Actual Cultural Patterns How to Discover Cultural Patterns

The Allocation of Resources

Natural Resources: Land *Every society has access to natural resources - land, water, plants, animals, minerals - and every society has cultural rules for determining who has access to particular resources and what can be done with them *The United States? How societies differ in their rules for access to land and other natural resources seems to be related in part to how they differ in food-getting

3. The main process that increases the frequency of adaptive traits through time is called.

Natural Selection

Preagricultural Developments 4

Other Areas: Southeast Asia may have been one of the important centers of original plant and animal domestication *Faunal remains indicate that many different sources of food were being exploited from the same base camps (birds, primates, bats, fish, deer, wild cattle, rhinoceros, etc.) Africa: *Increased sedentarism as well - Dakhleh Oasis in the Western Desert of Egypt *Between 9,000 and 8,500 years ago, the inhabitants lived in circular stone huts on the shores of rivers and lakes *Bone harpoons and pottery are found there and in other areas along the Nile Valley and through the central and southern Sahara

Cities and States in Southern Iraq

Our discussion focuses primarily on the Near East and Mexico because archaeologists know the most about the sequences of cultural development in those two areas. Southern Iraq: the major features of the cultural sequence leading to the first states in southern Iraq The Formative Era Sumerian Civilization Figure 13-2 (p. 210)Six Early Civilizations

Gender Roles 2

So why are females and males generally assigned different tasks? Scholars have suggested four explanations or theories: *Strength theory *Compatibility-with-child-care theory *Economy-of-effort-theory *Expendability theory

Cultures Change and Adaptation

Some conditions that may give rise to rebellion and revolution: *Loss of prestige of established authority *Threat to recent economic improvement *Indecisiveness of government *Loss of support of the intellectual class

Preagricultural Developments 2

The Near East *There seems to have been shift from big-game hunting to the use of many natural resources at the end of the Upper Paleolithic. *i.e. fish, mollusks, other water life; wild deer, sheep, goats; other wild grains, nuts and legumes The Natufians of the Near East *a people living in the area that is now Israel and Jordan *lived in circular pit houses, the floor of which was sunk a few feet into the ground so that the walls of the house consisted partly of earth, below ground level and partly of stone, above ground level - retained heat *The tools suggest that they harvested wild grain intensively = sickles *Earliest Epipaleolithic people kinown to have stored surplus crops in constructed plastered storage pits beneath the floors of their houses *Archeological evidence suggests increasing social complexity *Sites on average were five times larger than predecessors, year-round communities, village cemeteries

Ch. 11 The Upper Paleolithic World

The period of cultural history known as the Upper Paleolithic in Europe, the Near East, and Asia or the Later Stone Age in Africa dates from about 40,000 years ago to about 14,000 to 10,000 years ago.

New World Monkeys - Cebids (Platyrrhines)

Top left: Squirrel monkey Bottom left: Woolly spider monkey Top right: capuchin Bottom right: howler

9. Full bipedalism may have been made possible the development of more efficient tool making and consequently more efficient scavenging and foraging. T/F

True

The Conversion of Resources 2

Types of Economic Production: *Domestic - family or kinship; people labored to produce for themselves and their kin *Tributary - found in nonindustrial societies in which most people still produce their own food but an elite or aristocracy controls a portion of production *Industrial - much of the work is based on mechanized production, as in factories but also in mechanized agriculture; most people labor for others as wage earners due to the production expenses. *Postindustrial - computers "drive" machines and robots and much of the manual work required in industry disappears *Telecommuting - people working for wages from their homes

Observed Examples of Natural Selection

Types of natural selection: *Directional selection *Normalizing selection *Balancing selection

Theories About the Origin of the State

We have seen that states developed in many parts of the world. Why did they evolve when and where they did? A number of theories have been proposed: Irrigation It has been suggested that the labor and management needed for the upkeep of an irrigation system led the formation of a political elite, the overseers of the system, who eventually became the governors of the society Critics note that this theory does not seem to apply to all areas where cities and states may have emerged independently; however, even small-scale irrigation systems could have resulted in unequal access to productive land and so may have contributed to the development of a stratified society May have given rise to border and other disputes The main significance may have been its intensification of production, a development that in turn may have indirectly stimulated craft specialization, trade, and an administrative bureaucracy

The Emergence of Primates

When did primates first emerge? *Paleocene (65 million years ago) *Plesiadipis *Eocene (55 million years ago) *Adapids and Omomyids Fig. 7.1 The Evolution of the Primates

The Processes of Linguistic Divergence

While isolation brings about divergence between speech communities, contact results in greater resemblance. Dialects are differences in phonology, morphology, and syntax that are not great enough to produce unintelligilbility.

4. Robust australopithecines include all of the following except africanus aethiopicus boisei robustus

africanus

4. Cities and states emerged in Mesoamerica later than the Near East because a. the population in Mesoamerica were not interested at first b. Mesoamerica is much further North than areas of the Near East c. agriculture started later in the New World d. it was easier to domesticate large animals like cattle and horses

agriculture started later in the New World

5. One of the more stunning developments in the Upper Paleolithic was the development of a. the first stone tools b. art c. music d. literature

art

10. A __________ is a ranked group in which membership is determined at birth and marriage is restricted to members of one's own group.

caste

7. Which of the following is not characteristic of the chief? a. his people invest him with "ownership" of the land b. his position may be hereditary c. he is set apart from the others by the special regalia he wears d. his position carries considerable prestige

he is set apart from the others by the special regalia he wears

6. Most archaeologists agree that the key criterion for a state is a. hierarchical and centralized decision making affecting a substantial population b. large buildings c. sports stadiums d. at least 50 settlements governed by a central government

hierarchical and centralized decision making affecting a substantial population

9. Private ownership of land most likely to be found where people make their living through a. horticulture b. specialized pastoralism c. intensive agriculture d. shifting agriculture

intensive agriculture

Hylobates - Gibbons and Siamangs 2

left - gibbon right - siamang

4. ____________is a change in the DNA sequence that can produce an altered gene.

mutation

7. Which of the following is NOT a distinct hominid trait?

prehensile feet

13. All of the following are "costs" of bipedalism except: a. it is harder to overcome gravity to supply the brain with sufficient blood b. the weight of the body above the pelvis and lower limbs puts greater stress on the hips, lower back, knees, and feet c. the hands were freed for other tasks d. pregnant women had greater stress placed on the lower limbs

the hands were freed for other tasks

2. Political life includes all of the following except: a. party politics b. the various branches of government c. the issue of parking tickets d. the resolution of disputes

the issue of parking tickets

Ecofacts

*Natural objects that humans have used or affected.

The Ethnography of Speaking 2

*Social Status and Speech *Gender Differences in Speech *Multilingualism and Code-switching

The Anthropological Curiosity

-Anthropologists generally focus on typical characteristics of a population, such as traits or customs -How does one explain the differing characteristics of human groups?

Ch. 1 What is Anthropology?

-The scope of anthropology -The Holistic approach -The Anthropological Curiosity -Fields of Anthropology -Specialization -The Relevance of Anthropology

Chiefdom Organization

A chiefdom has some formal structure that integrates more than one community into a political unit; most commonly there is a person - the chief - who has higher rank or authority than others *The position of chief, which is sometimes hereditary and generally permanent, bestows high status on its holder. *Most chiefdoms have social ranking and accord the chief and his family greater access to prestige; the chief may redistribute goods, plan and direct use of public labor, supervise religious ceremonies, and direct military activities Most contain more than one multicommunity political unit or chiefdom, each headed by a district chief or council More densely populated and communities are more permanent Extensive/intensive agriculture or herding Rank society

Ch. 17 Economic System

All societies have: *customs specifying how people gain access to natural resources *customary ways of transforming or converting those resources, through labor, into necessities and other desired goods and services *customs for distributing and perhaps exchanging goods and services Most of the cross-cultural variation in economic systems is related to how a society primarily gets its food Many aspects of traditional economic systems have altered due to global political and economic forces

The Earliest Humans and Their Cultures in The New World 2

Archaeological remains of early New World hunters, called Paleo-Indians, have been found in the U.S., Mexico, and Canada Finds have indicated that Paleo-Indian hunters deliberately stampeded animals, such as Bison, into a natural trap, an arroyo

Class Societies 3

Caste Systems are characterized as extremely rigid and closed systems, with caste membership permanently determined at birth, and marriage restricted to members of one's own caste The only way you can belong is by being born into the group; and because you cannot marry outside the group, your children cannot acquire another caste status either Perpetuation of the caste system is ensured by the power of those in the upper castes, who derive three main advantages from their position: economic, prestige, and sexual gains

The Conversion of Resources 4

Division of Labor *All societies have some division of labor, or customary assignment of different kinds of work to different kinds of people *Universally, males and females and adults and children do not do the same kinds of work; in a sense, division of labor by gender and age is a kind of universal specialization of labor; some societies have more complex specializations The Organization of Labor *Great occupational specialization in industrial societies; Little formal organization in food-collecting and horticultural societies; kinship ties important in nonindustrial societies Making Decision About Work **Optimal foraging theory: assumes that individuals seek to maximize the returns, in calories and nutrients, on their labor in deciding which animals and plants to hunt or collect

The Domestication of Plants and Animals 3

Domestication in Mesoamerica *Early domesticates included the bottle gourd, tomatoes, cotton, beans and squashes, and maize. *Guila Naquitz *Domestication accomplished by hunters and gatherers who supplemented their basic diet with some desired plants; there was no "revolution" that enabled the people to rely on domesticated plants Fig. 12.3 (p. 196) Teosinte Plant, Spike, and Seeds and Maize Plant, Cob, and Kernels Note how much larger the domesticated maize cob and kernels are compared to the teosinte spike and seeds.

The Conversion of Resources 3

Incentives for Labor *Why do people work? Are the incentives the same in all societies? Why do people in some societies work more than they must? Forced and Required Labor *Thus far, we have discussed voluntary labor - voluntary in the sense that no formal organization within the society compels people to work and punishes them for not working *More complex societies have ways of forcing people to work for the authorities *Indirect form of forced labor: taxation *Conscription or the draft, or compulsory military service, is a form of required labor, in that a certain period of services is required and failure to serve can be punished by a prison term or involuntary exile

Physical Variation in Human Population

Lactase Deficiency *It appears that, after infancy, many people lack the enzyme lactase, which is necessary for breaking down the sugar in milk - lactase - into simpler sugars that can be absorbed into the bloodstream *More recent studies indicate that lactose intolerance occurs frequently in adults in many parts of the world *Cultural solution to the problem of lactase deficiency -transform milk into cheese, yogurt, sour cream, etc. *Natural selection may favor lactase production in adulthood, as well as lighter skin, at higher latitudes (where there is less sunlight)

Descriptive Linguistics

Linguists have invented special concepts and methods of describing language: *Phonology *Morphology *Syntax

Preagricultural Developments 3

Mesoamerica *Permanent settlements began to emerge only after the domestication of plants and animals The Archaic Peoples of Highland Mesoamerica (mountainous regions of central and southern Mexico) *Moved seasonally between communities of two different sizes: camps with 15-30 residents (macrobands) and camps with only 2-5 residents (microbands) *Unlike the Natufians, there is no evidence of social differences among the Archaic peoples of Mesoamerica Little evidence of ritual behavior beyond the presence of what may have been a ceremonial dance floor at Gheo-Shih, a macroband campsite in the Valley of Oaxaca ***Remains of these camps are often found in caves or rock shelters from which a variety of environments could be exploited by moving either upslope or downslope from the campsite

The Worldwide Trend Toward Commercialization 2

Migratory Labor *Some members of a community move to a place that offers the possibility of working for a wage *In many areas of the world, the money sent back home has become a major factor in the economy *Migration has become part of a family's economic strategy

Physical Variation in Human Population 7

Sickle-Cell Anemia *Another biological variation is an abnormality of the red blood cells known as sickle-cell anemia or sicklemia *Why has the allele for sickle-cell persisted in various populations? *"Malaria theory" Fig. 5.3 Geographic Distribution of Sicklemia and Its Relationship to the Distribution of Malaria

Physical Variation in Human Population 3

Skin Color Gloger's rule states that populations of birds and mammals living in warmer climates have more melanin and, therefore, darker skin, fur, or feathers, than species living in cooler areas. On the whole, this association with climate holds true for people as well as for other mammals and birds

The Last Ice Age

The Upper Paleolithic world was characterized with a much different environment. The world was locked in an ice age, with glaciers covering much of northern Europe and North America, and annual temperatures were as much as 10 degrees Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit) below today's temperatures.

Preagricultural Developments

The first clear evidence of a changeover to food production, or the cultivation and domestication of plants and animals, was in the Near East, about 8000 B.C. *Called the Neolithic Revolution by archaeologist V. Gordon Childe *Sedentarism = settled life *Agriculture = all types of domestic plant cultivation *Keep in mind that agriculture and a sedentary life did not necessarily develop together *Much of our discussion focuses on the Near East and Mesoamerica, the areas we know best archaeologically for the developments leading to food production and settled life **Keep in mind, in some regions of the world, people began to live in permanent villages before they cultivated and domesticated plants and animals, whereas people in other places planted crops without settling down permanently

The Emergence of Anthropoids

The fossil record documenting the emergence of anthropoids is extremely spotty. Undisputed remains of early anthropoids date from a somewhat later period, the late Eocene and early Oligocene, about 34 million years ago, in the Fayum area, southwest of Cairo, Egypt

Figure 13-1 (p. 208)The Emergence of Civilization

The most ancient civilizations arose in the Near East around 3500 BC, in northwestern India and in Peru about 2500 BC, in northern China around 1750 BC, in Mexico a few hundred years before the time of Christ, and in tropical Africa somewhat later

Relative Status of Women

There appears to be variation in the degree of gender stratification from one society to another. Less complex societies, however, seem to approach more equal status for males and females in a variety of areas of life.

Trends in Primates

These include changes in the skeleton *locomotion, an increase in brain size, a shift toward smaller, fewer, and less specialized teeth, evolution of stereoscopic vision grasping hand with opposable thumb *Not all these trends took place in every primate group, nor did they evolve at the same rate in each group *In fact, some primates have retained certain primitive features, whereas others show all or most of the trends

Upper Paleolithic Europe Upper Paleolithic Tools

Tool kit was characterized by blades, burins, bone and antler tools, and later microliths New inventions such as the bow and arrow, the spear thrower (atlatl), and the harpoon Two new techniques of tool making appeared: *Indirect percussion *Pressure flaking Fig. 11.3 One way to remove blades from a core is to hit them with a punch using indirect percussion. The object being struck is the punch, which is made of bone or horn.

The Consequences of State Formation 3

Warfare and political terror flourish: when states develop, people become governed by force and are no longer able to say "no" to their leaders; Police and military forces can become instruments of oppression and terror. The class stratification of states creates differences in access to resources and an underclass of poor, uneducated, and frequently unhappy people. Health issues are exacerbated by the concentration of people in cities, an environment in which epidemic diseases can flourish. Without direct access to food supplies, people in cities also face the threat of malnutrition or outright starvation if food production and distribution systems fail. All states appear to be expansionistic, and the emergence of state warfare and conquest seems one of the most striking negative impacts of the evolution of states.

15. A society practicing which form of stratification when the members of the society have equal access to economic resources but not to prestige? a. egalitarian b. caste c. class d. rank

rank

State Organization

"an autonomous political unit, encompassing many communities within its territory and having a centralized government with the power to collect taxes, draft men for work or war, and decree and enforce laws" Have a complex, centralized political structure that includes a wide range of permanent institutions with legislative, executive, and judicial functions and a large bureaucracy *Legitimate force used to implement policies both internally and externally - monopoly on the use of physical force seen in the development of formal and specialized instruments of social control such as a police for, a militia, or a standing army Intensive agriculture and herding allowing for the emergence of cities and towns, a high degree of economic and other kinds of specialization, and market or commercial exchange Class and caste societies

"Kennewick Man"

*9,200-year-old skeleton found in July 1996, along the Columbia River in Washington State. *Before Anthropologists could study the skeleton, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers turned the remains over to the Umatilla Indians, as the remains were found on Corps land within their reservation. *The physical anthropologists and archaeologists who wanted to study this very old skeleton faced an ethical dilemma: ***A group claiming to be related to the individual did not want the study to be undertaken, but, without the study, the group's claim of relationship could not be firmly established. *A lawsuit was filed under NAGPRA by the physical anthropologists and archaeologists *At the core of the legal case were these questions: *To whom does this skeleton belong? * If this is an individual who is related to contemporary Native Americans, then do the Umatilla get to speak for ALL Native American groups, even though 9,000 years separate them? Or should other Native American groups, who may also be descended from this individual or his group, also have a say in what happens? *Underlying these questions was a deeper struggle between anthropologists and Native Americans over historic preservation and whose wished and ideas carry the most weight ***(Science vs. Culture)*** *Archaeologists and anthropologists feel ethical responsibilities that can be in conflict when dealing with human remains. *As part of the archaeological record, archaeologists and anthropologists have an ethical responsibility to protect and preserve human remains. *However, they also have an ethical responsibility to consult with and follow the wishes of local groups with whom they are working.

Features

*A type of artifacts that cannot be easily removed from an archaeological site.

Applied Anthropology

*About half of all professional anthropologists are applied, or practicing, anthropologists *Applied anthropologists may be trained in one or more of the subfields of anthropology

Consequences of the Rise of Food Production

*Accelerated Population Growth *Increased fertility may have been advantageous because of the greater value of children in farming and herding economies *Declining Health *Incomplete formation of tooth enamel, nonaccidental bone lesions, reduction in stature, and decreased life expectancy; less adequate nutrition and higher infection rates *The Elaboration of Material Possessions *Houses and furnishings became more elaborate and people began to make textiles and paint pottery; evidence of long-distance trade Fig. 12.7 (p. 201) Population Growth Since 10,000 years ago The rate of population growth accelerated after the emergence of farming and herding 10,000 years ago. The rate of growth accelerated even more dramatically in recent times. P. 203 As this reconstruction shows, transforming grain into flour was a "daily grind," putting a great deal of stress on the lower back and knees. Studies of Neolithic skeletons of women show marks of stress on bone and arthritis, probably reflecting their long hours of work at the grinding stone

How and Why Cultures Change *

*Acculturation refers to the changes that occur when different cultural groups come into intensive contact. *A situation in which one of the societies in contact is much more powerful than the other.

Peaceful Resolution of Conflict 3

*Adjudication, Courts, & Codified Law - we call it adjudication when a third party acting as judge makes a decision that the disputing parties have to accept *Judgment may be rendered by one person (a judge), a panel of judges, a jury, or a political agent or agency (a chief, a royal personage, a council) *Judges and courts may rely on codified law and stipulated punishments, but codified law is not necessary for decisions to be made

Ethnography

*After doing fieldwork, an anthropologists may prepare an ethnography, or a description and analysis of a single society

Gender Roles

*All or nearly all societies assign certain activities to females and other activities to males. *Gender roles refer to role assignments for females and males that are a product of a particular culture. *Interestingly, the gender division of labor in many societies is divided up in similar ways * Why are there universal or near-universal patterns in such assignments?

Sexuality

*All societies seek to regulate sexual activity to some degree with rules governing "proper"conduct and there is a lot of variation cross-culturally *In addition, a society's degree of restrictiveness is not always consistent throughout the life span or for all aspects of sex. *There is much variation from one society to another in the degree of sexual activity permitted or encouraged before marriage, outside marriage, and even within marriage. And societies vary markedly in their tolerance of nonheterosexual sexuality.

Explanation

*An explanation is an answer to a why question *Associations or Relationships *When two or more variables tend to be related in a predictable way. *Theories: *Explain why laws or associations exist. Scientists try to formulate theories that will explain observed relationships.

Fossils

*An impression or the hardened remains of a once living organism.

The Various Primates

*Anthropoids include humans, apes, and monkeys *New World Monkeys (Platyrrhine) *Old World Monkeys (Catarrhine) *Colubine Monkeys *Cercopithecine Monkeys New World Monkeys - Callitrichids (Platyrrhines) Top left: pygmy marmoset (world's smallest monkey) Middle: lion tamarin Bottom right: cotton top tamarin

Race and Racism Race and Intelligence

*Attempts to document differences in intelligence among the so-called races have a fairly long history *19th century - measuring skulls *World War I - alpha and beta IQ tests *Otto Klineberg and Arthur Jensen - IQ tests

Hominoids - Apes and Humans

*Brains are relatively large, especially in the areas of the cerebral cortex associated with the ability to integrate data *All have fairly long arms, short, broad trunks, and no tails *Wrist, elbow, and shoulder joints allow a greater range of movement, hands are longer and stronger *Often suspend themselves from below the branches and swing or climb hand over hand from branch to branch *All, at least occasionally, move bipedally *"Y-5" dentition pattern on lower molars *All hominoids except for humans have long canine teeth that project beyond the tops of the other teeth and a corresponding space on the opposite jaw (diastema)

Classification of Primates

*Classification provides a useful way to refer to groups of species that are similar in biologically important ways *Classification schemes vary *Evolutionary branching *Quantity of shared features *Both features and evolution Fig. 6.3 A Simplified Classification of the Living Primates

Old World Monkeys (Catarrhines) 2

*Colobine Monkeys -includes Asian langurs, African colobus monkeys, and several other species -live mostly in trees, and their diet consists principally of leaves and seeds -one of the most noticeable features is the flamboyant color typical of newborns Top left: baboon Bottom left: mandrill baboon Top right: rhesus macaque Bottom right: japanese macaque

Relationships between Language and Culture

*Cultural Influences on Language *Linguistic Influences on Culture

The Domestication of Plants and Animals 4

*Domestication Elsewhere in the World *South America and the Eastern United States *East Asia *Africa

The Emergence of Primates: The Early Primates: What They Looked Like

*Had many of the features of modern primates - nails rather than claws, a grasping, opposable first toe, and a bony bar around the side of the eye socket. *Vertical clinging and leaping was probably a common method of locomotion. *Eocene prosimians not only moved around the way modern prosimians do; some were similar skeletally to living prosimians.

The Domestication of Plants and Animals

*Domestication in the Near East *Domestication in Mesoamerica *Domestication Elsewhere in the World Fig. 12.5 (p. 94) Early Agricultural Settlements in the Near East Modern cities are represented by a dot, early settlements by a square. The yellow color indicates the area known as the Fertile Crescent. **Note the Fertile Crescent, the arc of land stretching up from Israel and the Jordan Valley through southern Turkey and then downward to the western slops of the Zagros mountains in Iran

The Miocene Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Hominids?

*During the Miocene epoch (24 million to 5.2 million years ago), monkeys and apes clearly diverged in appearance, and numerous kinds of apes appeared in Europe, Asia, and Africa *Early Miocene Proto-Apes *Middle Miocene Apes *Late Miocene Apes

Early Anthropological Theory

*Early Evolutionism: Darwinism influenced cultural theory. In the early years the prevailing view was that culture generally develops (evolves) in a uniform and progressive manner. *"Race" Theory: Evolutionism influenced anthropology in the 19th century to posit that the reason human cultures differed was because they represented separate subspecies of humans of "races." *Diffusionism: *Popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries *Suggested that most aspects of high civilization had emerged in culture centers from which they then diffused out.

Types of Research in Anthropology

*Ethnography *Within-Culture Comparisons *Regional Controlled Comparisons *Cross-Cultural Research *Historical Research

Historical Research

*Ethnohistory consists of studies based on descriptive materials about a single society at more than one point in time.

Recent Developments in Anthropological Theory

*Evolutionary Ecology Approaches *The idea that natural selection can operate on the behavioral or social characteristic of a population. *Feminist Approaches: *With the advent of the "women's movement" of the 1960s a focused effort on studying the roles of women was found necessary. *Interpretive Approaches: *Clifford Geertz - a culture is a like a literary text that can be analyzed for meaning. *The goal is to understand what it means to be a person living in a particular culture, rather than to explain why cultures vary. *Postmodernists: *All knowledge is subjective and actively shaped by the political powers-that-be. *The Pragmatic Approach: *Most anthropologists do not have a particular theoretical orientation that drives their research. *Anthropology can strive for humanistic understanding and be scientific at the same time. *The Future: *Scholarly theories are the product of their times so it is difficult to predict what they will be in the future.

CH. 3 Research Methods in Anthropology

*Explanations *Testing Explanations *Types of Research in Anthropology *Studying the Distant Past *Ethics in Anthropological Research

Natural Resources: Land

*Foragers - generally do not have private ownership of land; land is not bought and sold *Horticulturalists - do not have individual or family ownership of land; however, more likely to allocate particular plots to individuals or families for their use *Pastoralists - community members generally have free access to pasture land but individual ownership of herd *Intensive Agriculturalists - private individual ownership *Colonialism, the State, and Land Rights - almost universally, colonial conquerors and settlers have taken land away from natives or aborigines; reservations

Natural Resources: Technology

*Foragers - typically have fairly small tool kits, limited to what they can carry with them (i.e. weapons for the hunt, digging sticks, receptacles for gathering and carrying); belong to who made them *Horticulturalists - knife for slashing and hoe/stick for digging; keep what you make but often lend tools to others low *Pastoralists - also limited however they can use their animals for transportation (i.e. tools, clothes, tent, livestock) *Intensive Agriculturalists - specialized complex tools often acquired from trade or purchase; less likely to be shared due to expense

Lorislike Forms

*Found in both Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa *All nocturnal and arboreal *Eat fruit, tree gum, and insects *Usually give birth to single infants *Two major subfamilies, the lorises and the bush babies Top left corner: loris Bottom right - bush baby Bush babies are quick, active animals that hop bw branches and tree trunks in the vertical-clinging-and-leaping pattern. On the ground, they often resort to a kangaroo-like hop. Lorises are much slower, walking sedately along branches hand over hand in the quadrupedal fashion

Hylobates - Gibbons and Siamangs

*Found in the jungles of Southeast Asia *Gibbons are small, weighing between 11-15 lbs.; siamangs somewhat larger, but no more than 25 lbs. *Mostly fruit eaters, although they also eat leaves and insects *Brachiators - their long arms and fingers let them swing hand over hand through the trees *Live in small groups consisting of an adult pair and their offspring *Little sexual dimorphism or clear pattern of dominance but highly territorial

Pongids - Gorillas

*Found in the lowland areas of western equatorial Africa and in the mountain areas of the Congo, Uganda, and Rwanda *Mostly eat other parts of plants - stems, shoots (e.g. bamboo), pith, leaves, roots, and flowers *Largest of the surviving apes; males can weigh up to 450 lbs. females up to 250 lbs. *Travel mostly on the ground on all fours (knuckle-walking) *Tend to live in groups consisting of a dominant male (silverback), other adult males, adult females, and offspring

Tarsiers

*Found now only on the islands of the Philippines and Indonesia *Nocturnal and tree-living *The only primates that depend completely on animal foods: usually insect eaters but sometimes capture and eat other small animals *Well equipped for night vision, possessing enormous eyes, extraordinary eyesight, and enlarged visual centers in the brain *Live in family groups composed of a mated pair and their offspring

Heredity

*Gregor Mendel's Experiments *Mendel's units of heredity were referred to as Genes *See Fig 4.1 When Mendel crossed a plant having two genes for yellow peas (YY) with a plant having two genes for green peas (yy), each offspring pea was yellow but carried one gene for yellow and one gene for gree (Yy) The peas wer eyellow because the gene for yellow is dominant over the recessive gene for green. Crossing the first generation yielded three yellow pea plants for each green pea plant. Genotype: genetic makeup Phenotype: observable appearance Allele: each member of a gene pair or group Homozygous: if the two genes, or alleles, for a trait are the same Heterozygous: two genes for a characteristic differ

Later Anthropological Theory

*Historical Particularism: *Frank Boas opposed evolutionism *Stressed the importance of collecting as much anthropological data as possible, from which the laws governing cultural variation would emerge *Psychological Approach: *How do psychological factors and processes help to explain cultural practices? *Functionalism: *An analysis of what function or part some aspect of culture or social life plays in the maintenance of society. *Neoevolution: *Leslie A. White revived the evolutionist approach *Added the conception of culture as an energy-capturing system. *Structuralism: *Levi-Strauss' approach views culture as a surface representation of the underlying patterns of the human mind. *Ethnoscience and Cognitive Anthropology: *Attempts to derive the rules of thought that may underlie a given culture from a logical analysis of ethnographic data. *Cultural Ecology: *The study of the relationships between cultures and their physical and social environments. *Political Economy: *Assumes that external forces explain the way a society changes and adapts. Central to this approach is the social and political impact of those state societies that transformed the world by colonialism and imperialism after the mid-140s.

The Relevance of Anthropology

*In order to understand humans, it is essential that we study humans in all times and places. *Anthropological studies can illustrate why other people are the way they are, both culturally and physically.

Relative Contributions to Work

*In the US, there is a tendency to equate "work" with a job earning income. Until relatively recently, being a "homemaker" was not counted as an occupation. *Anthropologists also tended to ignore household work: indeed, most of the research on division of labor by gender focuses on primary subsistence activities - gathering, fishing, hunting, herding, and farming *Relatively less attention is paid to gender contributions to secondary subsistence activities - those that involve the processing and preparation of food for eating and storing.

Ch. 24 Political Life

*In the United States, the phrase political life has many connotations *If we look beyond our formal institutions and mechanisms, we find that all societies have political activities and beliefs to create and maintain social order and cope with social disorder *When Anthropologists talk about political organization or political life, they are particularly focusing on activities and beliefs pertaining to territorial groups *The different types of political organization are often strongly linked to variation in food-getting, economy, and social stratification

Violent Resolution of Conflict 2

*Individual Violence - systems of individual self-help are characteristic of egalitarian societies *Feuding - a state of recurring hostilities between families or groups of kin, usually motivated by a desire to avenge an offense - whether insult, injury, deprivation, or death - against a member of the group *Raiding - short-term use of force, planned and organized to realize a limited objective. This objective is usually the acquisition of goods, animals, or other forms of wealth belonging to another, often neighboring community. *Large-Scale Confrontations - involve a large number of people and planning of strategies of attack and defense by both sides; large-scale warfare is usually practiced among societies with intensive agriculture or industrialization.

Domestication Discussion

*It appears that animals were first domesticated in the Near East *Dogs were first domesticated before the rise of agriculture, around 13,000 B.C. goats and sheep around 7,000 B.C., and cattle and pigs around 6,000 B.C. *Why would humans have been interested in taming wolves at that time? **Did dogs (and cats) domesticate themselves?? **Why? One theory is that humans were shifting their prey from large animals to small, and needed dogs for tracking; useful for alarm-givers in case of predators, dogs might have helped to keep a camp clean by scavenging garbage? This last theory suggests an alternative theory of dog domestication... dogs domesticated themselves by hanging around human camps

Lemurlike Forms

*Lemurs and their relatives, the indris and the aye-ayes, are found only on two island areas off the southeastern coast of Africa, Madagascar, and the Comoro Islands *Range in size from the mouse lemur to the 4-foot-long indri *Quadrupeds *Vertical clinging and leaping *Mostly vegetarian, eating fruit, leaves, bark, and flowers *Female dominance *top left corner: ring-tailed lemur mother and its babies holding on. Bottom left-corner: aye aye - narrow middle finger used to forage for food right side: indris

Pongids - Chimpanzees

*Live in the forested areas of Africa, from Sierra Leone to Tanzania *Two distinct species - the common chimp (Pan troglodytes) and the bonobo, or pygmy chimp (Pan paniscus) *Both arboreal and terrestrial *Less sexually dimorphic; males have longer canines *Primarily fruit eaters; however, common chimps not only eat insects, small lizards, birds, and actively hunt and kill larger animals Fig. 6.5 Difference in dentition between an Old World monkey (left) and an ape (right) In Old World monkeys, the cusps of the lower molars from two parallel ridges; in apes, the five cusps form a Y-shaped pattern. Apes also have a space between the lower canine and first premolar, called a diastemma

Band Organization

*Local group or community is the largest group that acts as a political unit *Typically small, less than 100 people; size often varies by season, with the band braking up or recombining according to the food resources available *Political decision making is generally informal; decisions are either agreed upon by the community as a whole or made by the best qualified member *Each band may have its informal headman, or its most proficient hunter, or a person most accomplished in rituals *There may be one person with all these qualities, or several, but such a person (s) will have gained status through the community's recognition of skill, good sense, and humility. *Leadership stems not from power but from influence *Predominant mode of subsistence is foraging food or food collecting. *Egalitarian

Common Primate Traits 1

*Mammalia *Warm-blooded *Give birth to live young *Long dependence on adults after birth *Play as a learning technique *Primates have a number of physical and social traits that set them apart from other mammals

Race and Racism Race and Civilization

*Many people hold the racist viewpoint that the biological inferiority of certain groups, which they call "races," is reflected in the supposedly "primitive" quality of their cultures *They will argue that the "developed" nations are "white" and the "underdeveloped" nations are not *However, many of today's so-called underdeveloped nations - primarily in Asia, Africa, and South America - had developed complex and sophisticated civilizations long before European nations expanded and acquired considerable power

Genes: The Conveyors of Inherited Traits

*Mitosis: cellular reproduction or growth involving the duplication of chromosome pairs *Meiosis: the process by which the reproductive cells are formed *DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid - a long, two-stranded molecule in the genes that directs the makeup of an organism according to the instructions in its genetic code *Messenger RNA (mRNA): a type of ribonucleic acid that is used in the cell to copy the DNA code for use in protein synethis *Protein Synthesis: mRNA is released from the DNA and travels out of the cell nucleus and into the body of the cell, where it attaches to a structure in the cell called a ribosome, which uses the informaiton on the mRNA to make proteins; these proteins make up the structures of organisms and drive the processes of life see diagram Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 DNA p. 57 Chromosomes are built of DNA (A) which consists of two spiral sugar-phosphate strands (B) linked by the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine (C) When the DNA molecule reproduces, the bases separate and the spiral strands unwind (D) Because adesine can only bond to thymine, and cytosine can only bond to guanine, each original strand serves as a mold along which a new complementary chain is formed Fig. 4.4 Translation and Protein Synthesis The mRNA copy of the cell? DNA is "read" by a ribosome that attaches the amino acid with the corresponding transfer RN (tRNA) to a growing chain of amino acids (called a polypeptide chain because the amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds) A chain mo than 100 amino acids long is called a protein

Why Did Food Production Develop?

*Most archaeologists believe that certain conditions must have pushed people to switch from collecting to producing food. *Explain in terms of why people were not "ready" earlier to achieve domestication *A desire to reproduce what was wildly abundant in the most bountiful or optimum hunting and gathering areas *Population pressure in a small area as incentive *Climate change

Peaceful Resolution of Conflict

*Most modern industrialized states have formal institutions and offices, such as police, district attorneys, courts and penal systems, to deal with minor disputes and more serious conflicts that may arise *All of these institutions generally operate according to *codified laws* - that is, a set of explicit, usually written rules stipulating what is permissible and what is not Avoidance - violence can often be avoided if the parties to a dispute voluntarily avoid each other or are separated until emotions cool down; more common in simpler societies Community Action - collective action also more common in simpler societies that lack powerful authoritarian leaders *the killing of an individual is the most extreme action a community can take - we call it capital punishment

The Miocene Anthropoids: Late Miocene Apes

*Most paleoanthropologists divide the later Miocene apes into the following two groups: *Sivapithecids (Sivapithecus) *dates from roughly 13-8 million years ago, lived in a mixed woodland-grassland environment, with a diet of coarse grasses and seeds *Dryopithecids (Dryopithecus) *Appears about 15 million years ago, chimpanzee-sized ape, lived in the forests of Eurasia, mainly arboreal, omnivorous

Natural Selection of Behavioral Traits

*Natural selection can also operate on the behavioral characteristics of populations. *Sociobiology - looks at social organization and social behavior *Behavioral Ecology - looks at how all kinds of behavior relate to the environment Sociobiology—looks at social organization and social behavior Behavioral Ecology—looks at how all kinds of behavior relate to the environment Evolutionary Psychology—looks at how evolution may have produced lasting variation in the way humans behave

The Principles of Natural Selection

*Natural selection is the main process that increases the frequency of adaptive traits through time. *Variation *Heritability *Differential Reproductive Success *The operation of natural selection involves three conditions of principles. The first is variation: every species is composed of a great variety of individuals, some of which are better adapted to their environment than others. The existence of variety is important; without it, natural selection has nothing on which to operate - without variation, one kind of characteristic could not be favored over another. *The second principle of natural selection is heritability: offspring inherit traits from their parents, at least to some degree and in some way. *The third principle of natural selection is differential reproductive success: because better-adapted individuals generally produce more offspring over the generations than poorer-adapted individuals, the freq of adaptive traits gradually increases in subsequent generations. A new species emerges when changes in traits or geographic barriers result in the reproductive isolation of the population.

Peaceful Resolution of Conflict 2

*Negotiation and Mediation - in many conflicts, the parties to a dispute may come to a settlement themselves by negotiation *sometimes an outside or third party is used to help bring about a settlement between the disputants; however, when that third party does not have the formal authority to force a settlement, we call it mediation *Ritual Reconciliation - Apology: the desire to restore a harmonious relationship; based on deference - the guilty party shows respect and asks for forgiveness *Oaths and Ordeals - both involve appeals to supernatural power *An oath is the act of calling upon a deity to bear witness to the truth of what one says *An ordeal is a means used to determine guilt or innocence by submitting the accused to dangerous or painful tests believed to be under supernatural control

The Domestication of Plants and Animals

*Neolithic means "of the new stone age" *The shift to the cultivation and domestication of plants and animals has been referred to as the Neolithic revolution *The line between food-collecting and food-producing occurs when people begin to plant crops and to keep and breed animals *Archaeologically, we see signs of this only after plants and animals show differences from their wild varieties

Within-Culture Comparisons

*Testing a theory within one society comparing individuals, families, households, communities, or districts, for example.

CH. 7 Primate Evolution

*The Emergence of Primates *The Emergence of Anthropoids *The Miocene Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Hominids (?) *The Divergence of Hominids from the Other Hominoids

The Emergence of Primates 2

*The Environment *What in Particular May Have Favored the Emergence of Primates *The Early Primates: What They Looked Like *Early Eocene Primates: Omomyids and Adapids

CH. 2 History of Anthropological Theory

*The Evolution of Evolution *Early Anthropological Theory *Later Anthropological Theory *Recent Developments in Anthropological Theory

Balancing Selection

*Occurs when a heterozygous combination of alleles (genes) is positively favored, even though a homozygous combination is disfavored *Example: sickle-cell anemia *If people with sickle-cell anemia do not usually live to reproduce, why don't we see a reduction in the frequency of the allele to near zero? In fact, the sickle-cell allele occurs fairly often in some parts of world, particularly in Africa. Why? *Directional and normalizing selection both assume that natural selection will either favor or disfavor genes, but there is a third possibility - balancing selection. *Sickle-cell anemia is caused by a variant form of hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen in the red blood cells. Individuals who have sickle-cell anemia have inherited the same allele (Hbupside side vs) allele and one allele for normal hemoglobin (Hbupside down va). Heterozygotes generally will not show the full blown symptoms of sickle-cell anemia disease. However, without advanced medical care, most individuals with both genes for the disease are unlikely to live more than a few years. *Why? Heterozygous individuals might have a reproductive advantage in a malarial environment. Because the heterozygotes are more resistant to attacks of malaria than the homozygotes for normal hemoglobin, the heterozygotes would be more likely to survive and reproduce, and therefore the recessive allele would persist at a higher-than-expected frequency in the population.

The Emergence of Primates: Early Eocene Primates

*Omomyids (tarsierlike) *very small (no bigger than squirrels) with large eyes, long tarsal bones *Active at night *Eat insects and fruit *Adapids (lemurlike) *Kitten-and cat-sized *More active during the day and relied more on leaf and fruit vegetation

Testing Explanations

*Operationalization and Measurement *Sampling *Statistical Evaluation (See table 3.1)

Testing Explanations 2

*Operationalization and Measurement: *In order to ensure research is done accurately, a researcher typically provides an operational definition of each concept/variable. *How will the variable be measured?

Relative Contributions to Work 2

*Overall Work - studies of horticultural and intensive agricultural societies so far suggest that women typically work more total hours per day than men. *Subsistence Work - female and male contributions are more variable cross-culturally.

Violent Resolution of Conflict

*People often resort to violence when regular, effective alternative means of resolving a conflict are not available. *Violence between individuals that is not considered legitimate is generally called crime *When violence between territorial entities such as communities, districts, or nations, we call it warfare; often there is a distinction made among feuding, raiding, and large-scale confrontations *When violence occurs between subunits of a population that had been politically unified, we call it civil war. *Cross-cultural evidence supports the view that frequent warfare is the key to understanding all kinds of violence.

Differences between Humans and Apes

*Perhaps the most crucial change in early hominid evolution was the development of bipedal locomotion, or walking on two legs *We know from the fossil record that other important physical changes - expansion of the brain, modification of female pelvis, reduction of face, teeth, and jaws - did not occur until about 2 million years afterthe emergence of bipedalism. *Main physical differences between quadrupedalism and bipedalism can be found in the skull, the pelvis, backbone, legs, and feet

Common Primate Traits 2

*Physical features include: *Two bones in the lower part of the leg and forearm *Collarbone *Flexible Hands *Stereoscopic Vision *Opposable Thumbs *Large Brain See Fig. 6.1

The Miocene Anthropoids: Early Miocene Proto-Apes

*Primarily found in Africa, most of the fossils from the early Miocene (20 million years ago) are described as proto-apes. *Proconsul *Range from about the size of a gibbon to that of a female gorilla *Lacked a tail *Primarily an arboreal quadruped

Rank Societies

*Rank societies contain social groups that do not have very unequal access to economic resources or power, but they do have unequal access to prestige; rank societies, then, are partly stratified *Most practice agriculture or herding *Unequal access to prestige is often reflected in the position of chief, a rank which only some members of a specified group in the society can achieve; the position is at least partly hereditary *Some controversy over whether chiefs really do not have material advantages *Economic equality is beginning to be questioned

Sources of Variability - 3

*Recent studies have suggested that hybridization or the creation of a viable offspring from two different species, may be more possible than once thought.

Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA)

*Requires all museums and institutions receiving federal funds to inventory their holdings of Native American human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and what are called "objects of cultural patrimony" in the collections they control. *They must establish, as best they can, whether their individual holdings have cultural affliations, or, in the case of skeletons, lineal descendants in living Native American groups. If relationships are established, the institutions are required to notify the relevant Native American organization about the existence of the materials and offer to repatriate them. *NAGPRA also protects all Native American graves and other cultural objects found within archaeological sites on federal and tribal land. *It also requires anyone carrying out archaeological investigation on federal and tribal lands to consult with affiliated or potentially affiliated Native Americans concerning the treatment and disposition of any finds, whether made during formal investigations or by accident.

Common Primate Traits 3

*Social features include: *Group life is often crucial to survival *A long maturation period of the young *A high degree of dependence on social life and learning See Fig. 6.2 A Comparison of Dependency Periods of Primate Offspring

Specialization

*Some anthropologists identify with a variety of specializations: *Economic Anthropologists *Political Anthropologists *Psychological Anthropologists *Cultural Ecologists *Medical Anthropologists

Pongids - Orangutans

*Survive only on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra *Males weigh almost twice as much as females and have large cheek pads, throat pouches, beards, and long hair *Primarily fruit eaters *Arboreal; heaviest of the arboreal primates *Unusual among higher primates in that adults spend much of their time alone

Hominids

*The hominids (family Hominidae), the primate family that includes present-day humans and their extinct ancestors have a fossil record extending back to almost 7 million years *Several features distinguish them from other hominoids: *Hominids are bipedal; that is, they have an upright posture, which is indicated by several modifications in their skeleton *Reduced canines and outer teeth *Large cerebral cortex (forebrain) *Eye ridges reduced, chin and nose protrude *Sensitive skin *Reduced body hair *Very complex social behavior

Distinctive Hominid Traits

*The hominoids we call hominids include only one living species - modern humans *Humans have many distinctive characteristics that set them apart from other anthropoids and other hominoids *Physical Traits *Behavioral Abilitites

Classification of Primates 2

*The primate order is divided into two suborders *The prosimians or lower primates Include the lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, and tree shrews *The anthropoids, or higher primates *include monkeys, apes, and humans

Cultural Diversity in the Future

*The process of globalization is minimizing cultural diversity. *However, in the last 30 years or so, it has become increasingly apparent that many people are affirming their ethnic identities.

The Spread of State Societies

*The state level of political development has come to dominate the world *Based on past history, a number of investigations have suggested that the entire world will eventually come to be politically integrated.

Explaining Warfare

*The type of warfare varies in scope and complexity from society to society *Preindustrial societies with higher warfare frequencies are likely to have had a history of unpredictable disasters that destroyed food supplies *The frequency of warfare seems to be not much greater in complex societies than in simple bands or tribal societies; however, warfare is unlikely to occur internally if it is small in population (21,000 or fewer people) *In a larger society, there is a high likelihood of warfare within the society, between communities or larger territorial divisions; in fact, complex societies, even if they are politically unified, are not less likely than simpler societies to have internal warfare

Why Theories Cannot Be Proved

*Theories can never be proved with absolute certainty. *The method of falsification, which shows that a theory seems to be wrong, is the main way that theories are judged.

Race and Racism Race, Conquest, and the Role of Infectious Disease

*There are those who would argue that European's superiority accounted for their ability to colonize much of the world during the last few hundred years. *But it now appears that Europeans were able to dominate at least partly because many native peoples were susceptible to diseases they introduced.

Sources of Variability 1

*There are two genetic sources of new variation: *Genetic Recombination *Mutation *Natural selection proceeds only when individuals within a population vary. There are two genetic sources of new variation: genetic recombination and mutation. *Genetic recombination - the variation that occurs due to the fact that each reproductive cell carries a random assortment of chromosomes and their respective genes. Ex: Assortment of traits each sibling can get *GR produces variety, which is essential for the operation of natural selection. Ultimately, however, the major source of variability is mutation. This is because mutation replenishes the supply of variability. Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence.

Sources of Variability 2

*Two processes through which variations are shuffled through populations: *Genetic Drift: various random processes that affect gene frequencies in small, relatively isolated populations *Gene Flow: the process whereby genes pass from one population to another through mating and reproduction Genetic Drift - so over time in a small population, genetic drift may result in a neutral or nearly neutral gene becoming more or less frequent just by chance. One variety of genetic drift is called the founder effect and it occurs when a small group of organisms from a larger population migrates to a relatively isolated location. If a particular gene is absent just by chance in the migrant group, the descendants are also likely to lack that gene Gene Flow - tends to work in the opposite direction - it decreases differences bw populations; it may occur bw distant as well as close populations, long-range movement of people, to trade or raid or settle, may result in gene flow

Culture Change and Adaptation

*While customs are not genetically inherited, cultural adaptation may be somewhat similar to biological adaptation *If culture is generally adapted to its environment, then culture change should also be generally adaptive.

Cross-Cultural Research

*Worldwide comparisons between societies having and those lacking a particular characteristic. *This method is beneficial in that the conclusion drawn is probably applicable to most societies.

Writing and Literacy

*Written language dates back only about 6,000 years. *Writing and written records have become increasingly important. *Literacy is a major goal of most countries

Primate Adaptations

*body size *relative brain size *group size Fig. 6.6 As this graph shows, larger animals generally have larger brains. Primates generally have even larger brains than we would expect from their body weight. Note than most of the primates (as indicated by the colored circles) fall above the line showing the relationship between brain weight and body weight. The brains in primates are about twice as heavy as the brains of nonprimate mammals of the same body weight.

Physical Variation in Human Population 4

Adaption to High Altitude At high altitudes, the percentage of oxygen in the air is the same, but because the barometric pressure is lower, we take in less oxygen with each breath. We breathe more rapidly, our hearts beat faster, and all activity is more difficult. The net effects are discomfort and a condition known as hypoxia, or oxygen deficiency. Current research does not suggest that high altitude living requires biological adaptations that are purely genetic

The Decline and Collapse of States

All ancient states collapse eventually! Environmental degradation: declining soil productivity, persistent drought, the behavior of humans (overuse of woodlands for fuel, construction and defense leading to deforestation, flooding, persistent crop failure). Human behavior may have increased the incidence of disease Overextension: areas too large to administer resulting in wholesale incursions exacerbated by famines, plagues, and poor leadership. Internal conflict because of leaders' mismanagement or exploitation **When you look over the list of ancient sites we have discussed—Monte Alban, Teotihuacan, Sumer, Egypt—you will notice one element common to them all: Each eventually collapsed; none maintained its power and influence into historic times. WHY?

The First Cities and States in Other Areas

Almost at the same time as the Sumerian empire, the great dynastic age was beginning in the Nile Valley in Egypt. In what is present-day Ethiopia, the Axum (or Aksum) state evolved beginning sometime early in the 1st millenium AD, and ultimately became a center of trade and commerce between Africa and the Arabian peninsula In sub-Saharan Africa, by AD 800, the savanna and forest zones of western Africa had a succession of city-states; Ghana became a major source of gold for the Mediterranean world In the Indus Valley of northwestern India, a large state society had developed by 2300 BC—the Harappan civilization The Shang dynasty in northern China (1750 BC) has long been cited as the earliest state society in the Far East; however, an even earlier one, the Xia dynasty may have emerged in the same general area by 2200 BC In South America, a group of distinct state socieites may have emerged as early as 2500 BC in the Supe and Pativilc valleys north of Lima, Peru. And in North America, a huge settlement, with over 100 earthen mounds and covering an area of more than 5 squre miles, developed near present-day St. Louis late in the 1st millenium AD—the site is called Cahokia Page 214Artist's reconstruction of what Cahokia may have looked like during its fluorescence.

Dating Evidence from the Past

An important part of putting artifacts and other materials into context is putting them into chronological order. *Relative Dating Methods *Absolute, or Chronometric Dating Methods

The End of the Upper Paleolithic

At the end of the ice age, around 14,000 years ago, the climate began to become more temperate *Many large animals that Upper Paleolithic peoples relied upon for food went extinct *At the same time, new warmer adapted plants provided a rich, new food source Around the world, people began to use more plant foods and a broader range of resources overall. In many parts of the world, people began experimenting with domesticating plants and animals

Physical Variation in Human Population 2

Body Build and Facial Construction Bergman's rule: describes what seems to be a general relationship between body size and temperature: the slenderer populations of a species inhabit the warmer parts of its geographic range, and the more robust populations inhabit the cooler areas. Allen's rule: refers to another kind of variation in body build: protruding body parts (e.g., limbs) are relatively shorter in the cooler areas of a species' range than in the warmer areas

Physical Variation in Human Population 1

Body Build and Facial Construction Skin Color Adaptation to High Altitude Height Susceptibility to Infectious Diseases Sickle-Cell Anemia Lactase Deficiency

Upper Paleolithic Europe Upper Paleolithic Art

Cave art was often presented in the form of paintings, with the majority of subjects being animals. Venus Figurines

Why did Broad-Spectrum Collecting Develop?

Climate Change was probably at least partly responsible for the exploitation of new sources of food *Worldwide rise in sea level due to glacial melting may have increased availability of fish and shellfish *May have contributed to decline in the availability of big game, particularly the large herd animals *Has been suggested that human activity (specifically overkilling) is another possible cause Population Growth: *Hunter-gatherers were "filling up" the world, and may have had to seek new, possibly less desirable sources of food

Ethnology

Commonly referred to as cultural anthropology, ethnology, is concerned with patterns of thought and behavior Types of ethnologists: *Ethnographers *Ethnohistorian *Cross-Cultural Researcher

Ch. 15 Communication and Language

Communication The Origins of Language Descriptive Linguistics Historical Linguistics The Processes of Linguistic Divergence Relationships between Language and Culture The Ethnography of Speaking Writing and Literacy

Defining Culture 5

Controversies About the Concept of Culture *One of the disagreements is whether the concept of culture should refer to just to the rules or ideas behind behavior or should also include the behaviors or products of behaviors.

Sexuality 2

Cultural Regulations of Sexuality *Premarital Sex - the degree to which sex before marriage is approved or disapproved of varies greatly from society to society. *Sex in Marriage - there are many common features in the sexual relations in married couples, but there is also considerable cross-cultural variation. *Extramarital Sex - not uncommon in many societies; in about 69% of the world's societies, men have extramarital sex more than occasionally, and in about 57% of the societies women do so *Homosexuality - the range in permissiveness or restrictiveness is as great as that for any other kind of sexual activity.

Sexuality 3

Cultural Regulations of Sexuality: Permissiveness versus Restrictiveness Reasons for Restrictiveness *Research has shown that societies that are restrictive with one aspect of heterosexual sex tend to be restrictive with regard to other aspects.

Defining Culture 3

Culture is Commonly Shared The size of a group within which cultural traits are shared can vary from a particular society or a segment of that society to a group that transcends national boundaries.

Culture is Patterned

Culture is Integrated The elements or traits that make up that culture are not just a random assortment of customs but are mostly adjusted to or consistent with one another.

Defining Culture 4

Culture is Learned *A defining feature of culture is that it is learned *Humans have a unique way of transmitting their culture through the use of spoken, symbolic language

Defining Culture is

Culture is commonly shared Culture is learned *Language

Cultural Anthropology

Culture refers to the customary ways that a particular population or society thinks and behaves. The Three Branches of Cultural Anthropology are: *Archaeology *Linguistics *Ethnology

Ch. 14 The Concept of Culture

Defining Culture Attitudes that Hinder the Study of Culture Cultural Relativism Describing a Culture Some Assumptions about Culture

How and Why Cultures Change 3

Diffusion is a process by which cultural elements are borrowed from another society and incorporated into the culture of the recipient group. *Direct Contact *Intermediate Contact *Stimulus Diffusion

See Fig. 14-1 Frequency Distribution Curve

Distance between pairs in casual conversation (in feet) Mode between 1 and 5 is 3.0

The Distribution of Goods and Services

Distribution of goods and services can be classified under three general types: *Reciprocity *Redistribution *Market or Commercial Exchange The three systems often coexist in a society, but one system usually predominates. The predominate system seems to be associated with the society's food-getting technology and, more specifically, its level of economic development.

The Domestication of Plants and Animals 2

Domestication in the Near East *For some time, most archaeologists have thought that the Fertile Crescent was one of the earliest centers of plant and animal domestication. **Two early Neolithic sites: *Ali Kosh (what is now southwestern Iran) *In the beginning, mostly depended on wild plants and animals and then ate cultivated emmer wheat, barley, and domesticated goats *Appearance of two innovations - irrigation and the use of domesticated cattle *Catal Huyuk (southern Turkey) Çatalhöyük *Advanced farming - lentils, barley, wheat, peas *Decorative murals on the walls of their houses, richly varied handicrafts, extensive trading *We know that several varieties of domesticated wheat were being grown there after about 8000 BC as were oats, rye, barley, lentils, peas, and various fruits and nuts such as apricots, pears, pomegrantes, dates, figs, olives, almonds, pistachios

Political and Social Change

Dramatic changes in a political system can occur when a foreign system of government has been imposed or it can also occur more or less voluntarily. Perhaps the most striking type of political change in recent years is the spread of participatory forms of government --- "democracy."

14. The earliest definite primates appeared in the ____________

Eocene

4. A set of explicit, usually written rules stipulating what is permissible and what is not, is called a. codified laws b. an oath c. an ordeal d. a ritual

codified laws

Physical Variation in Human Population 5

Height The considerable variation in average height among human populations may be partly explained by temperature differences. Many researchers think that poor nutrition and disease lead to reduced height and weight. A controversial set of studies links a very different environmental factor to variation in height in human populations. It appears that some presumably stressful experiences in infancy are associated with greater height and weight.

Archaeological Inferences about Civilization 2

How do archaeologists infer that a particular people in the preliterate past had social classes, cities, or a centralized government? They generally assume that inequality in death reflects inequality in life, at least in status and perhaps also in wealth and power. Thus, we can be fairly sure that a society had differences in status if only some people were buried with special objects, such as jewelry or pots filled with food.

Describing a Culture 2

Ideal Versus Actual Cultural Patterns Ideal cultural patterns refer to a society's ideas (values and norms) about how people should feel and behave in certain situations.

The Conversion of Resources

In all societies, resources have to be transformed or converted through labor into food, tools, and other goods in a process called production

Political Leadership and Warfare

In almost every known society, men rather than women are the leaders in the political arena. Warfare is almost exclusively a male activity.

Physique and Physiology

In contrast to other animal species, humans are sexually dimorphic, or the females and males of our species are generally of different size and appearance. * Females have proportionately wider pelvises. Males typically are taller and have heavier skeletons. *Females have a larger proportion of body weight in fat; males have a larger proportion of body weight in muscle. *Males typically have greater grip strength, proportionately larger hearts and lungs, and greater aerobic capacity (greater intake of oxygen during strenuous activity).

Upper Paleolithic Cultures in Africa and Asia

In eastern and southern Africa, people lived in small, mobile groups, hunting large animals and collecting a wide variety of plant foods In South Asia the Upper Paleolithic saw an increasingly sedentary lifestyle developing along the banks of freshwater streams

The Worldwide Trend Toward Commercialization 5

Introduction of Commercial and Industrial Agriculture *Commercialization can come about through the introduction of commercial agriculture - cultivation for sale, rather than personal consumption. The system of agriculture may come to be industrialized. *In other words, some of the production processes, such as plowing, weeding, irrigation, and harvesting can be done by machine. *Commercial agriculture is, in fact, often as mechanized as any manufacturing industry. Land is worked for the maximum return it will yield, and labor is hired and fired just as impersonally as in other industries.

Theories About the Origin of the State 3

Local and Long-Distance Trade Theorized that the organizational requirements of producing items for export, redistributing the items imported, and defending trading parties would foster state formation The Various Theories: An Evaluation Why do states form? As of now, no one theory seems to fit all the known situations. The reason may be that different conditions in different places may have favored the emergence of centralized government.

The Distribution of Goods and Services 4

Market or commercial exchange, refers to exchanges or transactions in which the "prices" are subject to supply and demand, whether or not the transactions actually occur in a marketplace Market exchange involves not only the exchange (buying and selling) of goods but also transactions of labor, land, rentals, and credit

Preagricultural Developments 6

Microlithic Technology: *Technologically, did not differ radically from Upper Paleolithic cultures *Preagricultural peoples in Europe, Asia, and Africa equipped themselves with composite tools including microlithic blades held in place with resins

Personality Differences 2

Misconceptions about Differences in Behavior The Six Cultures project casts doubt on some beliefs about gender differences: *Dependency *Sociability *Passivity

Race and Racism*

Most biological anthropologists today agree that "race" is not a useful way of referring to human biological variation

Evolution of Apes and Human (Hominoids)

New classification (genetics) Hominoidea - super-family -----> Hylobatidae family (lesser apes) & Hominidae family (humans) ->Ponginae sub-family (orangutans) & Homininae subfamily (other apes and humans) ---> Hominini tribe (bipedal apes and humans)

The Worldwide Trend Toward Commercialization 3

Nonagricultural Commercial Production *When a self-sufficient society comes to depend more and more on trading for its livelihood. This is generally done to obtain other industrially made objects

The Earliest Humans and Their Cultures in The New World

Only Homo sapiens sapiens remains have been found in the New World The prevailing opinion is that humans migrated to the New World over a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska in the area of what is now the Bering Strait. Until recently, it was thought that humans were not present south of Alaska until after 11,500 years ago; however, it appears from an archaeological site called Monte Verde in Chile that modern humans arrived in South America by at least 12,500 years ago and perhaps as much as 33,000 years ago

Class Societies 2

Open Class Societies: Class systems are referred to as open if there is some possibility of moving from one class to another. *Degree of Openness: some class systems are more open than others; that is, it is easier in some societies to move from one class position to another *Social scientists typically compare the class of people with the class of their parent(s) to measure the degree of mobility. Although most people aspire to move up, mobility also includes moving down. *Obtaining more education is one of the most effective ways to move upward in contemporary societies *Degree of Inequality: degree of class mobility is not the same as degree of economic inequality **Some class systems are more open than others; it is easier in some societies to move from class position to another; mobility also includes moving down.... Ways to move upward; obtain more education Class openness varies over time Degree of class mobility is not the same as degree of economic inequality

22. __________assumes that individuals seek to maximize the return (in calories and nutrients) on their labor in deciding which animals and plants to hunt or collect. a. Food-collection theory b. Optimal foraging theory c. Generalized reciprocity d. Optimal hunting strategy

Optimal foraging theory

Theories About the Origin of the State 2

Population Growth, Circumscription, and War States may emerge because of population growth in an area that is physically or socially limited. Competition and warfare in such a situation may lead to the subordination of defeated groups, who are obliged to pay tribute and to submit to the control of a more powerful group. However, why would the victors in war let the defeated populations remain and pay tribute? If they wanted the land so much, why wouldn't they try to exterminate the defeated and occupy the land themselves? Different form of circumscription: people in areas that could not support intensive grain agriculture might put up with the coercive authority of a state because they would suffer a sharp drop in living standards if they moved away.

Sexuality 4

Reasons for Restrictiveness *Population size - the less frequently heterosexual relations occur, the lower the number of conceptions there might be. *Social inequality - as social inequality increases and various groups come to have differential wealth, parents become more concerned with preventing their children from marrying "beneath them".

Personality Differences

Recent field studies have found somewhat consistent male-female differences in personality. *Boys tend to be more aggressive * Girls tend to be more responsible and helpful

The Distribution of Goods and Services 2

Reciprocity consists of giving and taking without the use of money. *Generalized Reciprocity - when goods or services are given to another, without any apparent expectation of a return gift. *Balanced Reciprocity - involves either an immediate exchange of goods or services or an agreed-upon exchange over a limited period of time *Barter is the term used most often for this type of nonmonetary exchange of goods and services

The Distribution of Goods and Services 3

Redistribution is the accumulation of goods or labor by a particular person, or in a particular place, for the purpose of subsequent distribution Although redistribution is found in all societies, it becomes an important mechanism only in societies that have political hierarchies *Redistribution on a territorial basis emerges when there is a political apparatus to coordinate centralized collection and distribution of goods or to mobilize labor for some public purpose

Preagricultural Developments 5

Sedentarism and Population Growth Anthropologists have suggested that populations would have increased dramatically when people began to settle down *The evidence for this suggestion comes largely from a comparison of recent nomadic and sedentary Kung populations Why might a sedentary lifestyle change the birth spacing among once nomadic peoples? *Nomadic groups may be motivated to have children father apart because of the problem of carrying small children; thus, sedentary populations could have their children spaced more closely because carrying children would not always be necessary *The presence of baby foods other than mother's milk may be responsible fore the decreased birth spacing in sedentary populations (well established that the longer a mother nurses her baby without supplementary foods; the longer it is likely before she starts ovulating again) *Ratio of body fat to body weight (a critical minimum of fat in the body may be necessary for ovulation)

Class Societies 4

Slaves are people who do not own their own labor, and as such they represent a class. Slavery has existed in various forms in almost every part of the world at one time or another, in simpler as well as in more complex societies. *Slaves are often obtained from other cultures directly: kidnapped, captured in war, or given as tribute. OR they may be obtained indirectly as payment in barter or trade. *Slaves sometimes come from the same culture, on became a slave as payment of a debt, as punishment for a crime, or even as a chosen alternative to poverty. *Slave societies vary in the degree to which it is possible to become freed from slavery *Slavery has ranged from closed class systems, or caste systems, to relatively open class systems

Variation in Degree of Social Inequality

Social Stratification *Social groups, such as families, classes, and ethnic groups, have unequal access to important advantages: Economic resources - things that have value in a culture; they include land, tools and other technology Power- the ability to make others do what they do not want to do; power is influence based on the threat of force Prestige - when someone or some group is accorded particular respect or honor

The Emergence of Stratification

Social stratification appears to have emerged relatively recently in human history, about 8,000 years ago based on archaeological evidence. Why did social stratification develop in the first place? *Social stratification developed as productivity increased and surpluses were produced. *Can only develop when people have "investments" in land or technology and therefore cannot move away from leaders they do not like *Emerges only when there is population pressure on resources in rank societies

Variation in Types of Political Organization

Societies in the ethnographic record vary in level of political integration - that is, the largest territorial group on whose behalf political authority is centralized or concentrated in the integrated group. Most societies can be classified into four principal types of political organization: *Band Organization *Tribal Organization *Chiefdom Organization *State Organization

Ch. 13 Origins of Cities and States

Sometime around 6000 B.C., in parts of the Near East—and at later times in other places—a great transformation in the quality and scale of human life seems to have begun For the first time, we see evidence of differences in status among households Communities began to differ in size and to specialize in certain crafts Emergence of chiefdoms—where some political officials had acquired authority over several communities

The Origin of Species

Speciation versus Creation *Speciation is the development of a new species *Creation scientists argue that, although natural selection can produce variation within species, it cannot produce new species.

The Allocation of Resources - 2

Technology *To convert resources to food and other goods, every society makes use of technology, which includes tools, constructions (such as fish traps), and required skills (such as how and where to set up a fish trap) *Societies vary considerably in their technologies and in the way access to technology is allocated.

Gender Roles 3

Strength Theory - focuses on the generally greater strength of males and their superior capacity to mobilize their strength in quick bursts of energy (because of greater aerobic capacity) Compatibility-with-child-care-theory - emphasizes that women's tasks need to be compatible with child care Economy-of-effort theory - advantageous for one gender to perform tasks that are physically located near each other Expendability theory - suggests that men, rather than women, will tend to do the dangerous work in a society because the loss of men is less disadvantageous reproductively than the loss of women.

Cities and States in Southern Iraq 3

Sumerian Civilization Sumer, in Southern Iraq, was unified under a single government just after 3000 B.C. becoming an empire Large urban centers, imposing temples, codified laws, a standing army, wide trade networks, a complex irrigation system, sewer systems and a high degree of craft specialization. First evidence of writing around 3000 B.C. Cuneiform: wedge-shaped, formed by pressing a stylus against a damp clay tablet Egyptian writing, or hieroglyphics, appeared about the same time—written on rolls woven from papyrus reeds

The Worldwide Trend Toward Commercialization 4

Supplementary Cash Crops *When people cultivating the soil produce a surplus above their subsistence requirements, which is then sold for cash.

Physical Variation in Human Population 6

Susceptibility to Infectious Diseases *Certain populations seem to have developed inherited resistances to particular infectious diseases *Infectious diseases seem to follow a similar pattern among human populations *Some researchers suggest that nongenetic factors may also partly explain differential resistance to infectious disease *Cultural factors may increase exposure to a disease and worsen its effect on a population

Cities and States in Southern Iraq 2

The Formative Era Signified the coming together of many changes that seem to have played a part in the development of cities and states. The development of small-scale irrigation began to attract settlers; the rivers provided not only water for irrigation but food and routes by which to trade Increasingly complex social and political life: differences in status reflected in burials, village specialization, temples for political and religious authority

Cities and States in Mesoamerica

The Formative Period Characterized initially by small, scattered farming villages that were politically autonomous; between 300 and 200 BC, small "elite" centers emerged The City and State of Teotihuacán By A.D. 500, well over 100,000 people (approx. 90% of the entire valley population) lived in Teotihuacan Politically unified under a centralized state with streets laid out in a grid patterns with two pyramids (Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun) with thousands of residential structures. At the height of its power (A.D. 200 to A.D. 500), the metropolis encompassed an area larger than imperial Rome. The City of Monte Albán: Evidence of political unification earlier (500 BC) in southern Mexico Other Centers of Mesoamerican Civilization: Highlands and lowlands of modern Guatemala and the Yucatan peninsula of modern-day Mexico Cities and states emerged in Mesoamerica—Mexico and Central America—later than they did in the Near East. The later appearance of civilization may be linked to the later emergence of agriculture in the New World and possibly to the near-absence of large animals such as cattle and horses that could be domesticated. We focus primarily on the developments that led to the rise of the city-state of Teotichuacan.

The Various Primates 1

The Order Primates is often divided into two suborders: *Prosimians - include lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers *Anthropoids - New World Monkeys, Old World Monkeys, the lesser apes (gibbons, siamangs), the great apes (orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees), and humans

Cultural Relativism

The anthropological attitude that a society's customs and ideas should be described objectively and understood in the context of that society's problems and opportunities became known as Cultural Relativism.

Continental Drift

The hypothesis that the continents slowly move across Earth's surface. The gradual movement of the continents across the earth's surface through geological time. the gradual movement and formation of continents (as described by plate tectonics) the theory that the continents were once joined and then slowly drifted apart A theory proposed by Alfred Wegner which states the continents are moving away from each other.

Attitudes That Hinder the Study of Cultures

The person who judges other cultures solely in terms of his or her own culture is practicing Ethnocentrism.

Ch. 12 Origins of Food Production and Settled Life

Toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic, people obtained most of their food from hunting migratory herds of large animals, such as wild cattle, antelope, bison and mammoths Beginning about 14,000 years ago, people in some regions began to depend less on big game hunting and more on relatively stationary food resources, such as fish, shellfish, small game, and wild plants (See Fig. 12.1) *Exploitation of local, relatively permanent resources led to an increasingly settled way of life *The cultural period in which these developments took place is usually now called: *Near East = Epipaleolithic *Europe = Mesolithic *Mesoamerica= Archaic (broad-spectrum food-collecting but not a settled lifestyle) see Fig. 12.1 The Evolution of Domestication

Tribal Organization

When local communities mostly act autonomously but there are kinship groups (such as clans or lineages) or associations (such as age-sets) that can potentially integrate several local groups into a larger unit (tribe) *This multilocal integration, however, is not permanent, and it is informal in the sense that political officials do not head it; frequently, the integration occurs when an outside threat arises Typically egalitarian At the local level, informal leadership is characteristic In contrast to band societies, tribal societies are food producers - extensive agriculture and/or herding *As a result, the population density of tribal societies is generally higher, local groups are larger, and the way of life is more sedentary than in hunter-gatherer bands

The Consequences of State Formation 2

When states arise they have a dramatic effect: Art, music, and literature develop: with increased efficiency of agricultural production and distribution, states also allow many (if not most) people in the society to be relieved of food production These people are freed to become craftspeople, merchants, artists, as well as bureaucrats, soldiers, and political leaders. Art, music, and literature flourish as a result, as well as organized religion The development of states can also have many negative impacts as well.

Consequences of State Formation

When states arise they have a dramatic effect: Population growth: allowing for larger and denser populations; agriculture itself gives populations the potential to grow Agriculture becomes more efficient: a state is able to build infrastructure—irrigation systems, roadways, markets—that allows both the production and distribution of agricultural products States are able to control to coordinate information to manage agricultural production cycles and to anticipate or manage droughts, blights, or other natural disasters States are able to control access to land (through laws and a military) and thus can both maintain farmers on the land and prevent others from removing the farmers or interfering with their ability to produce food

15. There are many branches to the lineage between early primates and living primates, but this concept relies on one factor, a. all direct lineages between past and present b. no extinctions of any lineages c. a common ancestor who as yet is unknown d. no one common ancestor, but a large number of them

a common ancestor who as yet is unknown

9. ___________are genetic changes that give their carriers a better chance of survival and reproduction than individuals without the genetic change who live the same environment.

adaptations

16. In anthropology, states have a centralized government with power including a. the concept of legitimate force b. the ability to collect taxes c. draft men for war d. all of the above

all of the above

2. What characterizes early Homo so that we begin to see the start of new trends in hominid evolution? expansion of the brain modification of the female pelvis general reduction in the size of teeth all of the above

all of the above

5. In anthropology, states have a centralized government with power including a. the concept of legitimate force b. the ability to collect taxes c. draft men for war d. all of the above

all of the above

8. A new invention of the Upper Paleolithic was a. replaceable blades b. the spear thrower c. the bow and arrow d. all of the above

all of the above

9. Dogs were the first animals domesticated, about 15,000 years ago. Why? a. perhaps hunting shifted from large to small prey and dogs were useful tracking game b. perhaps they could retrieve killed game from bodies of water c. perhaps they could serve as alarm-givers if predators came close d. all of the above

all of the above

7. Which is not put forth as a possible reason for broad-spectrum collecting? a. climate change b. overkill c. average height of the population d. population growth

average height of the population

10. Theories about Homo sapiens making their way to North America include: a. they came from Asia b. they walked across a land bridge which is now the Bering Strait c. they came from Europe d. both a and b are correct

both a and b are correct they came from Asia they walked across a land bridge which is now the Bering Strait

17. A set of explicit, usually written rules stipulating what is permissible and what is not, is called

codified laws

12. There are numerous theories trying to explain primate origins, all of which have strong and weak point. Why is it difficult to have a set unified theory? a.we have very little fossil evidence of the earliest primates b.it is another example of how anthropologists cannot agree on anything c.the fossil evidence is all too clear and proves a divergence of opinion d.primates have always been too difficult to study

we have very little fossil evidence of the earliest primates

cultivation

when people plants crops, we refer to the process as cultivation ** It is only when the crops cultivated and the animals raised are modified that we speak of plant and animal domestication We know in a particular site, that domestication occurred if plant remains have characteristics different from those of wild plants of the same types Fig. 12.4 (p. 192) Seed Heads of Wild and Domesticated Wheat - note the larger and more numerous seeds on domesticated wheat ***For example, wild grains of barley and wheat have a fragile rachis - the seed-bearing part of the stem - which shatters easily, releasing the seeds, Domesticated grains have a tough rachis, which does not shatter easily.