NAS

Pocahontas

-Among her several native names, the one best known to the English was Pocahontas (translated at the time as "little wanton" or "mischievous one"). -She was a daughter of Powhatan (as he was known to the English; he was also called Wahunsenacah), chief of the Powhatan empire, which consisted of some 28 tribes of the Tidewater region. -Pocahontas was a young girl of age 10 or 11 when she first became acquainted with the colonists who settled in the Chesapeake Bay area in 1607. -By the account of colonial leader John Smith, she interceded to save Smith's life in December of that year, after he had been taken prisoner by her father's men. -Smith wrote that, when he was brought before Powhatan, Pocahontas halted Smith's execution by placing herself over him as he was about to have his head clubbed on a stone. Powhatan released Smith to return to Jamestown. Some writers have theorized that Smith may have misunderstood what he saw and that what he believed to be an execution was instead a benign ceremony of some kind; others have alleged that he invented the rescue outright. -What is known is that Pocahontas became a frequent visitor to the settlement and a friend of Smith. Her playful nature made her a favourite, and her interest in the English proved valuable to them. She sometimes brought gifts of food from her father to relieve the hard-pressed settlers. She also saved the lives of Smith and other colonists in a trading party in January 1609 by warning them of an ambush. -Pocahontas married colonist John Rolfe and traveled to England with him and their one year old son. She died while in England in a town called Gravesend.

Acoma

-An Indian pueblo in west-central New Mexico, U.S. is known as the "Sky City." -Its inhabitants live in terraced dwellings made of stone and adobe atop a precipitous sandstone butte 357 feet (109 metres) high -Believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited place in the area of the United States -Considered a very strong defensive position by Conquistadors The mission church of San esteban del rey was built there from 1629-1641

Hernando de Soto

-Between 1539 and 1543, in what is now the southeastern United States, Indian peoples faced a brutal invasion by Hernando de Soto and an army of more than six hundred men. -He earned a reputation even among fellow conquistadors as an accomplished Indian-killer. -His expedition sailed from Cuba and landed at Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida in May 1539 -For 4 years they occupied Indian towns in the Southeast, commandeered food supplies and guides, and pressed on in a relentless search for gold. They killed, kidnapped, raped, and enslaved hundreds of people.

Samuel de Champlain

-Champlain founded Quebec City in 1608, explored the lake that bears his name, and helped put France on the path that led to an empire built on the fur trade. -Champlain began a policy of sending young traders into Indian villages to learn Native languages and ways of living -He made alliances with the Algonquins, Montagnais, and Hurons (Wendats) to gain access to rich fur territories farther west; the Indians pursued alliances with the French as a means of securing European trade goods. -This cooperation threatened the Iroquois -Champlain was traveling with Hurons and Algonquins when they encountered Iroqouis -Stepping forward with their guns loaded, they opened fire on the Iroquois, killing several of the startled Indians outright and putting the rest to flight.

Juan de Onate

-Conquistador who established the colony of New Mexico for Spain -In January 1598 he set out on an expedition to conquer and govern New Mexico -Sent out small parties in search for a nonexistent treasure -Settlers wanted to return to New Spain, but Onate refused and executed many of those who disapproved -He resigned in 1607 and later stood trial for his crimes while governor. Found guilty of cruelty, immorality, and false reporting, he was exiled from the colony, fined, and deprived of his titles.

Jean de Brebeuf (Document: Mission to the Hurons)

-De Brefeuf was a Jesuit missionary to New France who became the patron saint of Canada. -Brébeuf entered the Society of Jesus in 1617, was ordained a priest in 1623, and arrived in New France in 1625. -Assigned to Christianize the Huron Indians between Georgian Bay and Lake Huron, he lived in danger of death until forced by the English to return to France in 1629. -The Iroqouis, who were enemies of the Hurons, seized Brébeuf and his fellow missionary Gabriel Lalemant and tortured them to death near Saint-Ignace. -He was canonized in 1930

Diego de Vargas

-Diego José de Vargas was born in Madrid in 1643, born to an illustrious family -In August 1692, just 18 months after his arrival at El Paso, Vargas led a modest force of less than 200 soldiers, vecinos, and Indian allies north. -They reached Santa Fe to find 1000 pueblos awaiting them and an argument ensued -Finally, don Diego issued an ultimatum: either submit and be pardoned or undergo an attack by Vargas' forces. In response, two unarmed Pueblo men left the fortified town to offer peace. -Calm did not last in New Mexico. In 1693, Vargas returned to Santa Fe, bringing soldiers and settlers. This time they had to fight their way into Santa Fe killing many pueblos -From June 1696- Nov, don Diego was on a military campaign almost without pause -The fighting that year marked the end of concerted, violent resistance by the Pueblos to Spanish political control in New Mexico.

Jacques Marquette

-French Jesuit missionary explorer who, with Louis Jolliet, travelled down the Mississippi River and reported the first accurate data on its course. -Marquette arrived in Quebec in 1666 -He studies indian languages and explored much of Green Bay and the Mississippi -In 1674 Marquette set out to found a mission among the Illinois Indians, but, caught by the winter, he and two companions camped near the site of the city of Chicago, and thus became the first Europeans to live there. -While en route to St. Ignace he died at the mouth of a river now known as Père Marquette.

Giovanni da Verrazzano

-Giovanni da Verrazzano, Verrazzano also spelled Verrazano, (born 1485, Tuscany [Italy]—died 1528, Lesser Antilles), Italian navigator and explorer for France who was the first European to sight New York and Narangasset bays -In January 1524 he sailed one of those vessels, La Dauphine, to the New World and reached Cape Fear about the beginning of March -Sailed the east coast, he made several discoveries on the voyage, including the sites of present-day New York Harbor, Block Island, and Narragansett Bay, and was the first European explorer to name newly discovered North American sites after persons and places in the Old World.

Hurons

-Huron, were Iroquoian-speaking North American Indians who were living along the St. Lawrence River when contacted by French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1534. -Hurons lived in bark-covered longhouses, each housed an extended family -Agriculture was the mainstay of Huron economy -They were bitter enemies of tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy, with whom they competed in the fur trade

Cabeza da Vaca

-In 1528 Pánfilo de Narváez landed on the west coast of Florida and divided his force, marching inland with his troops while his ships paralleled their route up the coast carrying supplies. -They were fought off by Apalachee Indians and headed back to the coast to find their boats gone. -They set sail on makeshift barges, but most were not seen again. -As mentioned above, Cabeza de Vaca and other survivors made it to an island off the coast of eastern Texas where local Indians took them in. -After six years living among the coastal Indians, often as slaves, Cabeza de Vaca and three companions escaped. -They earned a reputation as healers, and "the Indians treated us kindly -Cabeza de Vaca and his companions made their way to Mexico City.

Hochelaga

-In 1534 Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence River -He visited the populous Indian town of Hochelaga (modern Montreal) in 1536 -Saw that the town was inhabited by several thousand Hurons -The Hochelagans brought the French fish and loaves of corn bread Champlain returned 50 years later, but there were no Hurons It became a missionary center in 1642

Pueblo Revolt

-In 1680, after generations of oppression but little outright conflict, Pueblo peoples rose up in an orchestrated assault that drove the Spaniards out of New Mexico. -Since spanish colonization in 1598, Catholiscim was forced on them and their cities were destroyed, they were tortured -Aug. 10, 1680, Pope of the San Juan pueblo led a full-scale revolt in which almost all the Pueblos participated. -On August 21 the Spaniards were forced to flee -One of the most successful Indian wars in history, the Pueblo Revolt left an enduring legacy in its imprint on the society that Spaniards and Indians subsequently rebuilt in New Mexico. -From 1645 on there were several abortive revolts, after each of which medicine men were especially singled out for reprisals

Pueblo Bonito

-In Chaco Canyon , in New Mexico's San Juan River basin, the Anasazi constructed a dozen towns and perhaps two hundred outlying villages. -D-shaped Pueblo Bonito, one of many such structures in the canyon, contained hundreds of rooms and could have housed hundreds of people; iii it has been described as "the largest apartment building in North America until New York City surpassed it in the nineteenth century." -Contained 36 Kivas (underground ceremonial chambers), scholars believe it functioned as a ritual center .

Anasazi

-In the Four Corners region of the Southwest -Ancestral Pueblo culture emerged around A.D. 900 and reached its height between 1100 and 1300 -The Ancestral Pueblos often called Anasazi, although the name is not preferred by modern Pueblos grew and stored corn, wove and decorated baskets, made pottery, studied the stars, and were master architects.

Chaco Canyon

-In the Four Corners region of the Southwest -Ancestral Pueblo culture emerged around A.D. 900 and reached its height between 1100 and 1300 -The Ancestral Pueblos often called Anasazi, although the name is not preferred by modern Pueblos grew and stored corn, wove and decorated baskets, made pottery, studied the stars, and were master architects. -In Chaco Canyon, in New Mexico's San Juan River basin, they constructed a dozen towns and perhaps two hundred outlying villages -D-shaped Pueblo Bonito was the most popular structures that contain hundreds of rooms and 36 Kivas, which may have functioned as a ritual center.

Jacques Cartier.

-Jacques Cartier, (born 1491, Saint-Malo, Brittany, France—died September 1, 1557, near Saint-Malo), French mariner, whose explorations of the Canadian coast and the St. Lawrence River (1534, 1535, 1541-42) laid the basis for later French claims to North America (see New France) -Cartier also is credited with naming Canada, though he used the name—derived from the Huron-Iroquois kanata, meaning a village or settlement—to refer only to the area around what is now Quebec city -Cartier appears to have voyaged to the Americas, particularly Brazil, prior to his three major North American voyages

Mississippian societies

-Mississippian societies were typically stable, agriculturally based settlements, close to floodplains, with relatively large populations and complex ceremonial and political structures. -Beginning in the lower Mississippi valley around A.D. 700, Mississippian cultures spread north to the Great Lakes and east to Florida and the Carolinas, reaching their height between 1100 and 1300 -Powerful chiefs collected tribute, waged war and appeared to have been worshiped as gods -Mississippian towns contained temples, public buildings, and elite residences built atop earthen mounds that surrounded open plazas where ceremonies were conducted and ball games were played.

Moctezuma

-Moctezuma II was an Aztec emperor of Mexico -In 1502 Montezuma succeeded his uncle Ahuitzotl as the leader of an empire that had reached its greatest extent, stretching to what is now Honduras and Nicaragua -When Hernando Cortes made his expedition across Mexico, Montezuma tried to buy off Cortés, but the Spaniard made alliances with those subject tribes who hated Aztec rule -Welcomed into the capital city of Tenochtitlán by Montezuma, Cortés realized it was a trap and, instead, made the emperor his prisoner, believing that the Aztecs would not attack as long as he held Montezuma captive. -Montezuma's submission to the Spaniards, however, had eroded the respect of his people. -The Aztecs, however, believed the Spaniards had murdered their emperor, and Cortés's force was nearly destroyed as it tried to sneak out of Tenochtitlán at night.

Monks Mound

-Monk's Mound was the largest of the mounds found in Cahokia. -Received name from Trappist monks -It was constructed as a symbolic center of Cahokia. -Monks Mound is also the only mound with more than two terraces at the Cahokia site

Mound 72

-Mound 72 was another mound found in Cahokia -Excavations through the mound indicated that it had been constructed as a series of smaller mounds that were then reshaped and covered over to give the mound its final shape -More than 250 skeletons were recovered in various states of preservation inside the mound -One burial seemed to be an individual of great importance; he was buried with the remains of other individuals on what appeared to be a platform of shell beads. Near him were several retainers with grave goods accompanying them -Most of the burials and grave goods accompanying them suggest that many of the people buried in this mound were sacrificed, probably to accompany one or more important individuals.

Algonquians

-North American Indian language family whose member languages are or were spoken in Canada, New England, the Atlantic coastal region southward to North Carolina, and the Great Lakes region and surrounding areas westward to the Rocky Mountains -Among the numerous Algonquian languages are Cree, Ojibwa, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Mi'kmaq (Micmac), Arapaho, and Fox-Sauk-Kickapoo

Algonquins

-North American Indian tribe of closely related Algonquian-speaking bands originally living in the dense forest regions of the valley of the Ottawa River and its tributaries in present-day Quebec and Ontario, Canada -The tribe should be differentiated from the Algonquian language family, as the latter term refers to a much larger entity composed of at least 24 tribes of Northeast Indians and Plains Indians the Algonquin became heavily involved in the fur trade -As the first tribe upriver from Montreal, they had a strategic market advantage as fur trade intermediaries -Also traded corn

Cherokees

-North American Indians of Iroquian lineage who constituted one of the largest politically integrated tribes at the time of European colonization of the Americas. -Traditional Cherokee life and culture greatly resembled that of the Creek and other tribes of the Southeast. -The Cherokee nation was composed of a confederacy of symbolically red (war) and white (peace) towns. -The chiefs of individual red towns were subordinated to a supreme war chief, while the officials of individual white towns were under the supreme peace chief. -The peace towns provided sanctuary for wrongdoers; war ceremonies were conducted in red towns. -When encountered by Spanish explorers in the mid-16th century, the Cherokee possessed a variety of stone implements, they wove baskets, made pottery, and cultivated corn (maize). Animals like dear and elk furnished meat and clothing. -Cherokee dwellings were bark-roofed windowless log cabins, with one door and a smoke hole in the roof. -A typical Cherokee town had between 30 and 60 such houses and a council house, where general meetings were held and a sacred fire burned. -During the French and Indian War (1754-63) they allied themselves with the British; the French had allied themselves with several Iroquoian tribes, which were the Cherokee's traditional enemies.

Jesuits

-One of the first missionary groups to begin working with the Native people in New France was the Jesuits. -Members of a Catholic male religious order known as the society of Jesus -have a reputation for accepting orders to live and proselytize anywhere in the world -The Jesuits arrived in New France in 1611 and began to learn the native languages as a way of carrying their message to the people -Referred to as blackrobes and were well liked -Different from other Europeans, because they just wanted to live with Indians and learn the languages -But were considered poorly educated because of their lack of spiritual knowledge

Popé/Po'pay (Document: Declaration of the Indian Juan)

-Po'pay was a religious leader from the San Juan pueblo. He organized the Pueblo Revolt. -he said that what he knows concerning this question is that not all of them joined the said rebellion willingly; that the chief mover of it is an Indian who is a native of the pueblo of San Juan, named El Popé, and that from fear of this Indian all of them joined in the plot that he made

Squanto

-Samoset, an Abenaki chief, introduced the Pilgrims to Squanto, a local Patuxet Indian who had been captured and taken to Spain before traveling to England and then back home, only to find his people wiped out by disease. -Squanto helped the Pilgrims adjust to their new world; he showed them how to plant corn and where to fish, and he functioned as interpreter and intermediary in their dealings with the local Indians. He was, said Governor William Bradford of Plymouth, "a special instrument sent of God."

Encomienda

-Spaniards established permanent colonies along with conducting expeditions through Indian country. -In the wake of their conquests to the south, Spaniards established the encomienda system , whereby the authorities assigned Indian workers to mines and to plantation owners on the understanding that the recipients would defend the colony and teach the workers Christianity. -After 1550, however, that system was largely replaced by the repartimento , which required Indian towns to supply a pool of labor -Indians resisted the systems, and Spanish missionaries often played a leading role in extracting labor as well as confessions of faith from Indian people.

Hernando Cortes

-Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Aztec empire (1519-21) and won Mexico for the crown of Spain -Sailed to Tabsco where he found his mistress and founded Veracruz of which he made himself captain -On the mainland Cortés did what no other expedition leader had done: he exercised and disciplined his army, welding it into a cohesive force. -But the ultimate expression of his determination to deal with disaffection occurred when he sank his ships. By that single action he committed himself and his entire force to survival by conquest.

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado

-Spanish explorer of the North American Southwest whose expeditions resulted in the discovery of many physical landmarks, including the Grand Canyon. -Coronado went to New Spain (Mexico) with Antonio de Mendoza, the Spanish viceroy, in 1535 and earned early distinction in pacifying Indians. -He was appointed governor of Nueva Galicia in 1538. -In February 1540 the main force under Coronado left Compostela and proceeded up the west coast of Mexico to Culiacán in search of treasure -The groups found nothing and Several Indian groups attempted to attack them on the Rio Grand but were beaten back with severe reprisals

Apaches

-The Apaches were a group of North-American Indians which consisted of several different tribes. -Apache domain extended over what is now parts of AZ, CO, NM, TX and Mexico -Migrated from the far north and languages are a subgroup of the Athabaskan language family -Once the Apache had moved to the Southwest, they developed a flexible subsistence economy that included hunting and gathering -The proportion of each activity varied greatly from tribe to tribe.

Bering Straits

-The Bering Strait theory holds that the Ice Age of c. 75,000-8000 B.C. lowered ocean levels worldwide and exposed a land bridge of perhaps a thousand miles across what is now the Bering Strait between Siberia and Alaska. -Nomadic hunters made their way across this land bridge over hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years, following migrating game. -Finding rich hunting territories and more hospitable climates, they edged their way onward along corridors that opened up as the ice shield receded.

Chickasaws

-The Chickasaws emerged as the dominant slave traders in Mississippi. -Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville, the founder of France's Louisiana colony, reported in 1699 that the Chickasaws "were going among all the other nations to make war on them and to carry off as many slaves as they could, whom they buy and use in extensive trading, to the distress of all these Indian nations." -Chickasaw raiding parties crossed the Mississippi and then herded their captives east to Charleston, causing reverberations throughout the lower Mississippi valley as other Indians fell victim, migrated, or sought refuge with other tribes.

Choctaws

-The Choctaws in the lower Mississippi valley played one European power off another to secure trade while maintaining independence. -North American Indian tribe of Muskogean linguistic stock that traditionally lived in what is now southeastern Mississippi. The Choctaw dialect is very similar to that of the Chicasaw, and there is evidence that they are a branch of the latter tribe. -In the mid-18th century, there were 20,000 Choctaw living in 60 or 70 settlements along the Pearl, Chickasawhay, and Pascagoula rivers. -Their dwellings were thatched-roof cabins of logs or bark plastered over with mud. -Among the southeastern agriculturalists the Choctaw were perhaps the most skillful farmers, producing surplus crops to sell and trade. They planted corn (maize), beans, and pumpkins; fished; gathered nuts and wild fruits; and hunted deer and bear. Their most important community ritual was the Busk, or Green Corn, festival, a first-fruits and new-fire rite celebrated at midsummer. -A notable funerary custom involved the ritual removal of the bones of the deceased from the body; subsequently, the bones were placed in an ossuary. This ritual was performed by spiritually powerful men and women known as bone-gatherers or bone-pickers, with the departed's family members in attendance. Bone-gatherers were notable for their distinctive tattooing and long fingernails. -In the power struggles that took place after colonization, the Choctaw were generally allied with the French against the English, the Chickasaw, and other Native American tribes. -After the French defeat in the French and Indian War(1754-63), some Choctaw land was ceded to the United States and some tribal members began moving west across the Mississippi. In the 19th century the growth of the European market for cotton increased the pressure for the acquisition of Choctaw land, and in 1820 they ceded 5,000,000 acres in west central Mississippi to the United States

Cahokia

-The Mississippian town of Cahokia was a thriving urban market center -Founded around 700 -Cahokia was the biggest settlement to have existed north of the Rio Grande before the end of the eighteenth century, -Trade routes linked Cahokia to distant regions of the continent -It was a planned city with pyramid mounds of packed earth arranged around huge open plazas -contained elite rulers claimed divine descent, excavations show evidence of mass sacrifices in their community -Showed their emphasis on human labor and its importance -Food shortage, food exhaustion and pressure from enemies left Cahokia abandoned a century before Columbus

Navajos (Document: Navajo Emergence Story)

-The Navajo Indians, one of the largest Indian tribes in North America with more than 300,000 people today, emerged into written history in the 1620s when Spaniards began to distinguish from the Apaches a people whom they called "Apaches del Navajo -ancestors of the historic Apaches and Navajos migrated from northern Canada and traveled south. -they evolved from a nomadic hunting people into a more settled farming and herding society -The creation story is part of a dynamic Navajo oral tradition

Requerimiento

-The Spanish believed they had a divine and royal mandate to reduce Indian peoples to submission. -Spanish law required they read the Requerimiento to Indians -The Requerimiento required Indians to "acknowledge the Church as the Ruler and Superior of the whole world," the pope as high priest, and the king and queen of Spain as lords of their lands. -the Requerimiento became little more than a "ceremony of possession," allowing the Spaniards to justify conquest and any accompanying atrocities.

Westos

-Westos Indians, originally a group of Eries who had fled Iroquois attacks in the north and moved to the James River, began slave raiding to supply English slave traders at Jamestown. -By the 1660s they were raiding for slaves even farther south, in Georgia and Florida. -Armed with English guns, the Westos preyed on bow-and-arrow tribes for slaves to sell in Charleston, until they themselves were destroyed in 1682 by Shawnee Indians in the pay of Carolina traders. -The Westos in turn became victims of the Indian slave trade.

Woodhenge

-Woodhenge is a circle of wooden posts at Cahokia Mounds Illinois. -The placement of the posts mark the summer and winter solstices (21 of June, 21 December) and the spring and autumn equinoxes (21 March, 22 September) -In short, the posts are a calendar, similar to the stone equivalent on the British Isles. -The posts were made originally of red cedar which was considered sacred to the natives

Yamasee War

-Yamasee War, (1715-16), in British-American colonial history, conflict between Indians, mainly Yamasee, and British colonists in the southeastern area of South Carolina, resulting in the collapse of Indian power in that area -Embittered by settlers' encroachment upon their land and by unresolved grievances arising from the fur trade, a group of Yamasees rose and killed 90 white traders and their families (April 15, 1715) -Many of the surrounding Indian tribes eventually allied themselves with Yamasee bands that continued to raid trading posts and plantations. -The conspiracy disintegrated, however, when South Carolinian military resistance was strengthened by additional troops from neighbouring colonies and war supplies from New England. -Many of the defeated Indians escaped to Florida, joining runaway black slaves and other Indians to form what later were called the Seminole.

Mohegans

Algonquian-speaking North American Indian people who originally occupied most of the upper Thames valley in what is now Connecticut, U.S. They later seized land from other tribes in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The Mohegan are not to be confused with the Mohican (Mahican), a different people who originally resided in the upper Hudson River Valley near the Catskill Mountains in what is now New York state. The traditional Mohegan economy was based on the cultivation of corn (maize) and on hunting and fishing. At the time of the first European settlement of New England early in the 17th century, the Mohegan and the Pequot tribes were ruled jointly by the Pequot chief, Sassacus; later a rebellion by the subchief Uncas led to Mohegan independence. After the destruction of the Pequot in 1637, most of the Pequot survivors and the former Pequot territories came under Mohegan control. Uncas strengthened his position by making an alliance with the English; by the end of King Philip's War against the colonists, the Mohegan were the strongest tribe remaining in southern New England. Colonial settlements gradually displaced the Mohegan, and their numbers dwindled from imported diseases and other hardships. Many of them joined other native settlements.

Narragansetts

Algonquian-speaking North American Indian tribe that originally occupied most of what is now the U.S. state of Rhode Island west of Narragansett Bay. They had eight divisions, each with a territorial chief who was in turn subject to a head chief. Their subsistence depended on the cultivation of corn (maize), hunting, and fishing. The Narraganset maintained good relations with English colonizers until King Philip's War in 1675-76, in which they joined with other tribes in attempting to limit colonial expansion. In 1675, soon after a battle in which nearly 1,000 members of the tribe were killed or captured, the Narraganset abandoned their territory. Most joined the Mohican or Abenaki tribes or fled to Canada, from where some later received permission to return. Many of the latter settled in New York state among Algonquian groups that had remained neutral in the war, others joined the Mohegan in Connecticut, and a few moved to what is now Rhode Island. The Narraganset were also involved in the Great Swamp Fight.

Wampanoags

Algonquian-speaking North American Indians who formerly occupied parts of what are now the states of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, including Martha's Vineyard and adjacent islands. They were traditionally semi sedentary, moving seasonally between fixed sites. Corn (maize) was the staple of their diet, supplemented by fish and game. The tribe comprised several villages, each with its own local chief, or sachem. In 1620 the Wampanoag high chief, Massasoit, made a peace treaty with the Pilgrims, who had landed in the tribe's territory; the treaty was observed until Massasoit's death. Bad treatment by settlers who encroached on tribal lands, however, led his son, Metacom, or Metacomet, known to the English as King Philip, to organize a confederacy of tribes to drive out the colonists (see also King Philip's War). The colonists eventually defeated and killed King Philip and other leading chiefs, and the Wampanoag and Narragansett were almost exterminated. Some survivors fled to the interior, while others moved to the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard to join kin who had remained neutral during the conflict. Disease and epidemics destroyed most of the indigenous people who lived on Nantucket, but Wampanoag people survive to the present, particularly on Martha's Vineyard.

William Bradford (Document: "Cooperation, Contagion, and Conflict")

Born in Yorkshire around 1590, William Bradford belonged to a group of religious dissenters who, despairing of ever being able to reform the Church of England, broke all ties with it. T hese Separatists, as they were called, suffered persecution. In 1608 some, Bradford among them, fled to Leiden in the Dutch Republic, where they were free to practice their religion. After about a decade in Leiden, some fifty of the Separatists decided to migrate to the English colony of Virginia and joined other colonists departing from Plymouth, England, aboard the Mayflower in September 1620. The 102 passengers became known as "Pilgrims." They reached Cape Cod, in present-day Massachusetts, in November, but rough seas prevented them from continuing south to Virginia, and they built their settlement at Plymouth Bay instead. It had been the site of an Indian village called Patuxet, but the Pilgrims found the village empty and its fields abandoned; a series of epidemics had swept the coast in 1616-19, killing or driving away the inhabitants. The Pilgrims saw God's hand at work, clearing the way for his chosen people, but almost half of the Pilgrims died over the course of their first New England winter. The assistance of an Abenaki named Samoset and a well-traveled Patuxet named Tisquantum or Squanto, and peaceful relations with the local Wampanoag chief, Massasoit, who saw the newcomers as possible allies against the powerful Narragansetts to his west, helped the Pilgrims to make it through. In the fall of 1621, the Pilgrims held a feast to give thanks for their survival; Indians joined them and provided most of the food. Reimagined and remembered, it became an iconic moment in American history the First Thanksgiving.

Mi'kmaqs (Document: A Mi'kmaq Questions French Civilization)

Essentially, a letter was found written by a Mi'kmaq indian about the French and how indians are infinitely better than them. It mainly just focuses on how materialistic the French are- they like their big houses and try to get natives to convert from their wigwams and shit but wigwams are sweet because you can pick them up and move but you can't pick up a house. The guy says that their bread and wine makes them die young and also says France can't be that great because they left to find a new home.

Jon Smith

English explorer and early leader of the Jamestown Colony, the first permanent English settlement in North America. Smith played an equally important role as a cartographer and a prolific writer who vividly depicted the natural abundance of the New World, whetting the colonizing appetite of prospective English settlers. When a royal charter was granted to the Virginia Company of London, Smith and about 100 other colonists led by Christopher Newport set sail on December 20, 1606. On April 26, 1607, the voyagers arrived at the Chesapeake Bay, and on May 14 they disembarked at what was to become Jamestown. The Virginia Company had named Smith to the colony's seven-member governing council. His relationship with the colony's other leaders was generally antagonistic, his focus being on the practical means of survival in the wilderness rather than on personal privileges and status. He traded for corn (maize) with the local Indians and began a series of river voyages that later enabled him to draw a remarkably accurate map of Virginia. While exploring the Chickahominy River in December 1607, he and his party were ambushed by members of the Powhatan empire, which dominated the region. He was ultimately taken to their emperor, Chief Powhatan, also known as Wahunsenacah. According to Smith's account, he was about to be put to death when he was saved by the chief's young daughter of age 10 or 11, Pocahontas, who placed herself between him and his executioners.

Iroquois (Document: "Iroquois Creation Story")

Five Iroquoian nations the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas occupied the region from the Hudson valley in the east to Lake Erie in the west and cooperated in a league that preserved peace among its members and exerted tremendous influence upon its neighbors. Iroquois traditions recall how this remarkable political system was formed in the mythic past, but, like the Navajos in the Southwest, the Iroquois in the Northeast also have a rich tradition of stories recounting the creation of the world and their place in it. Many indigenous peoples share a tradition that they entered this world from a lower world, but the Iroquois and many other peoples in the Northeast share a tradition that the world was created on the back of a giant sea turtle (many still refer to North America as Turtle Island) and that their ancestors fell from the sky. The Iroquois origin story was passed from generation to generation by word of mouth and there are now more than forty recorded versions, the first taken down as early as 1632.

King Philip's War

In 1675, the outbreak of King Philip's War shattered two generations of coexistence between Indians and English in Massachusetts. perhaps 30 percent of the English population of New England died At least twice as many Indians died in the fighting, and some estimates suggest that the combined effects of war, disease, and starvation killed half the Indian population of New England. It left an enduring legacy in its imprint on subsequent attitudes and policies toward Indian peoples in America.

John Sassamon

In December 1674, John Sassamon, a Christian Indian, reported to Plymouth governor John Winslow that Metacom was preparing for war. The next month, Sassamon was found under the ice of a frozen pond with a broken neck. In June, The puritans seized 3 Wampanoags and the Plymouth jury executed them for murder It was the first time the English had executed an Indian for a crime committed against another Indian and a major assault on Wampanoag sovereignty.

Great Swamp Fight

In November 1675 the English declared war against the Narragansetts, interpreting their offer of sanctuary to noncombatants from other tribes as an act of hostility English army of more than a thousand men marched through deep snow and attacked the main Narragansett stronghold near Kingston, Rhode Island Hundreds of Narragansett men, women, and children died in what became known as the Great Swamp Fight The surviving Narragansetts joined Metacom's war of resistance.

Great League of Peace

In the North, over the course of several centuries, the Iroquoian-speaking Hurons, Petuns, and Neutrals moved from scattered settlements to fortified villages. Eventually, they formed loose confederacies numbering thousands of people. Sometime before direct contact with Europeans, the Iroquoian-speaking peoples of upstate New York, the Haudenosaunee, ended intertribal conflict and organized a Great League of Peace . Europeans called it the League of the Five Nations (the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas), and, after the Tuscaroras migrated from the South and joined in 1722, the Six Nations.

Beaver Wars

In the so-called Beaver Wars of the mid-seventeenth century, Iroquois attacked the Huron people and their neighbors who lived in the Great Lakes region and raided as far afield as Quebec, New England, and the Carolinas. The Hurons were still reeling from the impact of a series of epidemic diseases, and the Iroquois assault in 1649 dispersed and destroyed their confederacy. Survivors dispersed to build new communities in Quebec and Ohio. Formed to end war, the Iroquois League of Peace found itself participating in wars on a scale previously unknown to Native North America.

Deerskin trade

Many North American cities, including Montreal, St. Louis, Detroit, Charleston, Albany, and New York, began as fur or deerskin trade markets. Europeans were primarily interested in Indians as allies (or enemies) in war and as customers in the fur and deerskin trades; consequently, they expected to deal with men, the warriors and hunters, not women, who traditionally were peacemakers and farmers. Traditional subsistence practices and settlement patterns changed as Cherokees participated in the deerskin trade and adopted English styles of farming and domesticating animals.

Powhatan

North American Indian leader, father of Pocahontas. He presided over the Powhatan empire at the time the English established the Jamestown Colony (1607). Powhatan had inherited rulership of an empire of six tribes from his father. After succeeding his father, Powhatan brought about two dozen other tribes into the empire that was named for him; at the peak of his power, he is estimated to have ruled between 13,000 and 34,000 people. Powhatan was an astute and energetic ruler, but he was also noted as being strict and occasionally cruel toward his subjects. English colonists established a settlement, known as Jamestown, on an uninhabited peninsula within his territory in 1607. The Powhatan empire at the time of the colonists' arrival essentially covered present-day eastern Virginia, extending from the Potomac River to the Great Dismal Swamp, and its capital was at the village of Werowocomoco. Powhatan initially acted ambivalently toward the English settlement, sometimes ordering or permitting attacks against the colonists while at other times trading tribal food for sought-after English goods such as metal tools. During the colony's early years, he appears to have viewed the English as potential allies against his own enemies—namely, the Monacan, Mannahoac, and Massawomeck tribes to the north and west. In his trading and negotiation with the colony in those years, the English were generally represented by John Smith, with whom Powhatan played a cat-and-mouse game as each side assessed the other's capabilities and intentions.

Praying Towns

On the mainland, John Eliot, minister of the English church at Roxbury, gathered Indian converts into "praying towns" like Natick where they were expected to give up Indian ways and live like their Christian English neighbors. Working with an Indian interpreter and an Indian printer, Eliot even translated the Bible into the Massachusett dialect of the Algonquian language for his Indian congregations. Some found in a Christian community, even in Eliot's rigidly regulated praying towns, a refuge from English racism and the turmoil in their own villages. In the praying town of Natick, Massachusetts, for example, individuals and families from several different tribal groups rebuilt a community within their southeastern New England homeland.

John Eliot

Puritan missionary to the Native Americans of Massachusetts Bay Colony whose translation of the Bible in the Algonquian language was the first Bible printed in North America. Educated in England, Eliot From 1632 to his death he was pastor of the church at nearby Roxbury. With the support of his congregation and fellow ministers, he began a mission to the Native Americans, preaching at Nonantun (Newton) and at other towns. Groups of "praying Indians" soon arose, and by 1674 there were 14 villages with 4,000 converts. Eliot's work was financed chiefly from England, where his activities inspired the creation of the Company for Propagating the Gospel in New England and Parts Adjacent in North America (1649). Eliot's methods set the pattern of subsequent "Indian missions" for almost two centuries. Civilization, he believed, was closely bound up with evangelization. His converts were gathered into Christian towns, governed by a biblical code of laws, and gradually introduced to the English manner of life. Each village had a school where the Indians were taught English and the handicrafts by which they could support themselves. Eliot himself, called the "Apostle to the Indians," produced the needed literature in the Massachusets Algonquian language, beginning with his primer or catechism of 1654. His translation of the New Testament appeared in 1661, the Old Testament in 1663.

Metacomet (Document: John Easton, "Metacomet Explains the Causes . . .")

Sachem (intertribal leader) of a confederation of indigenous peoples that included the Wampanoag and Narraganset. Metacom led one of the most costly wars of resistance in New England history, known as King Philip's War (1675-76). Metacomet's dignity and steadfastness both impressed and frightened the settlers, who eventually demonized him as a menace that could not be controlled. For 13 years he kept the region's towns and villages on edge with the fear of an Indian uprising. Finally, in June 1675, violence erupted when three Wampanoag warriors were executed by Plymouth authorities for the murder of John Sassamon, a tribal informer. Metacom's coalition, comprising the Wampanoag, Narraganset, Abenaki, Nipmuc, and Mohawk, was at first victorious. However, after a year of savage fighting during which some 3,000 Indians and 600 colonists were killed, food became scarce, and the indigenous alliance began to disintegrate. Seeing that defeat was imminent, Metacom returned to his ancestral home at Mount Hope, where he was betrayed by an informer and killed in a final battle. He was beheaded and quartered and his head displayed on a pole for 25 years at Plymouth. Metacom basically just says that the indians were trying hard to maintain peace but the British kept being ******** and encroaching on their land so eventually they had to fight.

Pequot War (Document: "Cooperation, Contagion, and Conflict")

Smallpox struck the Indians of New England in 1633-34 and Governor William Bradford of Plymouth Plantation reported a mortality rate of 95 percent among Indians on the Connecticut River. The Pequot Indians of southern Connecticut suffered appalling losses in the epidemic. The Pequots were a once-powerful people whose location at the mouth of the Connecticut River allowed them to control the region's trade in wampum strings of shells used in intertribal trade and diplomacy. Two years after the smallpox epidemic, the English went to war against the Pequots. The Pequot War has been a source of controversy among historians: some blame the Pequots; others see it as an act of genocide on the part of the English. A scholar of the conflict concludes that it was "the messy outgrowth of petty squabbles over trade, tribute, and land" among various Indian tribes, Dutch traders, and English Puritans. The Puritans, however, transformed it into a mythic struggle between savagery and civilization. A Puritan army broke Pequot resistance in a surprise attack on their main village in 1637. Surrounding the palisaded village, the soldiers put the Pequots' lodges to the torch, and shot or cut down the people who tried to escape. Hundreds died in the ensuing slaughter. The English hunted down the survivors, executing some, selling women and children into slavery, and handing over others to the Mohegans and Narragansetts who had assisted the English in the war. At the Treaty of Hartford in 1638, the English terminated Pequot sovereignty and outlawed the use of the tribal name.

Abenakis

The Abenakis of northern New England found themselves occupying a borderland between the two competing European powers. French and English agents, missionaries, and traders competed for Abenaki allegiance, and Abenakis sometimes kept their options open, praying with the French yet traveling south to get better prices and goods at English trading posts. As English pressure on Abenaki lands increased, however, most Abenakis made common cause with the French. For almost eighty years, Abenaki warriors launched lightning raids, stalling the northward advance of the English frontier. Abenakis earned a reputation as stalwart allies of the French and implacable enemies of New England. In fact, like other Indians enmeshed in the French and Indian War, the Abenakis fought for their own reasons. In 1752, the Abenakis asserted their sovereignty and independence. They wanted only to live in peace, said their speaker Ateawaneto, but there could be no peace unless the English stopped encroaching on Abenaki land.

Massasoit

Wampanoag Indian chief who throughout his life maintained peaceful relations with English settlers in the area of the Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts. Massasoit was the grand sachem (intertribal chief) of all the Wampanoag Indians, who inhabited parts of present Massachusetts and Rhode Island, particularly the coastal regions. In March 1621—several months after the landing of the Mayflower at Plymouth—Massasoit journeyed to the colony with his colleague Samoset, who had already made friendly overtures to the Pilgrims there. Convinced of the value of a thriving trade with the newcomers, Massasoit set out to ensure peaceful accord between the races—a peace that lasted as long as he lived. In addition, he and his fellow Indians shared techniques of planting, fishing, and cooking that were essential to the settlers' survival in the wilderness. When Massasoit became dangerously ill in the winter of 1623, he was nursed back to health by the grateful Pilgrims. The colonial leader, Governor Edward Winslow, was said to have traveled several miles through the snow to deliver nourishing broth to the chief. Massasoit was able to keep the peace for many decades, but new waves of land-hungry Europeans created tension as the Indians' native land was steadily taken over by the whites. When he died, goodwill gradually dissolved, culminating in the bloody King Philip's War (1675), led by Massasoit's second son.

"The Indian Bible"

Written by John Eliot, the Indian Bible was the first bible published in British North America. John Eliot was an English missionary who came to the Massachusetts Bay Colony with the intent of converting natives to Christianity. In order to do this he used Christian scriptures, but he felt that the indians were more comfortable reading the bible in their own language so he spent 14 years translating all 66 books of the bible into Algonquian. Several thousand copies of the indian bible were printed, with the monetary assistance of the London Corporation.