Native American History FINAL

Richard Pratt

Founded Carlisle Indian School to "tame wild" children in the 1880s. Carlisle was a former army officer and the school was on a former military base. Children were forced to attend and often treated with violence. "Kill the Indian, save the man." Assault on cultural identity, attempted to "civilize" by teaching monogamy, private property, and other values of white culture. In Pennsylvania

Ishi

Ishi was a confused and starving Yahi man, discovered in Orville, CA in 1911. He was put in jail until Kroeber sent from him. He lived the rest of his life in a museum, exhibited to the public and worked with Kroeber to record his language, customs, and lifestyle. Demonstrates how ideology at the time viewed Native Americans as inferior, often as animals to be studied.

Oklahoma

Jerome Commision/Cherokee Commision, 1889-1893, negotiations involving intimidating tactics that lead to allotment, 15 million acres of "surplus" land was opened for white settlers, creating Oklahoma.

Citizenship 1924

The 1924 Indian Citizenship Act conferred U.S. citizenship to all Indians who had not already been made citizens by special legislation. This made Indians "triple citizens", subject to U.S., state, and tribal law. This creates a tangle of overlapping and sometimes conflicting jurisdictions.

Bronson Koenig

born 1994, professional NBA player. He is a member of the Ho-Chunk nation and is opposed to using Native names as Mascots (particularly against Washington Redskins). He participated in the protest of the Dakota Access Pipeline.

Worcester v. Georgia

1832, Christian missionaries living among Cherokee refuse to take the oath of loyalty to the state of Georgia, Marshall says accepting dependent status does not mean they surrendered their rights to the government. Cherokee Nation was "a distinct community, occupying its own territory" in which "the laws of Georgia can have no force." Jackson says "Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it"

Dawes Act

1887, the goal was to reduce reservations and allot lands to individual Indians as private property. Would terminate communal ownership, push Indians into mainstream society, and offer for sale a "surplus" land not used by Indians. Reformers believed that Indian acquisition of private property was vital if an Indian was to become a fully participating and competing member of American society. Also pushed agriculture.

Wounded Knee

1890, General Miles brings 5,000 troops to disperse dancers, 200 Indians killed, many others freeze to death. Whites saw the Ghost Dance as declaration of war, press call the dance the "Lakota Sioux Outbreak", creating a sense of hostility. In reality, the Ghost Dance was an attempt to revive NA tradition and bring back buffalo, peaceful. South Dakota.

Indian Reorganization Act

1934. This piece of Indian New Deal legislation, Collier said, "aims at both the economic and the spiritual rehabilitation of the Indian race." The bill admitted the Dawes Act was a mistake and forbid the further allotment of land. It also stated Indians on reservations could establish local self-government and tribal corporations. Additionally, the government would provide training in public health, land issues, and law enforcement, as well as offer scholarship money for students. Tribes could vote to accept the IRA. Tribes regained several million acres lost due to the Dawes Act. They also gained more control their own affairs and made progress in both education and cultural preservation. However, following the IRA, reservations faced the Bureau of Indian Affairs dominating their actions.

Trail of Broken Treaties

1972. A caravan of more than 500 Indian protestors left from the west coast to Washington DC to bring a twenty-point document to congress. The document touted the return of treaty making with Indian nations in order to assert their sovereignty. It also asked the government to review treaty violations and abolish the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and culminated in the occupation of the BIA building for 6 days. Ultimately congress located at the points but neglected them. Groups that participated include AIM, NIYC, and National Congress of American Indians

California v. Cabazon

1987, Mission Indians. Supreme court specified that if any given state permitted gambling in any form, it could not prevent similar gambling activities on Indian reservations, nor could it impose its authority over that of a sovereign tribal government. The case demonstrated to American public in high profile cases that American Indians had not "disappeared", they are using the legal system to their benefit and winning.

Indian Gaming Regulatory Act

1988, if a tribe has a history of a particular kind of gambling, then they could open a casino that runs on that same type of gambling. Also, if a certain type of gambling exists in the state, then the reservation can also open a casino in the same type of gambling (CA v Cabazon). Three classes: traditional, bingo/lottery, catch all category -tribes give states a portion of the tax, not federal taxes, IGRA states that when Indians open a casino they will determine taxes before they open -post IGRA growth in tribally owned casinos, became a billion dollar industry

Little Bighorn

A battle in 1876 in which George Custer was defeated. The Americans had lost but got to write the history, portraying the event as the final clash between "savagery" and "civilization". The fictional account of the battle suggests soldiers land, not Indians, was being invaded and attacked. The soldiers were surrounded and doomed, becoming martyrs to the cause of westward expansion, and their deaths justify the eventual victory of the U.S. over Indians. Lakota and Cheyenne participants, the only real witnesses, do not recall the battle as heroic as American portrayals do. Little Bighorn River, Montana and Wyoming.

Chief Joseph

After gold was discovered on the Nez Perces reservation, the American government negotiated a treaty which would cause the tribe to lose 90% of their land and relocate to Idaho in 1863. A Nez Perces chief, Joseph, refused to sign the treaty and continued to live in Oregon. When he died he made his son, Chief Joseph, promise to never sell the land. Immediately, Chief Joseph faced pressure from the government. When threatened to be moved by force, Chief Joseph persuaded his people to move rather than go to war. The U.S. would attack the tribe, but Joseph lead his people to victory. The Nez Perces headed for Montana where they were again attacked and forced into Canada. After several more attacks, Joseph surrendered. His surrender speech became famous. The encounters captured public attention. Many praised Joseph for his dignified conduct and fighting. The Nez Perces never scalped, freed captured women, and never harmed peaceful families.

Alfred Kroeber

After receiving his PhD from Columbia in 1901, Kroeber moved to Berkeley where he aimed to study an "uncontaminated Indian." He was the caretaker of Ishi. He believed Indians were doomed to vanish and worked to record Ishi's language, lifestyle, and ancient customs. He worked with Boas and the Iniut in NYC.

Navajo Long Walk

After surrendering to the merciless attacks by the U.S. and their Ute Indian allies, Navajos were removed to New Mexico in 1864. In the 400 mile trek, an estimated 200 lives were lost. The reservation the Navajo were confined to was barren -- leading to malnutrition, disease, drought, and bad water. After 4 years of suffering, 2,000 Navajo died and a leader went to D.C. to beg for their land back. Upon returning, they promised to become farmers, stop raiding, and stay on their reservation. The "Long Walk" ramined a traumatic and defining event in Navajo history.

Relocation

After the Allotment Act placed NA on small plots of land, many left reservations. In the 1940s, many NA moved to cities to work in WWII-related industries. The U.S. government initiated the relocation program to expedite assimilation and end poverty on reservations. In 1952 the government launched the Voluntary Relocation Program, and during the next eight years the BIA provided incentives and assistance to move more than 30,000 Indians from reservations to cities. Many NA were not prepared for the capitalism-driven pace and found themselves in poor housing and unemployed. As many as one third returned to reservations.

Raymond Yellow Thunder

An Oglala from Pine Ridge. 1972, Yellow Thunder is drunk, beaten up, driven to vetern hall where he is stripped naked and beaten up again, castrated, body is put in his car where he freezes to death. AIM denounced murders such as this. AIM employing a new sense of political aggressiveness, gaining national attention.

George Armstrong Custer

Attacked Cheyenne village on the Washita River in 1868. Slaughtered hundreds of ponies, leaving Indians immobilized and easily defeated. Example of military action used against tribes who refused confinement. Killed in Battle of Little Bighorn. Was glorified as a hero and rewritten by Americans to romanticize and legitimize the American conquest of the West.

Luther Standing Bear

Attended Carlisle in 1883 and stayed for 7 years. On his way to the school, white people gathered to throw money at Standing Bear's car. Confused, the Indians threw it back, worried it would signify them agreeing to slavery. Standing Bear fought to preserve Lakota heritage and sovereignty and was at the forefront of a Progressive movement to change government policy toward Native Americans. Standing Bear's commentaries on Native American culture and wisdom educated the American public, deepened public awareness, and created popular support to change government policies toward Native American people. Luther Standing Bear helped create the popular twentieth-century image that Native American culture is holistic and respectful of nature; his classic commentaries appear in college-level reading lists in anthropology, literature, history, and philosophy, and constitute a legacy and treasury of Native American wisdom.

Code Talkers

Baffled the Japanese with a code based on Navajo words in the Pacific theater of WWII. 1940s, belatedly recognized for their contributions by the U.S. government. Included many tribes. Credited for victory at Iwo Jima.

Buffalo Bill

Buffalo Bill killed over 4,000 bison in a year in a half starting in 1867. He was paid $500/month to hunt in the Great Plains. This contributed to the extreme population reduction of bison on the plains, which Indians in the region relied on to survive. Additionally, in a treaty with the U.S. government, Indians were promised rights to the land as long as the buffalo roamed. The disappearance of buffalo also lead to the creation of the Ghost Dance. Buffalo Bill later created the Wild West shows. This traveling circus featured Indians such as Chief Sitting Bull, turning them into actors. In skits, cowboys would defeat malicious Indians, instating a sense of American identity in which Indians were an enemy to be destroyed.

Foxwoods Casino

Casino is southeastern Connecticut. Uses Plains Indian-style statues and decor, with generic "Indian" symbols such as tomahawks, arrows, feathers, and buffalo. Example of Indians using stereotypes that others find offensive as a marketing technique. Operated by the Mashantucket Pequot tribe, extremely successful. Many criticize the Pequots for "selling out", going into the gaming business, capitalizing on their Indian heritage but sacrificing traditional values for easy money. Others respond that the criticism stems from the fact that casino tribes are shattering stereotypes of Indian poverty and that the new wealth serves to preserve and revive their culture, not to undermine it. Profits from the casino provided the tribe with housing, health care, education, care for the elderly, and cultural programs. It also created 10,000 jobs. Opened in 1986.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act

Congress declared in 1978 its intention to "protect and preserve for American Indians their inherent right of freedom to believe, express, and exercise" their traditional religions, "including but not limited to access to sites, use and possession of sacred objects, and the freedom to worship through ceremonials and traditional rights." Despite its promise, the joint resolution by Congress was a policy statement, lacking legal teeth for enforcement. The supreme court continued to allow the federal and state governments to intrude upon the religious life of Native peoples, and Congress later had to amend the act to provide greater protection as NA continued to struggle for religious rights.

Charles Eastman

Dakotan native known as a "Red Progressive" that earned distinction in American society as Dr. Charles Eastman. He used his skills for the benefit of his people and became the Pine Ridge reservation physician in 1890. He educated his people in American ways (helped them assimilate), supported the Dawes Allotment Act, and served in the Office of Indian Affairs. Whites viewed him as a role model for Indians if they would abandon their ways of life. Wrote of social Darwinism. His father, Many Lightnings, was prosecuted for Sioux Uprising, driving him to raise Charles in white mans' ways.

Sequoyah

Dedicated a dozen years to creating a written form of the Cherokee language in 1821. He also taught the language throughout Cherokee territory, rejecting English and developing Cherokee language. This is an example of Cherokee attempts to become America's version of "civilized."

20 Points

During the Trail of Broken Treaties (1972) when NA from all over the US met in DC to protest, AIM leaders brought a 20 point document proposing that the federal government reestablish a treaty-making relationship with Indians. The 20 points document also demanded that the government review treaty violations, abolish the BIA, and establish an Office of Federal Indian Relations and Community Reconstruction; provide protection for Indian religious freedom and cultural integrity; and provide funding and support for health, housing, education, employment, and economic development. The government agreed to review their protesters' 20 demands and fund their transportation home, however the doc was never seen by the Nixon administration.

Sand Creek Massacre

In 1858 gold was discovered in Colorado. Thousands of settlers poured in, destroying Cheyenne way of life. Tensions escalated, settlers fear that military withdraw east to fight in the Civil War would allow an Indian uprising. Black Kettle's band of Cheyennes were camped on land set aside by and protected by the U.S.. Colorado Cavalry attacked the village despite Black Kettle holding up the American flag and a white flag. The soldiers butchered between 150 and 270 people, mostly women and children. Victims were mutilated. This lead to Indian uprisings that settlers had feared.

National Indian Youth Council

In 1961, participants from the Chicago conference, in which over 400 delegates composed a Declaration of Indian Purpose and sent it to President JFK, grew impatient with attempts to work with the U.S. government. They formed NIYC in New Mexico. They demanded NA participation to determining policies that affected NA. They wanted the power to run their own affairs. Many of the Indians were from rural areas or reservations, but the group quickly spread to urban areas. Staged "fish-ins" to draw public attention to Indians struggle to harvest salmon, an income they heavily relied on in the Northwest Pacific Coast and the Columbia River, after the population dramatically increased. The settlers gave little regard to the NA fishing rights and their harvest was quickly depleted. Additionally, NIYC formed an "Indian patrol" to monitor actions of police in Indian neighborhoods.

American Indian Movement

In 1968, three patrol leaders, Clyde Bellecourt, Dennis Banks, and George Mitchell, organized AIM. Growing urban Indian activism in turn generated a revival of Indian nationalism and promoted the Indian identity. The creation of AIM, the American Indian Movement was a definitive action in Native American history as it was on of the most public, radical, and publicized Native American activist groups. Leading several highly publicized protests, AIM offered a loud voice for Native Americans to be heard with, but is often heralded as more talk than action. As a still functioning American Indian activist group, AIM has become less radical over the years but still remains a powerful advocate for Native Americans.

Proclamation to the Great White Father, 1969

In 1969, a group of young Indians seized Alcatraz, a disused federal penitentiary. Under the name of "Indians of All Tribes" they issues this proclamation, ironically employing the rhetoric of old treaties to demonstrate their grievances and demand reparations for confiscated land and the hundreds of treaties with Indian nations that the United States had broken. The takeover of Alcatraz symbolized the drawing of a new era; young Indians would take direct action and mobilize national attention in order to make their voices heard and confront the injustices NA have suffered and continue to suffer.

Alcatraz

In 1969, younger Indians took over Alcatraz in protest against current government policies and past breaches of treaty rights. Symbolized a new era of young Indians taking direct action and mobilizing national attention in order to make their voices heard and confront injustices. 89 young Indians seized Alcatraz Island using the name "Indians of All Tribes" and petitioning to "the Great White Father". The seizure lasted 14 months and ended when federal officials had to forcibly remove the last 15 protesters after having deprived them of water and electricity. The takeover was used to make public abuses of power against American Indians, especially in using the same rhetoric that defined previous treaties made between Native Americans and the United States government. The movement was especially effective in light of the counterculture that existing protesting the unpopular Vietnam War and other government policies.

NAGPRA

In 1990, President George Bush signed the Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act into law. It requires all institutions receiving federal funds to inventory their collections of Indian artifacts and human remains, share the lists with Indians tribes, and return, when appropriate, the items the tribes requested. Many individuals and institutions were reluctant and provisions in 2010 added that "remains whose affiliation cannot be established scientifically" but are on or near the tribes homeland must be returned. Until recently, museums displayed Indian remains and artifacts without sensitivity for NA. NAGPRA initiated a new era of more collaborative relations with NA and greater sensitivity to NA concerns about what should be displayed.

National Congress of American Indians

In Denver, Colorado, 1944, almost 80 delegates from 50 tribes formed the NCAI. Their mission was "to secure the rights and benefits to which we are entitled under the laws of the United States, ..., to enlighten the public toward a better understanding of the Indian race, to preserve cultural values; to seek an equitable adjustment to tribal affairs; ..., and to otherwise promote the common welfare of the American Indians." Defended reservations, fought termination.

Ira Hamilton Hayes

In famous photo of soldiers in WWII raising American flag, volunteered for WWII, PTSD, toured U.S. to sell war bonds, everyone wants to congratulate Hayes and buy him a drink leading to his alcoholism

Red Cloud

In response to the Bozeman Trail, Oglala chief Red Cloud fought the U.S. army to a standstill in 1866-67. Red Cloud annihilated Captain William Fetterman's entire command in 1866, U.S. expansion was halted. U.S. created Indian Peace Commission in 1867, which initiated commissioners to make treaties to prevent further conflict by confining Indians to reservations, leaving the way open for the construction of the railroads that drove American expansion across the west.

Termination

In the 1940s and 1950s public opinion and government support swung away from reform and towards conformity as fear of communism brought suspicion of those who did not fit in with mainstream society. The U.S. government attempted to hasten assimilation by ending its relationship with Indian tribes. Termination policy aimed to dismantle tribal governments, dissolve tribal land holdings, and end federal services to Indian people. In a three part plan, the government implemented compensation (acknowledging injustices of the past, including loss of land, to achieve a "clean slate"), termination (eliminate special tribal status and turn jurisdiction over the Indians to local governments), and relocation.

Mary Crow Dog

Lakota woman who documented her experiences of extreme poverty and violence growing up on an Indian reservation, attending St. Francis boarding schools, and traveling with AIM. She participated in taking over of the BIA building in D.C. and would later marry Leonard Crow Dog, religious leader of AIM. She delivered his baby while AIM occupied Wounded Knee, under heavy fire. While her husband was in prison, she was an advocate for Native American rights and worked to earn support to free her husband from jail.

John Collier

John Collier, a social worker from New York City, appointed by Franklin Delano Roosevelt. He decided to champion Indian Advocacy after a life-changing visit to Taos Pueblo in 1920. Collier saw an opportunity for salvation of American society, admiring how Pueblos were not consumed with materialism. Collier advocated for what he believed to be in Native American peoples' best interests. In the Indian New Deal, Collier expressed these beliefs. This included the eventual assimilation of Indian people into mainstream American society, however, he opposed rapid assimilation and attempted to preserve Indian culture.

Chief Illiniwek

Mascot for the University of Illinois, the "Fighting Illini". The mascot wore a headdress that was sold by a Native American to the school. The headdress is a religious symbol and the mascot wore a fabricated costume. Chief Illiniwek danced at games. The Illini tribe were ravaged by smallpox and removed from their homelands twice. A grad student took her kids to a basketball game and saw the mascot dancing while students from the opposing team yell racial slurs. She protested the use of Native Americans as a mascot. The school said they used the mascot in a respectful manner. The Big 10 stepped in saying they wouldn't compete with any school that had a NA mascot. Finally, in 2007 Chief Illiniwek was banned, the school currently has no mascot.

Richard Oakes

Mohawk, moved to the Bay Area for work, met Nordwell at a Halloween party. The two joke about taking back Alcatraz, which is supposed to close 1962, U.S. treaties say any decommissioned territory can be reclaimed by Indians, 1964 Indians reclaim. Alcatraz Red Power Movement, 1969, takeover the island, Indians of All Tribes (Pan-Indianism), Hopi imprisoned at Alcatraz for refusing to send their kids to boarding schools. Swam from a boat to the island, claiming it. Families follow, wasn't the original plan. Oakes wants the treaty to the island to create a museum, cultural center, and Indian university. He became the face of the movement, kind of a celebrity. When his daughter is pushed off one of the island's towers, he and his family leave the island. He is shot and killed, inspiring the March on Washington on the eve of election, in 1972. Leads to the BIA takeover/Trail of Broken Treaties.

Carlos Montezuma

Montezuma was born to Yavapai parents. In 1871, he was kidnapped and sold to white people. Later, he would be sent to school, eventually becoming the first Native American to graduate from the University of Illinois and one of the first Native American doctors. He published a newspaper, Wassaja, expressing his belief that the Indian Bureau prevented Indians from succeeding. He opened his own medical practice in Chicago, often treating those who couldn't afford it for free, despite barely being able to reach ends meet himself.

Francis La Flesche

Omaha. One of the first Indian anthropologists. In 1879, accompanied Standing Bear on a tour of eastern cities. On this lecture circuit, his sister spoke out about unjust treatment of Indians and the need for Indians to become full citizens in order to be protected under the Constitution. In 1900, Francis wrote The Middle Five, a rare account providing from a Native American viewpoint of his education by members of the majority culture. He became a champion of Native American rights. He worked as a clerk at the BIA and co-authored The Omaha Tribe with Alice Fletcher.

Fish-Ins

On the Northwest Pacific Coast and the Columbia River, Indian peoples depended on salmon harvests. In the 1850's many tribes had been deprived of their lands but promised the right to continue fishing. In the next century, the population of these areas dramatically increased. Pollution, commercial fishing, and other factors harmed the salmon harvests and Indians struggled to survive, forcing them to fish on off-seasons and without licenses. They staged "fish-ins" to draw public attention to their grievances and publicize their treaty rights. Many Indians went to jail but they accomplished important victories in court in the 1970s and 1980s. 14 tribes sued the state of Washington over fishing rights and Indians were ruled entitled to catch up to 50% of the fish returning to the 1850s treaty promising them fishing rights in their "usual and accustomed places."

Tribal Nations Embassy

Opened in Washington D.C., in 2009. Chickasaw NCAI president claimed "for the first time since settlement, tribal nations will have a permanent home in Washington, D.C., where they can more effectively assert their sovereign status and facilitate a much stronger nation-to-nation relationship with the federal government." Barack Obama held a Tribal Nations conference with almost 400 tribal leaders, "the largest and most widely attended gathering of tribal leaders in our history," BO said. BO made promises to NA, putting aside $3 billion of the Recovery Act to address pressing needs in the NA community.

Cherokee Removal Act

President Jackson proposed this act in 1830, claiming he was powerless to stop white settlers from encroaching on Cherokee territory. Jackson reasoned that settlers were citizens, unlike Cherokees, so he must protect them first and would later have the government compensate the Cherokee Nation. Cherokee lived east of the Mississippi River. Settlers immediately begin to move onto Cherokee land, before they have left. Cherokee fight back in several ways. They attempt to "civilize" creating a Cherokee written language, farming, etc. Cherokee bring their case to the Supreme Court. Finally, in 1836, the Cherokee were forcibly removed in the Trail of Tears, 13,000 are brought to Oklahoma, 8,000 die on the journey, and 3,000 die in stockades.

John Ross

Principal Chief of the Cherokees in 1830's. When Georgia created the Georgia Guard, to patrol Cherokee country, they arrested Ross and confiscated his papers and the Cherokee printing press. Ross opposed Cherokee removal, lobbying in Congress and taking the Cherokee case to the Supreme Court. Ross hired William Writ, former attorney general, and other lawyers to fight the Cherokee case. In Indian territory, he worked to rebuild the Cherokee Nation. During the Civil War, he originally pushed for neutrality, but later would support the Union. Changed gender roles throughout the tribe, men of more power, shows adopting white ways.

Diné College

Prior to the 1960s, there were no institutions of higher education in Indian country. Native communities created tribal colleges to fill the void. Dine college was the first tribal college on Navajo land. Students who had to previously leave the reservation for higher education in an alien environment now had the option of attending college closer to home in an institution that tried to incorporate Navajo values in its administration and classes. Arizona

Black Hills

Region between South Dakota and Wyoming. Occupied by the Kiowas (where their culture and cosmology started) until pushed out by Lakotas and Cheyennes.

Leonard Crow Dog

Religious leader of AIM. Married to Mary Crow Dog. Pan-Indianism, brought people together through religion. Incarcerated.

Boarding Schools

Schools setup in 1884 and by 1887, 10,000 Indian children were enrolled in boarding schools. Often run by nuns, the schools forbid students from speaking their own languages and practicing their own religions. Children were isolated from their families and rarely allowed to contact or visit them. Children were beaten, forced to perform labor, and mentally abused. This was an attempt to "civilize" Indians. Boys worked as black smiths, farmers, and vocational training while girls sewed, cooked, and cleaned. Taught that Indian ways were wrong. Many died in boarding schools from disease. These schools were also responsible for loss of culture. They also, however, brought strength, adding to Pan-Indianism and drawing attention to quality of life issues.

TAS status

Several federal environmental laws authorize EPA to treat eligible federally recognized Indian Tribes as a State (TAS) for the purpose of implementing and managing certain environmental programs and functions for grant funding. Tribes must apply for and receive EPA approval for each specific program or function.

Detribalization

The idea that "tribalism" is the cohesion of Native American culture, beliefs, traditions, etc. - American reformers worked to eradicate all aspects of tribal life - Goal: to "civilize" Native Americans and have them lead sedentary lives on fixed plots of land, be self-supporting, and practice Christianity - Wanted to attain Native American civilization by immersion and assimilation - "Kill the Indian, save the man"

Manifest Destiny

The idea that the United States in destined to spread to the Pacific Coast. In 1840s, this was used when gold and silver were discovered in Colorado and California. Used to justify removal of Indians.

Treaty of Fort Laramie, 1851 and 1868

To avoid conflict among settlers and tribes and create a safe passage for white settlers, the U.S. wanted restrict the tribes to designated areas. In the treaty in 1851, Indian leaders from major tribes of the northern Plains met to hear American proposals that Indians respect their boundaries. This did not prevent conflict. At the second treaty, Lakota spokesmen made clear the Indians reason for going to war. The U.S. agreed to abandon the Bozeman Trail (a project to build a passage through northern Plains Indians' land). 156 Sioux leaders sign, creating the Great Sioux Reserve. P 324. The treaty essentially ended the war, planted the seeds for another potential conflict, and provided the legal foundation for the Sioux to claim that land and the Black Hills as theirs for more than 100 years.

Kiowa Calendars

Usually painted on a buffalo robe in a spiral denoting successive years. Each year marked by a pictographic device symbolizing a memorable event. Creators of calendars would bring them to be discussed around campfires. Calendars could be made over several generations or by an individual who consulted elders. Referenced Sun Dances, deaths of prominent chiefs, meteor showers, etc.

Wovoka

Wovoka is a holy man, Paiute, who had a vision to dance for 4 day and 5 nights, in order to bring back buffalo herds and peace. New dance hasn't been banned, unlike the Sun Dance. The vision and the appeal of the Ghost Dance spreads. Sioux saw the buffalo disappearance as reversible, whites saw it as inevitable. 1890.

Pan-Indianism

a philosophical and political approach promoting unity, and to some extent cultural homogenization, among different Native groups in the US regardless of tribal distinctions and cultural differences.

Grandfather Peyote

a sacred plant in Sioux ritual. The legend is that Grandfather Peyote came to a starving/thirsty woman during the night and pointed to the peyote plant. Native Americans experience a new "power" when using the plant and conceptualize the world around them. In physical form, it is the entire plant full of buds.

Dr. Connie Pinkerton-Uri

in 1974 Dr Connie, a Chocktaw physician working at the Indian Health Service facility in Claremore, Oklahoma, uncovered evidence of sterilization apparently without their consent. The story broke in the Native newspaper Akwesasne News and generated outrage and national investigation. They found that 3406 Native women between the ages of 15-44 were sterilized between 1973-1976.

Molly, Annie, and Minnie Burkhart

married to white men, extremely wealthy Osage in Oklahoma territory in the 1920s-30s. Annie Burkhart killed via shotgun, Mollie died of old age but husband attempted to poison her

Grattan's Attack

part of the Sioux wars. In 1854, a young army officer overreacted when a Sioux Indian killed an immigrant's cow. Lieutenant John Grattan led hid command to the Indian village, demanded the killer be delivered up, and opened fire. When the smoke cleared, Grattan and his men lay dead. Wyoming

Sioux Wars

westward expansion caused lots of settlers to move into Sioux territory on the Great Plains. The first Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851 hoped to restrict tribes to designated areas in an effort to reduce inter tribal conflict and prevent confrontations with Americans. The treaty did not hold and fighting broke out in 1854 between the Sioux and the US military. The stage was set for more than 20 years of open warfare between the Sioux and the US army.