Neuropsych exam 2- Mayhew
The sleep rhythm is approximately how long-
90 minutes
10. What is the standard therapy for sleep apnea? What is the main problem with this therapy?
CPAP machine. Problem is that most people don't like sleeping with a facehugger from the Alien movies on your face. Also, the mask can be uncomfortable, and the air pressure of the machine can sometimes be difficult to adjust to
8.Which structures refract light, in what proportions do they take care of the refraction?
Cornea- 80% Lens- 20%
5. What kind of waves during deeper sleep (3 & 4) on EEG? (amplitude, frequency, name)
Delta waves
12. What does it mean that the representation in V1 (BA 17) is retinotopic? What is cortical magnification?
Each point of the retina is represented by a point on V1 corresponding to the receptor cell. Similarly to the retina, the distribution is not even. The fovea is given more space on the cortex while the periphery isn't as lucky. This is called cortical magnification
10. Explain the distinction between epilepsy and seizures.
Epilepsy is a neurological disorder in which seizures are generated by a brain dysfunction Seizures can occur without the diagnosis of epilepsy (brain damage, tumors, etc.).
16. What are the findings with respect to the immune system and sleep?
Immune system is much stronger with sleep
A DTI makes use of the following imaging process
MRI
2. What types of therapy were discussed for epilepsy in class?
Medication (anticonvulsants), keto diet, neurosurgery (as last resort)
3.What is transduction when you are talking about receptors? What is the "common language" that stimuli get transduced to?
Receptors transduce/convert energy they receive into action potentials
4. What 2 weird phenomena during stage 2 sleep on EEG?
Sleep spindle and K complex
14. In which order are the brain lobes "epileptogenic"?
Temporal (30%-50%), frontal (20%-25%), parietal (6%), occipital (5%)
14. What is processed in MT (V5), and V4?
V5 - motion (Akinetopsia) V4- color
Lowest prevalence to highest prevalence;
Williams syndrome < down syndrome< Cerebral palsy< ASD
21. What is neurodiversity?
"The notion that conditions like autism, dyslexia, and ADHD should be regarded as naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."
5. What is the incidence of insomnia?
1 in 4 adults
11. What is the prevalence of epilepsy?
1%-4% have multiple seizure episodes. 1 in 20 have a mild insignificant seizure once
14. Which two types of PET imaging are used in research for Alzheimer's disease?
1) Amyloid PET imaging- measures amount of amyloid deposits in the brain ● Beta-amyloid- critical initiator for alzheimer's (more amyloid buildup is an indicator of alzheimer's starting) 2) FDG PET imaging- measures concentration of glucose (which indicates neural activity) in the brain (lack of glucose can indicate neural degeneration such as alzheimer's)
8. Be familiar with the 5 part definition of developmental disabilities.
1. Is attributable to a mental or physical impairment or combination of mental or physical impairments; 2. Is manifest before age 22 3.Is likely to continue indefinitely ; 4. Results in substantial functional limitations in three or more of the following areas of major life activity: self care, receptive and excessive language, learning, mobility, self direction, and capacity for independent living or economic self sufficiency 5. Reflects the need for a combination and sequence of special interdisciplinary or generic care, treatment or other services which are of life-long or extended duration and are individually planned and coordinated.
1. How common is narcolepsy?
20-45/100,000
9. Explain the sleep cycles that one goes through in a normal night (both stages and REM/NREM alternation).
75% NREM, 25% REM REM: eye movements but no muscle movements NREM: no eye movements but muscle movements
Which has the higher radiation dose: a skull X-ray or a head CT? why is that?
A typical skull X-ray has a dose of 0.1 while a CT scan has a dose of 2.0. CT scan is higher because it is sending out multiple x-rays in order to produce the image.
13. What are other names for A1?
A1, Heschl's gyrus/i BA 41 & 42, transverse temporal gyri
9.How much of sleep apnea is obstructive as opposed to central?
About 80% obstructive, about 20% central
10. What is the name(s) of the nerve that transmits information from the cochlea?
Acoustic, statoacoustic, or vestibulocochlear nerve
3. What kind of waves during relaxation on EEG? (amplitude, frequency, name)
Alpha waves
1. What is the general process in single cell recordings? Who is this process used with?
An electrode is inserted into the brain adjacent to a neuron- neuron activity recorded Many individual neurons can be recorded simultaneously Can record a single action potential or many action potentials Used with animals ( Cats and Rodents)
14. Where is the secondary auditory cortex? What are the core, belt and parabelt areas?
Anterior region of superior temporal gyrus. Core - primary auditory cortex. Belt & parabelt - secondary auditory cortex
17. What are the stages of an epileptic attack? What modalities can the aura be associated with?
Aura, seizure, postictal. Auras can be associated with migraines
12. How does the % of REM sleep change during your lifespan? (infants, grandparents)
Babies a lot of REM (80%), Old people shorter sleep less REM ( probably 10%) , Adults 25 %
9. What is the relationship between the basilar membrane and tonotopic organization?
Basilar membrane is wedge shaped. It's organized by tone. High pitch activates at beginning of the wedge, low pitch activates at the end of the wedge
16. What is a secondarily generalized seizure and what is the "Jacksonian march"?
Begins in one place and then spreads all over (usually via thalamus). Jacksonian march- Simple partial seizure spreads from one small part of the brain to the entire side of the brain. Electricity causing seizure makes minor motor and sensory symptoms and then "marches" over to the rest of that sides of the brain to mess with functions of the whole side
2. What kind of waves during normal awake time on EEG? (amplitude, frequency, name)
Beta waves
3. ERP, what is it, how does it work?
Brief change in a slow-wave EEG signal in response to a discrete sensory stimulus is classified as an ERP Often referred to as evoked potentials e.g, auditory evoked potentials
7. What happens in sleep apnea (in general)? What is the prevalence of sleep apnea?
CO2 level in the blood goes up and sends signals to the medulla and wakes you up. Person stops breathing repeatedly during the night which results in oxygen deprivation for the brain or entire body. Prevalence: 3%-4% of population
5.What are the symptoms of achromatopsia, what are they thought to be the result of in the cerebral form? How common is this disorder?
Can't see color and your memories lose color. Damage to V4. Still rare, but much much more common than Akinetopsia
3.Explain the difference between cataplexy and sleep paralysis.
Cataplexy: strong emotions can cause person to remain awake but experience REM-like muscle inhibition of either the whole body or just head & neck muscles Sleep paralysis: happens while falling asleep or waking up. Person is temporarily unable to move, speak, or do much of anything.
Explain which structures are involved in cataracts and glaucoma.
Cataracts: lens becomes opaque which makes light refraction messed up Glaucoma: fluid pressure is far too much in the anterior chamber of the eye. Has potential to do nearly irreversible damage to the optic nerve and some surrounding areas
6. What sleep hygiene measures were discussed in class? How does blue light have a poor effect on sleep?
Cold temperature No light No noise Blue light decreases the secretion of melatonin
6. What is the apparent function of V4 in terms of color perception?
Color analysis in contexts
Explain the functions of cornea, iris, lens, and retina
Cornea: In conjunction with the lens, it refracts light into the retina. In charge of most of the optic powers of the eye. Iris: tissue that expands or contracts to let certain amount of light into the pupil (and retina) Lens: does some light refraction. Changes shape to alter the focus of the eye when looking at close up and far away things Retina: takes light in and turns it into signals to send to the brain via optic nerve
2.What are the symptoms of narcolepsy that were discussed in class?
Daytime sleepiness, sleep attacks, cataplexy, hypnagogic hallucinations, sleep paralysis
14. What is the genetic abnormality in Williams syndrome? Is this more or less prevalent than Down's syndrome? What are some characteristics and impairments of individuals with Williams syndrome?
Deletion of a specific region of chromosome 7. This is less prevalent than down's syndrome. Characteristics include mild to moderate intellectual disability, unique personality characteristics, distinctive facial features: broad forehead, short nose, wide mouth with full lips, full cheeks; and cardiovascular problems.
11. What is histology?
Determination of the morphology and structure of tissue.
What are developmental milestones? Why are developmental milestones important in the assessment of development? Who is expected to monitor children's milestone achievement? Who else could note developmental concerns?
Development milestones are important to show a rough path that children are predicted to accomplish as they continue to develop. Doctors, parents, teachers, or other family members can monitor and report concerns
14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of cranial X-rays?
Disadvantages: poor discrimination between brain tissue and the CSF Advantages: picks up tumors, skull fractures and hemorrhage, cheap, easily available.
13. How do cranial X-rays work in general? What structures or damage show up how?
Discrimination of low and high density regions in the body. High density areas: seen as white on x-ray film. Low density areas: seen as dark
15. What is the primary problem in individuals with cerebral palsy? What is the prevalence in comparison with Down's and Williams syndromes? What other impairments are possible with cerebral palsy?
Disorder(s) of motor function due to non-progressive abnormality of brain during fetal development or birth. Prevalence (1 in 323) is more than Down syndrome and Williams syndrome. Other impairments: sensation issues, posture, seizures (not as prevalent)
5.What is Brodmann's division of the cortex into separate areas based on (i.e. why did he say these areas were different?)
Division is based on organization, structure, and distribution of cortical cells
2. What is the general process in an EEG? What can be studied with EEGs?
EEG records electrical potentials or "brain waves" in the brain • Reflects the collective (and synchronous) activity of neurons in the cortex • Requires a "Generator" - Neurons that produce the rhythmical signal EEG used for- Sleep studies, Epilepsy diagnosis, Monitoring the depth of anesthesia, Studying normal brain function
1. What types of recordings are part of a polysomnogram? What are they measuring, and why is this important?
EEG- measures electrical activity in the brain EOG- measures eye movements EMG- measures muscle activity Important because you must see if there's any irregularities contributing to the need of this test.
7.What does it mean that sensory systems have multiple representations in the brain?
Each sensory system is divided into a bunch of subsystems and are represented all around the brain
2.Explain what it means that receptors only respond to a range of stimuli.
Each type of receptor only has a certain range of what it can detect. For example, photoreceptors can only detect a certain level of wavelength despite there being much greater and less than what we can see. Example 2, pain receptors can be overwhelmed if you let's say, run over your hand with a steam roller truck, your pain receptors would get overwhelmed since your hand is basically a glorified pancake now
17. What is Fetal Alcohol Spectrum disorder, what is the best measure to prevent it? What are some of the characteristic changes/impairments in this disorder?
Exposure to alcohol in utero, best measure to prevent it is to avoid alcohol. Growth retardation, specific facial abnormalities, structural brain abnormalities, neurological deficits, and developmental delays.
15. What is processed in the fusiform face area, the fusiform body area and the parahippocampal place area?
FFA - faces FBA - bodies Parahippocampal place area - places.
1. What are the options for assessing possible concerns prior to conception?
Genetic testing, screening, counseling
5.Which parts of the thalamus take part in the geniculostriate pathway and which in the tectopulvinar pathway?
Geniculostriate pathway- LGN Tectopulvinar pathway- pulvinar
2.What is the main pathway for vision called, what is its course? What % of fibers go this way?
Geniculostriate pathway. Goes from retina (as information) to lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus then to the striate cortex (via optic radiations). 90% of fibers
6. What is optical imaging? In which types of cases can this be used when fMRI cannot?
Gives info about source & time course of neural activity. Shine a light source and it bounces off the brain which either gets absorbed and scattered by optic sensors. You wear a cap to do this. Usually done in children since they can't use an fMRI yet
What is the stain that stains the entire neuron, revealing parts other than the cell body
Golgi stain
12. What do the Golgi, Nissl stains, myelin staining procedures show of the microscopic structure of the brain?
Golgi stain- was discovered first, stains neurons Nissl stains- Nissl stains don't stain axons but show you cell bodies. All cell bodies take them up so you can tell how many cell bodies there are. More numbering information. Dark stain of cell nuclei. Myelin- stains dye the myelin black
12. Describe the grand mal and petit mal seizure (old) classification. What types of seizures are these on the new classification?
Grand mal: loss of consciousness and equilibrium. Tonic-clonic convulsions rigidity (tonus) and tremors (clonus) Petit mal (absent seizures): not associated with convulsions A disruption of consciousness associated with a cessation of ongoing behavior. They are generalized seizures
6. Recognize the developmental areas for which surveillance can be done. How much delay is needed in a child's performance on the Battelle Developmental Inventory 2 to qualify for early intervention?
Gross motor skills, adaptive, fine motor, social or emotional, cognitive, sensory, communication, fine motor. A child must show 25% delay in two or more, or 33% in just one to qualify.
8. What are the receptors for hearing, and how are they situated with respect to the basilar membrane and the cochlea?
Hair cells. They sit on top of the basilar membrane inside the cochlea where fluid is. When the stirrup hits the oval window, it creates a vibration which makes pressure in the liquid in the cochlea. This pressure moves the liquid which activates the hair cells
2.What is a scotoma? What is hemianopia?
Hemianopia - blindness in half of visual field Scotoma - there's a fuzzy or dark blotch in your visual field
10. Why was the label changed from mental retardation to intellectual disability?
Highly offensive and socially unacceptable
4.How many layers can most parts of the cortex be divided into? What are thought to be the functions of these layers?
I, II, III, IVa, IVb, IVc, V, VI (I-III are integration layers. IVa-IVc are input layers, V & VI are output layers and also what an EEG measures)
3. What are some of the cognitive effects of sleep deprivation? What are some physical effects of sleep deprivation?
Increased sleepiness and faster sleep onset Poor mood Poor vigilance Poor executive function Physical: Physiological: temperature ↓, Blood pressure ↑, immune function ↓, hormonal changes, metabolic changes.
1. What did the movie suggest happens during sleep? During which type of sleep does this process happen?
Information gets processed and re-processed. Memory processing of the day but in flashes. Helps to organize and figure out things. This happens in Non-REM sleep.
11. What are the three parts of the definition of intellectual disability? Why is low intellectual function not the only part of the definition? What are contextual factors that have to be taken into account when assessing limitations and strengths in a child with presumed intellectual disability?
Intellectual functioning, adaptive behavior, originates before age 18. It can be attributed to other factors so low intellectual functioning isn't the only part of the definition. Limitations in present functioning must be considered within the content of community environments typical of the individual's age, peers, and culture
13. What is the circadian rhythm? Which sensory system acts on which part of the brain? What does the pineal gland have to do with the circadian rhythm? How does entrainment of the circadian system work (generally)?
Internal clock; vision acts on this because of the absorption of light in the Suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus. Pineal gland creates melatonin which puts you to sleep. [Pathway involving entrainment of melatonin secretion by light The circadian regulation of melatonin secretion depends on an indirect pathway that originates from photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina and reaches, via the retinohypothalamic tract to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which is the circadian pacemaker.] see photo.
8.What do "ipsilateral" and "contralateral" mean?
Ipsilateral - same side Contralateral - other side
What does an fMRI measure? How does it work in general, what does subtraction have to do with it? What process is used to visualize brain processing via BOLD imaging?
Measures where in the brain blood is being used. Uses oxygen consumption from the brain to make a moving picture of a (hopefully) working brain. Subtraction is when you subtract the background brain activity from the active activity you're trying to measure so that you can get a clear picture of exactly what you want to measure. BOLD measures blood oxygen levels. Since more oxygen is used in areas of the brain with higher activity, you can detect brain activity based on the blood oxygen levels of certain areas
15. What are the three main views on the function of sleep? Are they exclusive of each other?
Memory processing, recuperating & cleaning, adaptation (usually to darkness). Not exclusive as memory processing and recuperation can coincide
5.How does receptor density determine the sensitivity?
More receptors, more sensitivity you'll feel in that area. For example, there's a ton of receptors in your hands so you can feel everything, but not many in your shin which isn't typically used much for touch. (This concept is usually noticed in vision and touch mostly)
4.What are the symptoms of akinetopsia, what are they thought to be the result of? How common is this disorder?
Motion blindness. Thought to be specific damage to V5 on both sides. One (possible two or three) known cases
7. What is the general trend in the amplitude/frequency from awake to deep sleep?
Moves from high frequency and low amplitude to low frequency and high amplitude
3. What are some common impairments in individuals with Down's syndrome?
Neurodevelopmental impairments Motor development Language development
9. What does it mean to say that 'developmental disabilities' is a policy category rather than a diagnostic category?
Not necessarily diagnosed (?)
8. How does obstructive sleep apnea 'work'? What is central sleep apnea?
Obstructive: tongue and other soft tissue relaxes too much during sleep and collapses to cover the airway passage in your throat Central: brain fails to send signals to the body during sleep that you have to keep breathing
7.Know the anatomy of the outer, middle and inner ear, be able to identify ear drum, oval window, round window, cochlea. Know the names of the middle ear bones, hammer, anvil, stirrup.
Outer: Pinna, external auditory canal, eardrum/tympanic membrane Middle: hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), stirrup (stapes) Inner: oval window, cochlea, round window
13. What is the difference between a partial and generalized seizure? Where do they originate?
Partial: does not involve the whole brain, starts at a focus and then spreads across parts of the brain Generalized: involves entire brain, starts in thalamus (or starts in focus and goes to thalamus) and then spreads to entire brain
1. What are the three cell layers of the retina, and how does the light travel to get to the receptor layer? Why does this appear counterintuitive?
Photoreceptor layer, bipolar layer, and the ganglion layer. Light travels from the front of the eye back (ganglion to bipolar to photoreceptors). It seems counterintuitive because you'd think light would travel through the back of the eye first where the photoreceptors are
3.What is the tectopulvinar pathway and what is its course?
Phylogenetically much older pathway. Goes from retina to superior colliculus to pulvinar in the thalamus which connect to visual areas of the parietal & temporal lobes (thought to be used for visual orientation and reflex)
11. What is the progression and transformation of information from the pinna onwards to the primary auditory cortex (i.e. outer, middle, inner ear (w/ details) to n. VIII to Cochlear nucleus (dorsal & ventral), superior olivary nucleus, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate nucleus to A1)
Pinna - eardrum - hammer - anvil - stirrup - oval window - cochlea - acoustic nerve - ipsilateral cochlear nucleus - superior olivary nucleus - inferior colliculus - medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus - primary auditory cortex (A1)
16. What is spina bifida? What is the best measure to prevent it?
Posterior neural tube doesn't close properly. Folic acid can prevent this.
11. What are the differences between REM and NREM sleep w.r.t. movement of body parts (eyes, limbs etc).
REM: rapid eye movements, but muscle inhibition usually from neck down NREM: no eye movement but no muscle inhibition
4.Explain how receptors locate events, detect change and constancy and help to distinguish internal from external stimuli.
Receptor fields locate sensory events. Receptors allow identification between change and constancy via rapid and slowly adapting receptors. Exteroceptive and interoceptive receptors for distinguishing between self and others.
5. What is magnetoencephalography? What is it used for?
Records magnetic potentials produced by brain activity; Used for clinical uses, such as in the study of epilepsy, neurosurgery, and in research.
6.Explain how stimulation of other types of receptors around a pain receptor can make pain appear less, and how this is an example of an interaction among different senses at the relay level.
Relays determine the hierarchy of motor responses in your body. At relays, the message being sent to the brain can be modified. For example, you stub your toe so you recoil and rub it which eases the pain slightly. The motor action of rubbing can override, or lessen, the pain signal or other information being sent in that specific pain signal to the brain. The motor function of rubbing combined with the feeling of you doing that takes precedence in information over pain Signals
3. Know what the effect for the visual field is of lesions along the optic tract.
See slide with the green ovals for help here
19. What are some of the comorbidities in ASD?
Seizure Disorders - autism speaks estimates 1/3 those with ASD also have epilepsy • Multisystem Disorders - i.e. gastrointestinal disorders • Psychiatric Disorders - Depression - Anxiety • ADHD (with DSM 5)
1.What are the three parts of all sensory systems?
Sensory receptors, neural relays, and central representation in the neocortex (the columns stuff)
13. What do the simple, complex and hypercomplex cells respond to (see book)?
Simple: bar shaped lines only orientation in a certain way Complex: similar to simple cells, but they're less picky with where the bar is located Hypercomplex: lines of a certain length. Much less picky than complex cells, but will not fire if line gets too long
15. What is the difference between simple and complex partial seizures?
Simple: no alteration in consciousness Complex: altered consciousness and sensory or motor symptoms
14. What is sleep pressure? What is it thought to be due to? How does caffeine work to inhibit sleep pressure temporarily?
Sleep pressure is when you get really tired (usually at nighttime). Due to adenosine building up sleep pressure throughout the day. Caffeine binds the Adenosine receptors which inhibits sleep pressure, but leaves you feeling more tired once it wears off.
18. What are the two functional domains included in the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in DSM 5? Recognize the characteristic behaviors and impairments that fall under these domains.
Social/Communication Deficits (3/3) 1. Deficits in social/emotional reciprocity ranging from abnormal social approach to lack of initiation to social interaction 2. Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction 3. Deficits in developing and maintaining relationships appropriate to developmental level (beyond those with caregiver) Fixated interests and repetitive behaviors (2/4) 1. Stereotyped or repetitive speech, motor movements, or use of objects 2. Excessive adherence to routines, ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal behavior, or excessive resistance to change 3. Highly restricted, fixed interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus 4. Hyper or hypo-reactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in sensory aspects of environment
12. What does it mean that the primary auditory cortex has a tonotopic organization?
Sound is mapper onto the A1 by tone and frequency. (Note: sound from each ear is processed and perceived by both sides of the brain)
Which of the following is NOT associated with specific facial features
Spina bifida
What stage of sleep is usually described as restorative
Stage 3-4
6. What is NR3 or N3?
Stages 3 & 4 of sleep (deep sleep)
7. What is early intervention (see blue part of slide)
Statewide system of supports and services for families and their children birth to age three with developmental delays or disabilities.
4. What is function of averaging in ERPs? How is that like the subtraction process in fMRIs?
Stimulus is presented repeatedly and the recorded responses are averaged. Averaging provides a more sophisticated method of extracting more specific sensory, cognitive, and motor events. Eliminates other types of sensory information in order to detect specific types of stimulus. ERPs are repeatedly taken and then the responses are averaged.
6. What types of things can be measured with MRIs, and how can it be used in research?
Structural imaging that can be applicable to any body part. MRIs are used to measure differences in groups, grey matter volume, cortical thickness, cortical surface area, subcortical volume and shape. It can be used in research to compare structures of the brain amongst different groups.
5. What is the difference between developmental surveillance and developmental screening? What is the M-CHAT-R a screening tool for?
Surveillance is done passively for the first 5 years of the child's life. Usually by a pediatrician without you even knowing it. Basic movement and action are tested lightly to make sure everything is on track. Screening is done at 9, 18,and 24 or 30 months or when a parent has some sort of concern. M-CHAT-R is screening done at 18 & 24 months for Autism.
10. What are the various fMRI research approaches? What different things are revealed by task-based and resting-state research approaches? How is looking at activation levels different from MVPA (in general)?
Task based approaches: majority of research, studies activation levels. Resting state approaches: brain connectivity MVPA (multivoxel pattern analysis): varying a task slightly, you see whether or not there is a change in pattern of activation (not 100% sure)
7.Explain which fibers from the two "hemifields" or "hemiretinas" or halves of the retina go where before/after the optic chiasm. Which hemifield is nasal and which is temporal?
Temporal hemi-retina sees the inner part of your visual field and is located on the side of your eye closer to your temples. This does not cross the optic chiasm Nasal hemi-retina sees the outer part of your visual field and is located on the side of your eye closer to your nose. This does cross the optic chiasm (so information here is represented on the opposite side of your brain)
3. What types of things are all babies in NJ tested for (2 classes)? What is the purpose of collecting this information? What are special child health case management units, what do they do?
Tested for 59 disorders within 48 hours of birth. All babies must have their hearing screened before leaving the hospital or within one month after birth. The purpose of collecting this information is for public surveillance and connection to services.
3. What is the BED and how can it be helpful?
The banana equivalent dose. Bananas are a natural source of radioactive isotopes. It is helpful in comparing bananas to how much radiation is in things.
10. Explain what the fovea and the blind spot on the retina are. How are they related to sensitivity of these areas? How come you don't notice your blind spots?
The fovea is the area in the center of your eye. It has the highest concentration of photoreceptors in the eye so you can see the most amount of detail in that area. The blind spot of the eye is where the optic nerve is (there are no photoreceptors there). The reason you don't notice a blind spot is because your brain fills in that spot automatically what it thinks would be there.
2. What did your instructor mention was the 'pre learning' value of sleep? What are the two processes in which consolidation of memories happens during sleep? What was the third way in which you improve 'knowledge' during sleep?
The pre-learning value of sleep is having a good night's rest beforehand so that your brain is physically able to learn. Two consolidation processes are emptying your hippocampus while you sleep so that it's fresh for the next day, and also the file transfer that information goes through while you sleep (these both occur in deep sleep). The third way is during REM sleep where integration takes place and connections are made in the information you just learned
1. Why is the diagnosis 'epilepsy' a lengthy process to establish? What are the differential Diagnoses?
The process is lengthy because they must run a ton of tests to figure out the problem and to rule out a plethora of other things that can be causing the seizures. Differential diagnosis: syncope, narcolepsy, migraines, panic disorders.
The main difference between electroencephalography (EEG) and event related potentials (ERPs) is-
The same equipment is used, but EEG recordings are taken while the person is sleep and ERPs are measured when the person is presented with a stimulus.
11. Why do resting state approaches allow for testing of different groups of people?
The time it takes to do these tests is a lot shorter, so more people are able to stand it
10. What are the dorsal & ventral visual streams?
The two streams from the secondary to tertiary visual cortices. Dorsal - vision for action. Ventral - vision for identification
What is difficult about an fMRI for patients, and what effect does this have for the ability to use fMRI?
They're very noisy, and in a very small enclosed space, you must be very still, and you can't get one if you have metal in your body. Babies, children, the elderly, people with certain disorders, and people with metal all cannot participate in this. Also bad dense tattoos aren't allowed
20. What is the purpose of the two state registries mentioned in this presentation?
To connect and help families that are affected by any of the above-mentioned issues.
18. What does tonic, clonic, atonic, and myotonic mean?
Tonic - muscle stiffness, rigidity Clonic - repetitive jerking movements Atonic - loss of muscle tone MUSCLES (you pancake) Myoclonic - sporadic (isolated) jerking movements TREMORS
8.What is tDCS? What is it used for?
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation. Uses weak electrical current. Stimulation beneath anode=increase in neural activity, stimulation beneath cathode-decrease in neural activity. Used to reduce cravings, reduce alzheimer's sometimes, reduce auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia
7.What is TMS? What in general is the process? What is it used for?
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Shoot intense magnetic fields at particular neurons to temporarily turn them off. Used to see what things do and can be used for depression and epilepsy sometimes
10. What is the trend for Slow wave sleep and REM sleep during the night? How many REM cycles during a 'normal' night?
Trend of about 90 minute from stage 1 sleep to first REM. Average of 5 cycles per night
2. Which kinds of issues can be detected prenatally?
Trisomy 21 and physical anomalies
12. What is the genetic abnormality that causes Down's syndrome? What is the general incidence?
Trisomy 21, general incidence is 0.92/1000
8. How are the waves on an EEG during coma? How are they different from delta waves?
Very slow, low amplitude waves. Lower amplitude and frequency than deep sleep.
6.What is the visual field? Explain the overlap between the visual fields of the R and L eyes.
Visual field is what your eyes can physically see. There is an overlap between your two eyes in the center of your vision
7. Explain what DTIs can image, and in what types of disorders this is interesting information. What descriptive research can be done with DTIs?
Visualizes direction of water flow diffusion in white matter. Gives a good idea of directional fibers. Used for when there is some injury, so you can see whether or not there is any disruption to proper water flow in the brain due to injury as well as changes across a lifetime
17. What were the findings recently with respect to CSF circulation and sleep?
While you sleep, CSF circulates in the brain to wash away toxins ("brain washing). Decreases beta amyloid which is linked to Alzheimer's
What is the general process in computerized axial tomography, how is it different from an X- ray? What disadvantage of X-rays goes for CT scans also?
X-ray scanner is rotated slowly until a measurement has been taken at each angle and a computer constructs the image. X ray delivered as a thin beam. CT scans allows for slices of images of the brain on all planes. It creates a 3D image. Contrast can be used to enhance images. Much more detailed than a regular x-ray. Disadvantage: you need electricity in order to construct the images.
12. Why would brain connectivity be of interest to researchers?
You get to see the various communications between brain regions
_____ can be experienced in epilepsy and migraines; _______ can occur in narcolepsy and epilepsy.
aura; atonic states
The wake and alert state are associated with ___ waves in the EEGs.
beta
NJ has both a
birth registry and an autism registry.
On a CT scan areas that are highly dense such as the skull will appear ____ and areas that are of lower density such as cerebrospinal fluid and brain matter will appear ___
bright; dark
The EEG is mostly a measure of
cortical neural firing
Which neuroimaging technique involves the attachment of small metal disks to the scalp in order to amplify and record the small changes in electrical potentials
electroencephalogram
5. How in general does an MRI work? What are the advantages of MRIs?
involves the application of a powerful magnetic field to image the brain • magnetic field aligns axes of the natural spin or rotation of atoms in water molecules (esp. hydrogen atoms) • Radiofrequency signal causes all aligned axes to spin like gyros • Termination of radiofrequency signal causes nuclear atoms to return to original state, releasing electromagnetic energy in the process • Released energy is measured and used to visualize the structure of the brain Advantages: The advantages of an MRI are that it provides a detailed structure of the brain, no radiation, relatively cheap, available in hospitals, and they are good for research.
A major difference between a gran mal and a petit mal seizure is the presence or absence of-
motor abnormalities
13. How does a PET work? What is PET used for? What are the advantages and disadvantages of PET? What is it that PET does that fMRIs do better?
records emissions of radioactivity from injected radioactive chemicals to produce high resolution images; shows where in brain blood is used more; fMRI is better resolution; used to use radioactively labeled glucose (what brain uses) but now radiolabeled NT-related substance—used to tell if tumors are metabolically active Advantages: Noninvasive. Can distinguish between benign and malignant tumors. Detects disease very early in development. Disadvantages: Discomfort if claustrophobic or uncomfortable w/ needles . possible to have an allergic reaction to the tracers. Tracers produce a small amount of radiation exposure.
15. What types of electrical recordings of brain activity are there (we mention 3)?
single/multiple cell recording; Electroencephalogram (EEG); Event related potential (ERP)
9. Think through situations in which you would use each of these methods.
tDCS: depression, anxiety, Parkinson's disease, and chronic pain TMS:Depression, and doesn't require anesthetic, and rarely causes seizures Optical imaging: babies, pregnancy MEG: clinical uses, such as in the study of epilepsy, neurosurgery, and in research ERP:s tudy brain response EEG: Sleep studies, epilepsy diagnosis, monitoring the depth of anesthesia, and studying normal brain function SUR: neuronal activity (cats, rodents)
The following may result from a transient ischemic attack except- double vision, dizziness, confusion
total paralysis.
4. What are three types of insomnia based on how long they last? What are three sleep disturbance patterns that count as insomnia?
transient < 1 week Acute < 1 month Chronic > 1 month Sleep disturbances: can't fall asleep, can't stay asleep, wake up early & can't go back to sleep
Angiography is effective for
visualizing blood vessels
What are the signs of inflammation
warmth, redness, swelling, pain, loss of function
An aneurysm occurs because of
weakening vessel walls
11. What is the function of ventral & dorsal streams? Which one is 'where/vision for action' and which one is 'what' or 'vision for identification"?
● Dorsal - where/vision for action. Second visual cortex to parietal lobe (goes up). ● Ventral - what/vision for identification. Secondary visual cortex to inferior temporal cortex (goes down).
4.What are the optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, LGN, optic radiation, striate cortex, V1?
● Optic nerve - the cranial nerve that allows the information to actually go to the brain. ● Optic chiasm - the crossover point for optic nerve fibers. (no relay occurs here) ● Optic tract - part of the visual system responsible for some visual sensation. Runs from optic chiasm to LGN ● LGN - Lateral geniculate nucleus. Information goes here (part of the thalamus) ● Optic radiation - after the thalamus, info is relayed to the striate cortex via optic radiations ● V1 - primary visual cortex. Has a ton of other names. For pattern and depth perception. Color vision. (All names: V1, primary visual cortex, striate cortex, BA 17)
What are the striate, extrastriate, primary, secondary, tertiary visual cortices?
● Primary/striate cortex - each point on the retina is represented by a point on the primary cortex corresponding to a receptor (called retinotopic representation). Almost 1-1 representation in fovea, while the periphery has many rods to a single ganglion cell. First stop information gets to ● Secondary/extrastriate cortex - second stop information gets to. In charge of things like depth perception ● Tertiary visual cortex - third stop information gets to. In the temporal & parietal cortices
Explain how angiography works and what it is used for. Is it risky?
•Visualization of cerebral vasculature•Catheter inserted via an external artery (eg., femoral artery) and guided close to the site of entry of arterial supply of the brain - eg., internal carotid)•Contrasting dye is injected•Skull X-ray or CT•Of diagnostic use only-Aneurysms-Tumors with new vasculature-Vascular shifting due to lesions or degeneration of brain tissue It's risky because radiation is used.