Neuropsych Chapters 1-3

chromosome abnormalities

-Aberrations can appear in a part of a chromosome, or the entire chromosome -Down Syndrome: caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 -One parent (usually the mother) passes two chromosome 21s to the child, in addition to one from the father, called a trisomy -Produces characteristic facial features and short stature -Prone to developing leukemia and Alzheimer's disease

Main ideas (cont)

-Early findings on language helped establish principles of neuropsychology. Broca's area - "Tan" & the localization of expressive language (speech) -Wernicke's area - Understanding spoken language -Connections between neurons form the basis of learning. -The questions of how the brain processes all sensory inputs into a cohesive, seamless experience of the world is the Binding Problem. -Technology is allowing us to look inside the brain and better understand it's workings - but still much to learn.

Applying the Epigenetic Code

-Epigenetic mechanisms can influence protein production, either by blocking a gene (methylation) or by activating a gene -Chemical environments that trigger cell differentiation can be caused by other chemicals, e.g., hormones -Some experiential events can impact genes hat can also be passed from one generation to the next

Phenotypic Plasticity and the Epigenetic Code I

-Genotype is not sufficient to explain your phenotype -Phenotypic plasticity: The extent of your phenotypic variation, given a constant genotype, can be dramatic -Due in part to the genome's capacity to express a large number of phenotypes and in part to epigenetics, it reflects the influence of environment in selecting one or another of those phenotypes

Main Ideas

-Neuropsychology is the study of brain-behavior relationships - it draws on many disciplines. -The brain is the source of behavior (Brain Hypothesis) -The basic unit of learning, communicating, acting etc. is the neuron (Neuron Hypothesis) -Neurons are discrete, have electrical charges & communicate via chemical signals

Why the Hominid Brain Enlarged:Suggested Theories

-Numerous drastic climate changes forced hominids to adapt; this led to more complex food-finding and food-handling behavior. -The primate lifestyle favors an increasingly complex nervous system that humans capitalized on -Brain growth is linked to brain cooling? A slowed maturation rate favors larger brains - more time to grow in utero. Theory of the brain's "Big Bang" in the past 70,000 - 100,000 years.

Phenotypic Plasticity and the Epigenetic Code II

-Phenotypic plasticity begins with cell division in the developing embryo -Each dividing cell finds itself in an environment different than its parent cell, and the new environment determines which genes will be expressed -Concordance rate between identical twins for a vast array of diseases, including schizophrenia, AD, MS, asthma, diabetes, and prostate cancer, are between 30% and 60% -These rates cannot be explained by Mendelian genetic principles alone

Neuropsychology

-Scientific study of the relationship between behavior and the brain -Draws from many disciplines (e.g., biology, anatomy, pharmacology, philosophy, technology). Two ideas that influence experimental and theoretical investigations of brain function The Brain Hypothesis The brain is the source of behavior The Neuron Hypothesis The unit of brain structure and function is the neuron

Genetic Engineering

-Selective Breeding -Cloning -Must begin with a cell nucleus containing DNA -Even clones are subject to phenotypic plasticity -Cloning extinct species? -Transgenic Techniques -Transgenic animals -Knock-in technology -Knock-out technology

Primate Lifestyle

-Social group size related to group member's brain size. -Eating fruits is related to brain size. Suzana Herculano-Houzel (2012): A unique contribution to hominid brain development is cooking food over fire. -There is a high metabolic cost to producing an abundance of neurons Cooking food makes it easier to digest (less time/chewing) and maximizes caloric gain so that less time needs to be spent foraging. -More calories supports an energy hungry brain (20% of body's energy burned by the brain)

Brain-to-Body size ratios of Common Mammals (lecture 2 slide 13 diagram)

-modern human brain has largest size relative to body weight

The Split Brain

1960s Neurosurgeons: Bogen & Vogel Cut the corpus callosum of epilepsy patients to prevent the spread of seizures Roger Sperry (Nobel prize in 1981) Conducted neuropsychological evaluations on "split brain" patients to discover how the right and left hemispheres function: right side recognizes faces

Human Origin and the Origins of a Larger Brain

According to evolution theory, the evolution of humans—Homo sapiens—is not linear Various species coexisted with Homo Sapiens: Neanderthals in Europe (30,000 years ago?) Denisovans in Siberia (50,000 years ago?) Homo floresiensis on the island of Flores in Indonesia (up to about 12,000 years ago?)

Climate and the Evolving Hominid Brain

Africa's Great Rift Valley cut off ape species living in a wetter climate to the West from species living to the East, who evolved into hominids adapted to a drier climate. Rapid climate cooling ≈1 million years ago lowered sea levels & opened up bridges to Europe and Asia The warming of Europe about 30,000 years ago contributed to the (2nd) migration of modern humans to the continent and to the disappearance of the Neanderthals.

Connections Between Neurons As the Basis of Learning

Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley Nobel prize in 1963 for discovery of the electrical signals generated by neurons Charles Scott Sherrington First description of the synapse Otto Loewi Discovered that chemicals carry the message across the synapse Donald Hebb When cells are activated at the same time they establish or strengthen the synapse Termed Hebb or plastic synapses - Form the structural basis of memory The brain is plastic & constantly changing, leading to ongoing reorganization

The Acquisition of Culture

Alex Mesoudi and colleagues (2006) The elements of culture, memes, can be studied within the framework of evolution Individual differences in brain structure favor the development of certain memes Memes exert selective pressure on further brain development

Biochemical, Genetic, &Epigenetic Research

Amino-acid sequence of a cellular protein in one species can be compared to another A change in one amino acid may occur, on average, about once every million years Protein differences between proteins may provide a molecular clock that can be used to compare relative ages of different species Species relatedness also determined by comparing DNA Epigenetics: gene expression is related to environment and experience

Designing Animal Models of Disorders

Animal models of human neurological disorders being designed Parkinson's disease models have been developed in rat, mouse, and monkey models to Prevent the disease Slow its progression Treat symptoms

temporal lobe

Auditory processing Memory Understanding language "What is it?" (Visual Object Recognition)

Evolution of the Human Brain and Behavior

Australopithecus: A hominid ancestor Homo erectus The first humans whose populations spread widely beyond Africa; migrated into Europe & Asia First showed up in fossil record about 1.6 million years ago Had bigger brains than previous hominids

Spinal-Cord Function and the Spinal Nerves

Bell-Magendie Law Principle that the dorsal part of the spinal cord is sensory and the ventral part is motor Paraplegic Spinal cord cut below the cervical segments No control over their legs Quadriplegic Spinal cord cut above and into cervical segments No control over legs and arms Spinal cord capable of organizing complex actions Walking Reflexes: movements dependent only on spinal cord Specific movements elicited by specific sensory simulation Examples: Stimulation of pain/temp receptors = Flexion; stimulation of fine touch = Extension

Descartes' solution to the mind-body problem

Body Material Performs like a machine, responds mechanically and reflexively to event Mind: (Descarte mistakenly thought it was located in the Pineal Body) Nonmaterial The mind decides what movements the machine should make. One problem: How can a nonmaterial mind produce movement in a material body?

Neuroanatomy: Finding Your Way Around the Brain

Brain Organized Symmetrically Structures on the same side are Ipsilateral Structures on the opposite side are Contralateral Structures that lie in both hemispheres are Bilateral Structures that are close together are Proximal Structures that are far apart are Distal Efferent Movement away from the brain structure E.g., motor pathways leading to the body from the brain and spinal cord to the body Afferent Movement toward the brain structure E.g., sensory pathways carrying messages from the body toward the brain and spinal cord sensory- (incoming) pathways are different) motor (outgoing) pathways are efferent

Brain-Cell Origins see lecture 3

Brain-Cell Origins

Sequential Programming and Disconnection

Carl Wernicke Aphasic patients different from Broca's in the following ways: Damage was found in the 1st temporal gyrus No contralateral paralysis Patients could speak, but speech was nonsensical Could hear, but not understand or repeat what was said Wernicke's Area Posterior speech region, located in the temporal lobe Wernicke's Aphasia (Fluent Aphasia) Syndrome that results from damage to Wernicke's Area

support and protection 2

Central Nervous System (CNS) 3. Cushioned from shock and sudden pressure changes by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) CSF circulates through 4 ventricles, spinal column, and within the subarachnoid space in the meninges Continually being made and drained off 4. Blood-brain barrier limits the movement of chemicals from the rest of the body into the CNS Astroglia help form tight junctions to prevent many blood-borne substances from crossing from the capillaries into CNS tissue

Support and Protection I

Central Nervous System (CNS) 1. Brain enclosed in thick bone (the skull) and Spinal Cord encased in interlocking bony vertebrae The PNS is outside bony protection, so vulnerable to injury but can renew after an injury 2. Meninges: Three layers of membranes inside skull and vertebrae Dura Mater: tough double layer of tissue enclosing the brain in a loose manner Arachnoid Membrane: middle, very thin sheet follows the brain's contours Pia Mater: inner and moderately tough tissue that clings to the brain's surface

hindbrain

Cerebellum Surface gathered into folia (narrow folds) Several nuclei at base of cerebellum send connections to other parts of the brain Contains 4 times more neurons than the cerebral cortex but they are much more densely packed Coordinates motor learning & other mental processes Damage to cerebellum = equilibrium problems and postural defects; also impairs skilled motor activity, possibly motor memory. Reticular formation Lies within the hindbrain's core mixture of nuclei & fibers Also known as "reticular activating system" RAS Damage can result in permanent unconsciousness Pons ("Bridge") Upper hindbrain Connects the cerebellum with rest of brain Medulla Regulates vital functions such as breathing and the functioning of the cardiovascular system Pons and Medulla Serve many functions, including controlling waking and sleeping, and impacting locomotion TS.BB.CR.CO.

Behavioral Research

Comparative behavioral research can shed light on the origins of many human behavioral traits

Counting Brain Cells

Countering Jerison's rationale, Suzana Herculano-Houzel (2012) argues that body size and brain size can evolve independently. For her, it's all about the density of cells The more densely packed the cells, the more specialized they are What makes modern humans special is that we have many neurons, not a large EQ

Connections Between Central and Somatic Nervous System

Cranial Nerves 12 pairs; convey sensory and motor signals to and from the head. 2 sets: right and left Can have afferent functions (posterior), efferent functions (anterior), or both Knowledge of all Cranial Nerves important for neurological/medical diagnoses Control head, neck, and various internal organs

Forebrain: Basal Ganglia & Movement

Diseases of the Basal Ganglia: Huntington's Disease: Excessive movement Genetic disorder Progressive cell death in the basal ganglia "Dancelike" movements occur involuntarily Parkinson's Disease: Loss of movement Difficulty initiating movement, shuffling gait Projection from the substantia nigra to the basal ganglia dies Rhythmical tremors in hands and legs Rigid movement and have difficulty maintaining balance Disease of the Basal Ganglia Tourette's Syndrome Involuntary motor tics (especially face and head) Complex movements Involuntary vocalizations Basal ganglia diseases are disorders of controlling movement, not of producing movement Plays a role in stimulus response learning and Habit Learning; implicit memory

Distribution of the major Cerebral Arteries see lecture 3

Distribution of the major Cerebral Arteries

Encephalization Quotient

Encephalization Quotient (EQ) Developed by Harry Jerison (1973) Uses ratio of actual brain size compared to expected brain size Average mammal has an EQ of 1.0

Fissures, Sulci, and Gyri

Fissure A cleft in the cortex that is deep enough to indent the ventricles Sulci A shallow cleft in the cortex - the cuts in the brain Gyri A ridge in the cortex - raised areas of the brain The location, size, & shape of each differ in the two hemispheres and in different people

Spinal-Cord Injury: Research

Following spinal injury, damage takes hours to days to develop. Need to arrest the degenerative processes Inducing fibers to regrow across the damaged section can restore function. Approaches to regrowth: removing scar tissue inducing fibers to regrow by means of pharmacological treatments implanting glial cells in damaged regions to stimulate axon regrowth Developing aids to movement such as brain-computer interfaces (BCI) being researched

Frequently Used Anatomical Terms (see slide 5 on lecture 3) anatomical (see slide 6)

Frequently Used Anatomical Terms

An Overview of Nervous System Structure and Function

Functional Divisions of the Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS) Brain and Spinal Cord Somatic nervous system (SNS) To and from the sensory organs and the muscles, joints, and skin Spinal and cranial nerves Autonomic nervous system (ANS) Balances the internal organs through the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves

Genes, Environment, and Behavior

Genotype = genetic makeup Phenotype = expression of these genes Mendelian genetics cannot explain everything about our phenotypes Human Genome Project: catalogued human genome; found about 20,000 genes Epigenetics: how environment influences gene expression E.g., early life neglect can impair, while good nutrition and schooling can benefit brain development

nervous system cells

Glia Help neurons, hold them together Carry out supportive functions May play a role in neuronal communication Also recently implicated in aging of the brain Neurons Acquire information, process information & act on information Major parts: the cell body, dendrites & axon

Gray, White, and Reticular Matter

Gray Matter Gray-brown color from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies White Matter White color from axons covered in an insulating layer of glial cells (Oligodendroglia) Reticular Matter (mottled gray and white) Color and appearance from cell bodies and axons

Features of the Cortex

Gyri Folds of the cortex Sulci Creases between the folds Large sulci = fissures (E.g., Lateral Fissure) Divided into four lobes: Frontal (behind forehead, behavior, learning, personality, voluntary movement) Temporal (understanding speech. ears), Parietal (on top of head/spatial processing) & Occipital Lobe (vision)

Hierarchical Organization and Distributed Systems in the Brain

Hierarchical Organization Proposed by John Hughlings-Jackson Each successively higher level of the nervous system controls more complex aspects of behavior His term: Dissolution Reverse of evolution Occurs after damage to a higher level Behavior becomes more simplistic, regressive

Connections Between Cortical Areas

Human Connectome Project: to map brain pathways, identify their functions & look for variations. Neocortical regions connected by four (4) types of axon projections: Relatively short connections between 1 part of a lobe and another Interhemispheric connections (commissures) between one hemisphere and the other Homotopic points: Contralateral points that correspond to each other Connections through the thalamus Long connections between one lobe and another

chapter 2 main ideas

Human evolution reflects changes in the brain & behaviors. Theories related to brain size, cell density & critical areas of brain development have been posited. Proposed reasons for man's ascent include: tool use, language, abstract/symbolic thinking and learning to work in larger groups - likely a combination of these and other factors. Comparative studies of animal species adds to understanding of brain/behavior relationships. The study of genetics adds to the understanding of the brain's development. Chromosomal mutations Epigenetics is now seen as one process of evolutionary change.

How unique are the abilities of Homo Sapiens?

Human: The science behind what makes us unique (Gazzaniga, 2008) deWaal (2016) Are we smart enough to understand how smart animals are? Animal and Social Behavior

Mendelian: Allele Disorders That Affect the Brain

Huntington's Disease: buildup of abnormal version of the protein huntingtin kills brain cellsch Symptoms usually begin in midlife On chromosome 4, the abnormal huntingtin allele is dominant, the recessive normal If one parent carries the defective allele, offspring have a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder

Diencephalon

Hypothalamus: 22 small nuclei—0.3% of brain weight Interacts with the pituitary gland Takes part in nearly all aspects of motivated behavior: sleeping, feeding, sex, temperature regulation, emotional behavior Epithalamus: posterior of the diencephalon Contributes to biorhythms, hunger, thirst Includes the Pineal gland Thalamus: Collection of 20 nuclei packed together Relays sensory information to appropriate targets Example: LGB, MGB, VLP Relays information between cortical areas; e.g., visual areas of cortex interconnect with other brain regions through the Pulvinar nucleus Relays information between forebrain and some brainstem regions

What led to Homo Sapiens dominance

In A Brief History of the Mind (2004), Calvin discusses several key findings, including evolutionary changes in the Parietal Lobe. Sapiens: A brief history of humankind (Harari, 2015). Discusses various ages of man, starting with The Cognitive Revolution; then The Agricultural Revolution; The Unification of Mankind; & finally The Scientific Revolution; Identifies language, group size, tool use, fire & abstract thinking as some key influences on man's success

last slide support and protection

In Hydrocephalus: Outflow in channels connecting ventricles is blocked Severe intellectual impairments and even death can result from built-up pressure

What led to Homo Sapiens dominance??

In The Making of the Mind (2013), Kellogg suggests 5 key developments: Social intelligence (w/ theory of mind) Executive functions of working memory Capacity of symbolic thought/language Inner voice as interpreter of experience Ability to engage in mental time travel

ocipitical lobe

Initial stages of Visual Processing Primary & Secondary Processing Visual input broken into form, motion, color & reconstituted as it progresses into association cortex At least 31 areas tied to vision, not all in Occipital Lobe.

Layers, Nuclei, Nerves, and Tracts

Layers or Nuclei Well-defined group of cell bodies Called "ganglia" in the PNS Nerves Fibers and fiber pathways that enter and leave the CNS But, once they enter the CNS, they are called tracts Examples: Auditory Nerve, Vagus Nerve Tract (AKA fiber pathway) Large collection of axons projecting to or away from a layer or nucleus within the CNS Examples: Corticospinal Tract, Optic Tract

Localization vs. a global brain

Localization of Function Idea that different parts of the brain perform different functions Franz Josef Gall and Johann Casper Spurzheim Studied bumps and depressions on the skull and developed the field of Phrenology Cranioscopy - Method used to measure the bumps and depressions used for making personality assessments

Neuroanatomy: Finding Your Way Around the Brain

Locations of layers, nuclei, and brain pathways are described within three reference frames: with respect to other body parts, with respect to their relative locations, and with respect to viewer perspective

Darwin and Materialism

Monism: Mind & body are a unitary whole Materialism Modern perspective Rational behavior can be fully explained by the workings of the nervous system Alfred Russell Wallace Charles Darwin

frontal lobe

Most developed in humans Largest of the four lobes Memory & higher cognitive functions Language production Motor cortex Olfactory cortex

neurons and glia

Neural Stem Cells Undifferentiated Have capacity for self-renewal Stem cells give rise to progenitor cells during development of embryo. Progenitor Cells: Migrate and act as precursor cells Develop from stem cells Give rise to blasts, primitive types of nervous system cells Blasts Cannot divide Develop into neurons or glia Sensory Neurons Bipolar Neuron Cell body with a dendrite on one side and an axon on the other Somatosensory Neuron Dendrite and axon connected, to speed up connection (not going through soma) Projects from body's sensory receptors into spinal cord. Interneurons Link up sensory and motor neurons Extensive dendritic branches, one axon (may branch) Motor Neurons: Final common path Brainstem facial muscles Spinal cord project to muscles Glial cells Ependymal Astrocyte Microglial Oligodendroglia Schwann

Neuron Shapes and Functions see lecture 3

Neuron Shapes and Functions

The Neuron Hypothesis

Neurons are discrete Neurons send an electrical signal Neurons communicate with each other via a chemical signal, or a neurotransmitter Plasticity of the brain reflects neuronal change, changes in their connections.

Contributions to Neuropsychology From Allied Fields

Neurosurgery Long history of using neurosurgery to alleviate traumatic brain injury (TBI) Information from neurosurgery can be used to diagnose the causes of behavioral problems in other patients Psychometrics and Statistical Evaluation Use of standardized tests to assess brain functioning Brain Imaging Produces 2D and 3D images of the brain Computerized Tomography (CT) Passage of x-rays through the head Quick and cheap Magnetic Resonance Imaging (DTI) ID's the location of moving molecules by detecting the electrical charge generated by their movement High resolution Brain Imaging Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Injection of radioactive substances into the blood As the substances decays if gives off photons Computers detect the origin of the photons and construction an image of the brain Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) It can look at abnormalities in white matter tracts. Can also reveal pathways & brain connectivity

stages of human evolution

One theory: Four steps An upright posture in which hands were free Extensive tool use A traveling life style An elaborate culture

Autonomic Nervous System

Parasympathetic system Calms the body down "Rest and Digest" Connects with parasympathetic ganglia near target organs Connects directly with spinal cord—the sacral region Greater part derives from 3 cranial nerves: Facial (salivation), Vagus (calms most internal organs), & Oculomotor (pupil dilation & eye movement)

Localization andLateralization of Language

Paul Broca Had patient ("Tan") who was only able to say "tan" and also had paralysis on the right side of the body At autopsy a lesion in the third convolution of the left frontal lobe was found. Broca's Area Anterior speech region of the brain Broca's Aphasia Syndrome that results from damage to Broca's Area Lateralization Functions can be localized to one side of the brain

Loss and Recovery of Function:Countering Localization

Pierre Flourens disagreed with localization of functions: He removed areas of the cortex of animal brains (e.g., rats, cats, and dogs) and studied the resulting changes in their behavior. His findings: No specialization for areas of the cortex. Specialization for the brainstem Confirmed by Friedreich Goltz in 1892 These results refuted localization of function Question: What might be some reasons why his conclusions could be incorrect?

3 levels of processing

Primary: Initial sensory processing (visual, auditory, touch, etc.) & motor Secondary: More interpretive (sensory) or organizing (motor) Tertiary: Associative, intermodal, integrative (P-T-O area) Memory, Language, Planning Their growth follows a developmental course

phrenology

Problems with this approach: It was impossible to define and quantify objectively Skull features tend to reveal little about the brain But it had historical importance Laid foundation for the modern concept of localization of function Phrenological map was the precursor for many maps of the brain

Genetic Mutations

Produced by errors in nucleotide sequence when reproductive cells make gene copies Occurs when a single nucleotide base is added or deleted A change in nucleotide sequence can be beneficial or neutral but is mostly negative Neuroscientists know the severe consequences of 2000 genetic abnormalities that affect the nervous system

brainstem

Produces more complex movements than spinal cord Has three regions Diencephalon Midbrain Hindbrain Part of brainstem comprises cranial-nerve nuclei that converge at core & send their axons to the head muscles

Changes in Hominid Physiology

Radiator hypothesis: When you increase the size of a car's engine, you have to increase the size of the radiator that cools it The brain's radiator is the circulating blood The brain produces high metabolic activity and generates a lot of heat An increase in brain size needed in order to cool the brain.

Comparative Research in Neuropsychology

Reasons to study animals To understand basic brain mechanisms To design animal models of human neurological disorders To describe evolutionary and genetic influences on brain development

midbrain tegmentum

Red Nucleus Controls limb movements Substantia Nigra - connected to forebrain Rewards behavior and initiates of movement Periaqueductal Gray Matter Made up of cell bodies surrounding aqueduct joining ventricles 3 and 4 Contains circuits for controlling species-typical behaviors (e.g., sexual behavior) Modulates pain response

Cellular Organization of the Cortex

Six Layers of Cortex Layers V and VI Send axons to other brain areas Are particularly large and distinctive in the motor cortex Layer IV Receives axons from sensory systems and other cortical areas Made up of small densely packed cells Cortical areas rich in layer IV neurons are called granular cortex Layers I, II, III Receive input from layer IV, perform an integrative function Well developed in secondary & tertiary areas of cortex Cytoarchitectonic Map Map based on the organization, structure, density, and distribution of cortical cells Brodmann's Map: Identified 52 areas (circa 1909). Most widely used cytoarchitectonic map Numbering not systematic Regions correspond to some functional divisions Consistent w/ techniques like (e.g., electric stimulation) Limitations of the map: can be further divided Updated with mixture of numbers, letters, and names Went from 52 areas, to 83 in a century, to 180 in 2016.

parietal lobe

Somatosensory Processing (Homonculus) Attention Spatial processing "Where is it" (Object Placement/Tracking)

spinal chord

Spinal Cord Structure and the Spinal Nerves Body is divided into body (dermatome) & nerve-cell segments that encircle the spinal column Dermatomes: Each spinal segment corresponds to a region on body's surface. Receives fibers from afferent sensory receptors Sends efferent fibers to control muscles 30 spinal cord segments divided into five regions Dorsal Root - Sensory Information Strand of afferent fibers entering the spinal cord Carries sensory information to the brain Ventral Root - Motor Commands Strand of efferent fibers leaving the spinal cord Carries motor information to the body

Autonomic Nervous System Connections

Sympathetic system Arouses the body for action "Fight or Flight" Spinal nerves in the thoracic and lumbar regions are connected to the sympathetic ganglia Ganglia: A collection of neural cells

midbrain

Tectum Located dorsally "Roof" of 3rd ventricle Sensory input from eyes and ears Composed of the superior colliculi, input from eyes, and the inferior colliculi, input from the ears Both Colliculi mediate orientation of movement to sensory input Tegmentum Located ventrally "Floor" of 3rd ventricle

The Binding Problem

The brain analyzes sensory events through multiple channels, yet we have a unified perception of our experiences What binds different perceptions (voice, face, emotions) together? Synching the senses Henry Molaison (a.k.a. HM) 1926 - 2008 To treat epilepsy, removed medial parts of the temporal lobes at age 27 (Sept. 1953) Results: No longer demonstrated epilepsy Appearance of amnesia (anterograde) Case illustrates There are separate areas in the brain for different aspects of memory. There is no single location in the brain for memory.

forebain

Three main structures subcortial) Basal Ganglia Limbic System Cerebral Cortex Basal Ganglia Collection of nuclei that includes: Putamen Globus Pallidus Caudate Nucleus Caudate nucleus receives projections from all areas of the cortex and sends its own projections through the putamen and globus pallidus to the thalamus and from there to the frontal cortical areas. Reciprocal connection with midbrain, especially substantia nigra in the mid-brain tegmentum Associated with movement and learning Limbic System (limbic lobe)-Papez (1937) Amygdala Emotion and species-typical behaviors Hippocampus Memory and spatial navigation Septum Emotion and species-typical behavior Cingulate Cortex (cingulate gyrus) Has role in self-regulatory behaviors--emotional, memory, motivation, reward, and navigation. Receives connections from olfactory structures

Research on Hominid Evolution

To reconstruct the story of human evolution, scientists use 3 lines of evidence: Archeological Biochemical, genetic, and epigenetic Behavioral

blood supply

Two internal carotid arteries and two vertebral arteries supply blood to the brain These arteries connect at the base of the brain and branch off into the: Anterior Cerebral Artery medial & dorsal cortex Middle Cerebral Artery lateral surface of cortex Posterior Cerebral Artery ventral & posterior surfaces of cortex Veins return blood to the heart. There are external and internal cerebral and cerebellar veins. The venous flow does not follow the course of the major arteries.

chapter 3 main ideas

Unique neuropsychology terminology : Identifies locations within the brain. (e.g., dorsal, ventral; posterior, frontal) Indicates information flow (afferent/efferent). Describes viewers' orientation of brain images (Sagittal, Coronal or Horizontal) The brain is protected and supported in a variety of ways (i.e., the skull, meninges, CSF, brain-blood barrier). The brain is composed of neurons and glia cells, each having unique functions. Scientists distinguish between gray matter (cell bodies/nuclei), white matter (axons) and reticular matter (a mix of the two). There are 4 ventricles which are responsible for producing CSF and circulating it through the brain.

The Origin and Development of the Central Nervous System

Ventricles (bladders) Hollow pockets within the brain filled with CSF Numbered 1 to 4 Lateral ventricles (first and second) Third and fourth ventricles extend into brainstem and spinal cord and are connected by cerebral aqueduct. Filled with CSF, which is produced by ependymal glial cells located adjacent to the ventricles. CSF flows from the lateral ventricle out through the fourth ventricle and eventually drains into the circulatory system at the base of the brainstem.

Sequential Programming and Disconnection

Wernicke's contribution to language: First model for the organization of language Wernicke's area is connected to Broca's area via the arcuate fasciculus He predicted new disorder called conduction aphasia (confirmed by others years later) He identified disconnection syndromes Proposed that regions of the brain have different functions but still must interact to work correctly Identified the left hemisphere as dominant for language

The Meaning of Human Brain-Size Comparisons

What does brain size really mean? Is brain size related to intelligence? Is brain size related to intelligence between sexes or races? Actually, there is poor correlation between brain size and intelligence found between people, races, and sexes.

The Brain Hypothesis

What is the brain? Brain: Old English word for tissue around skull Composed of two symmetrical hemispheres, the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere Hemispheres are connected by commissures, the largest is the corpus callosum What is the brain? Inner hollow tube filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Outer layer of wrinkled tissue known as cerebral cortex

Differences in Size of Cortex(Adapted from Calvin, 2004)

When the cortex is unfolded and laid flat, relative sizes of the cortex of a: rat (stamp), monkey (postcard), chimp (1 page), & human (4 pages).

white and gray matter

White Matter: (Pathways) Areas of the nervous system rich in axons covered with glial cells (Fatty tissue called myelin gives it the whitish look). Information is sent on from 1 neuron to the next. Percentage of white matter relative to gray matter is generally higher in Right hemisphere Gray Matter: (Communities) Areas in the brain composed predominantly of cell bodies. Information is processed here. Percentage of gray matter relative to white matter is generally higher in Left hemisphere.

Brain Size and Intelligence

Why are brain size and intelligence in the same species unrelated? Comparing species-typical behaviors IQ tests are biased measures of intelligence Spearman's general g: single intelligence Howard Gardner: different intelligences Brain size can be influenced by injury and environmental experiences Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Archeological Research

a Neanderthal fossils: Neander, Germany Look similar to us Lived in family groups, made music, cared for the elderly, held religious beliefs, buried their dead Modern European humans interbred with Neanderthals Acquired genes from them that helped them adapt to cold and novel diseases; also possibly passed on genes for light skin, which absorbs vitamin D better

brain breakdown (slide 9 lecture #1) brain hemispheres

brain has 2 hemispheres. left and right.

brain breakdown (slide 9 lecture #1) cerebral cortex gyri sulci

brain thin outer "bark" layer gyri- bumps in the brains folded surface sulci- the cracks

cerebral security see slide in lecture 3

cerebral security

brain breakdown (slide 9 lecture #1) lobes

lobes define broad regions of the cerebral cortex when hand is made into a fist it represents the position of the lobes of the left hemisphere of the brain

divisions of the nervous system

nervous system -> central nervous system (cns) nervous system -> peripheral nervous system (pns) CNS-> brain and spinal cord PNS -> somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Describing Evolutionary Adaptations

opposum -> hedgehog --> tree shrew -> bush baby --> rhesus monkey --> chimpanzee --> human

projection map see lecture 3 part 2

projection map

slide 17 a diagram - tan's lesion

slide 17 a diagram

Increase in Brain Size - lecture 2 slide 11 diagram

with increase in brain size over period of time more sophisticated tools developed