Neuroscience 479 (2): The Lobes, and Spatial Orientation

Visual Search Task

"Where's Waldo" but with shapes and colours and letters and numbers and symbols. You have to be able to intentionally not focus on irrelevant objects and focus on the relevant ones.

Here are some symptoms of frontal lobe lesions

*M*otor function disturbances *L*oss of divergent thinking *D*ysregulation of behaviour *P*oor working memory *I*mpairments in planning Use the acronym P MILD

Simultaneous Extinction

-Two stimuli are applied simultaneously to opposite sides of the body -A failure to report a stimulus on one side is referred to as extinction

What are the major functions of the frontal lobes (3)?

1. Planning and executing goal-directed behaviour 2. Personality and social behaviour 3. Executive functions

Fugue State

A sudden loss of memory or change in identity, often in response to an overwhelmingly stressful situation. It's usually temporary, and can selectively take away memories episodic memory (be that to identify birds or to remember your own life). Skills are left intact.

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past (but your ability to create new memories, and your procedural memory stay intact)

Split Faces Test

Ask the participant which of the pictures (B or C in the term image) looks more like the reference. Most people pick C, which is just the left side of the woman's face in picture A reflected against itself (because of the increased facial recognition function of the right hemisphere). People with right temporal lesions won't show consistency in their guesses.

How do you assess poor working memory?

Assessed by N-back task (3 levels of difficulty) 0-back: Respond when you see the target letter 1-back: Respond when the current letter is the same as the last letter 2-back: respond when the current letter is the same as two letters back The DLPFC activates with this task.

What parts of the brain are active during memory retrieval?

The DLPFC and the posterior parietal cortices in both hemispheres.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to see abstract relationships and draw conclusions.

What happens if hippocampal circuitry is damaged?

There are memory problems (like retrograde and anterograde amnesia mostly), but not to the same extent as patients with early hippocampal damage.

Describe patients with early hippocampal damage

These are patients that had hippocampal damage early on in life. Because of this, they can be misdiagnosed as mentally disabled instead of just hippocampus-damaged. Memory is really the only thing they have trouble with, but they still can't lead normal lives.

What is the PFC's involvement in intelligence?

This is what lights up during problem solving. (end of chapter 16)

What's the most recent hypothesis of how people are able to make predictions of actions to stimuli too fast to process? (eg. how can reflexes catch a ball flying towards you?)

Through projections of the ventral and dorsal stream to the prefrontal cortex. It may enhance speed of visual processing.

Paraphasia

Unintentional production of wrong syllables and sounds (like saying "pike" instead of "pipe" or "my wife" instead of "my mother")

Confabulation

Unintentionally making up stories to fill in gaps in memory (though they didn't happen, they seem to be based on past experiences)

What are the two pathways stemming from V1?

V1 → V2 → V3 OR V5 V1 → V4 A visual can be found in "479 Class Notes" by searching the words "oxipital cortex"

Functional Heterogeneity

When an area of the cortex is involved in more than one function (like the stripes within V2)

Chronic Herpes Simplex Encephalitis Amnesia

When chronic herpes simplex encephalitis enters the brain, if it gets to the insula, it produces retrograde amnesia. If it gets to the medial temporal lobe, it produces anterograde amnesia.

Describe the functional heterogeneity in V1 versus V2

When stained for cytochrome oxidase, V1 shows blobs, but V2 shows stripes.

Associative Agnosia

When you can recognize the form of an object, but you can't recall it by name as a result to the inferior temporal lobes. They'll be able to copy drawings of objects, but not recognize them by name. *We learned that there's a double dissociation between memory and objects*

Ideomotor Apraxia

When you can't copy tasks or understand nonverbal communication due to a left parietal lesion.

Proactive Interference

When you learn Fact A, and then you learn Fact B later, and then when someone asks you to recall Fact A, you're having trouble because you just learned Fact B.

Blindsight (cortical blindness)

When you're consciously blind, but you can still unconsciously process visual information. Like you can't see, but when asked to "guess" at what was in the blind spots, you'll guess very accurately.

Here's a fun fact in case you need a break!

When your face doesn't "look right" in a picture, remember you're used to seeing a mirror image of yourself.

How do you test for visual perception damages?

With the Mooney closure faces test AND With the Gollin incomplete figures test (give the participants fragments of incomplete figures. they have to put them together to form the gestalt of that figure and identify it) Tests for damage in the right temporoparietal junction.

Anterograde Amnesia

an inability to form new memories (but your ability to remember things from your past, and your procedural memory stays intact)

Allesthesia

distorted sensation occurring other than where a stimulus is applied

Top-Down Processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations (like initial orders from the motor cortex)

Salient Stimuli

something that stands out from its context

Boundary Expansion

tend to remember more to a scene than was presented

Dichotic Listening

a task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear. Assesses auditory Processing

Emotional Memory

learned emotional responses to various stimuli. This is formed through *bottom-up processing* and exists separate from implicit and explicit memory.

Simultagnosia

inability to perceive more than one object at a time (you may recognize an object through touch but you won't recognize two at the same time) A type of apperceptive agnosia.

Prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces, even your own, though you can recognize features in other people (like moustaches), and know that it's you when staring into a mirror because who else could it be (but they won't recognize an identical twin). Results from bilateral damage to the fusiform face areas.

Efference Copy

internal copy of what movements are actually being made (comes from the eyes)

Bitemporal Hemianopia

lesion of optic chiasm (results in loss of vision in opposite sides of the visual field in the eye)

Here's a list of temporal lobe lesion symptoms

*A*uditory problems Altered *P*ersonality and affect *V*isual processing problems *K*luver Bucy Syndrome *A*ttention selection problems *M*emory problems *L*anguage comprehension problems (Wernicke's!) Use the acronym PAVKALM

Describe the four core language skills

*Categorizing*: ventral and dorsal streams among other structures put "tags" on information so it can be processed in different parts of the cortex, otherwise it gets too overwhelming. *Category Labelling*: to tag things with categories, you need to know what those categories are. This is how a colourblind artist can use colour names despite not being able to perceive them anymore. *Sequencing*: putting the sounds and muscle movements in order based on what vowels and syllables are in a word. *Mimicry*: mirror neurons let us copy the faces and mouth movements to replicate speech.

Here's a list of the purposes of the temporal lobe categorized by parts of the brain

*Cortex (lateral regions)* A1 and A2: *speech, music and all auditory functions.* Ventral stream + 2° visual areas: *object recognition* Inferior temporal cortex: *stimulus categorization* STS: *cross-modal matching* and *biological motion* FFA: recognizes *faces* specifically Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA): recognizes *places* and objects to do with places (like houses). *Subcortical (medial regions)* Amygdala: puts *emotional stickers* on memories Hippocampus: *LTM and spatial navigation* Perirhinal cortex: *LTM*

Visual Object and Space Perception Battery

Assesses visual proccessing capacity.

Orientation Tests

Evaluate comprehension of element arrangement

Parkinson's Disease

Lesions to the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway in the basal ganglia.

Amusia

Tone deafness

Here's some extra information about the DLPFC, OFC, and VMPFC.

*Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)*: Areas 9 and 46. Has reciprocal connections with the posterior parietal cortex and STS, mainly, but also the cingulate cortex, basal ganglia, and superior colliculus. *Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC)*: Areas 47, and lateral parts of 11, 12, and 13. Get input from auditory region of the superior temporal gyrus, visual regions from the inferotemporal gyrus and STS, amygdala, insula (taste), and pyriform cortex (smell). It projects to the hypothalamus and amygdala. *Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (VMPFC)*: Areas 10, 14, and 25, and medial parts of 11, 12, and 13. Gets projections from the DLPFC, posterior cingulate cortex, and medial temporal cortex. Projects to the hypothalamus, amygdala, and PAG.

What are the three categories of aphasia?

*Fluent aphasias*: speech ability is fine, but comprehension and repetition of phrases said by others is impaired. *Nonfluent aphasias*: speech ability is impaired, but comprehension is relatively fine. *Pure aphasias*: mix-n-match. Impairments in any of reading, writing, communicating, or understanding in the absence of other language disorders. (eg. alexia, agraphia, word deafness) A full table of a bunch of different aphasias and their symptoms can be found on page 536 (table 19.3)

How does the parietal lobe use spatial information?

*Movement guidance* as part of the dorsal stream. Neurons in the *posterior parietal cortex* activate when interacting with an object or when moving towards them. *Object identification* (but not ventral stream-related). Also responsible for colour constancy as it also takes part in adjustments. *Sensorimotor Transformation* the "expectations" of how you want to move ft. environmental cues. *Spatial Navigation*: making your cognitive spatial routes in your *medial parietal cortex* *Mental Manipulation* (when you manipulate objects in your head. An extension of manual manipulation. *Mental arithmetic* (mental math, language, and movement sequences) Use the acronym MM MOSS

Describe the three pathways leaving the posterior parietal region and travelling to the motor cortices (i.e. the ones stemming from the dorsal stream)

*Parieto-premotor pathway*: the principal "how" pathway. *Parieto-prefrontal pathway*: pathway having visuospatial functions, especially in visual working memory. *Parieto-medial temporal pathway*: spatial navigation as it flows through the hippocampal and parahippocampal regions as well as the posterior cingulate and retinosplenal cortices.

What are the different cortices of the frontal lobes?

*Primary Motor Cortex (M1)*: projects to the basal ganglia and red nucleus and spinal cord to control elementary movements (like mouth and limbs) and fine motor control. *Premotor Cortex (PM)*: made up of areas 6, 8, and 44. Contains the *supplementary motor cortex* and inferior to it are the dorsal (PMd) and ventral (PMv) PM, and the inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area). *Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)*: cognitive processing and selection of appropriate movement based on internal and external cues. Has the dorsolateral PFC, orbitofrontal cortex, and the ventromedial PFC. *Anterior Cingulate Cortex*: areas 24 and 32. Responsible for decision-making, error-detection and correction, and empathy.

What are the three theories behind amnesia?

*Systems Consolidation Theory*: the hippocampus stores memories and then shoots them to the neocortex. *Multiple-Trace Theories*: different types of memory are different, but they're all malleable. *Reconsolidation Theory*: every time a memory si reconsolidated, it changes a little.

Describe the five corticocortical connections of the temporal lobe

*Ventral stream* (AKA hierarchical sensory pathway A, afferent): from V1 and V2 ending at the temporal lobe. Additionally, auditory neurons form a *parallel ventral stream* of auditory processing. *Dorsal auditory pathway* (efferent): projections from the temporal lobe to the posterior parietal cortex with auditory information to move the head towards the source of auditory stimulus *Polymodal pathway* (afferent): visual and auditory information converge at the polymodal regions of the STS for stimulus categorization *Medial temporal projection* (for LTM, afferent): from visual and auditory areas, the information goes to the medial temporal region (perirhinal cortex → entorhinal cortex → amygdala OR hippocampal formation and into the perforant pathway) *To the frontal lobe* (efferent) for movement, control, short-term memory, and affect.

Describe the six pathways making up the ventral stream

*the occipitotemporal neostriatal network* goes from V1/2 to the temporal lobe to the neostriatum (caudate/putamen). From V1/2 to the inferior temporal gyrus to the amygdala for emotionally relevant stimuli. This is what goes "this stimulus is important. Here's an emotional response to match it" From V1/2 to the inferotemporal cortex to the ventral striatum (i.e. nucleus accumbens) so stimuli can be assigned a potency. *the medial temporal pathway* projects from the inferotemporal cortex into other cortical areas with long-term memory. *the orbitofrontal pathway* projects from the inferotemporal cortex into the frontal cortex for object-reward associations. *the ventrolateral prefrontal pathway* projects from the inferotemporal cortex into the frontal cortex for object working memory.

Pseudopsychopathy

- Appears after lesions of the right frontal lobe - Immature behavior, lack of tact and restraint - Promiscuous sexual behavior - Coarse language, lack of social graces, increased motor activity

List the executive functions

1. *S*electing context-appropriate behaviour 2. Persisting through a task and *I*gnoring distractions 3. *K*eeping track of what you want to do and what you've already done 4. *F*lexibility (the opposite of perseveration. The ability to go "I have been given different instructions, time to change my actions to fit them") 5. Learning *A*ssociations between stimuli (pavlov and behaviourism) Use the acronym ASKIF

What are four features of the hippocampus we've found from researching hippocampal patients?

1. Anterograde memory is more affected than retrograde memory when it's lesioned. 2. Episodic memories are more affected than semantic memories when it's lesioned 3. Autobiographical memories are severely affected when it's lesioned 4. So is autoneotic awareness

Describe the nine common symptoms of temporal lobe lesions

1. Auditory problems 2. Music perception problems 3. Visual perception disorders 4. Problems selecting visual and auditory stimuli 5. Problems categorizing visual and auditory stimuli 6. Problems using contextual information 7. Problems with long-term memory 8. Altered personality and affective behaviour 9. Altered sexual behaviour For a table summarizing what areas of the brain are affected by each of these, see table 15.1 on page 416

What are the three purposes of the temporal lobe?

1. Auditory processing 2. Object recognition 3. Long-term memory Damage leads to problems identifying and categorizing stimuli.

What are the steps to forming long-term memory (LTM)?

1. Exposure to the stimulus 2. Perception of the stimulus (in the brain) 3. Transfer into working memory (WM) 4. Consolidation into LTM 5. Retrieval from LTM back into WM and from here, it's a cycle between retrieval and reconsolidation.

Describe the functional asymmetry in the prefrontal cortex

1. Left PFC is more involved in encoding episodic AND semantic information than retrieving it (than the right) 2. Right PFC is more involved in retrieving episodic memory than the left.

Here are some strategies for memory consolidation

1. Mind Palace (or [groans] a mEmOrY pAlAcE) (create a spatial layout for yourself. Like a house or a palace. And leave bits of information in different locations within it) 2. Match learning and test modalities (i.e. test the knowledge in the same environment you learned it)

What are the two integrated theories of executive function?

1. Miyake and Friedman's Model on Executive Function: three parts to executive function (shifting, updating, and inhibition) 2. Hot and Cold Functions: (Cold functions are more goal-directed things like planning while hot functions are more emotion-based) For visuals of these theories, search "Integrated theories of executive function" in "479 Class Notes" and see the two images.

Describe the three mechanisms of Savant Syndrome

1. Picturing stimuli (like if you're trying to memorize a page from a book, take a mental picture of the page and read from there instead of remembering sentences) 2. Involving multisensory experiences (like associating the stimulus you want to remember with a colour, a taste, a location, etc.) 3. Having a mental set of stimuli to associate with new information

What stimuli does the auditory cortex discriminate against?

1. Sounds that require fast processing like speech 2. Complex sounds that come slower but require a more attuned ear (like music)

How does speech differ from other auditory inputs?

1. Speech sounds can be placed in three specific frequency ranges called *formants*. Some syllables show all three, some show only two different frequencies. 2. Speech sounds can be categorized as similar by the brain based on context even if they show different spectograms (like the "d" in "deep", "deck", and "duke") 3. Speech sounds (in this case, syllables) in words are processed much faster (30 sounds per sec) than it processes other sounds (5 sounds per sec)

What have temporal epilepsy surgeries taught us?

1. The left temporal lobe is for verbal memory 2. Right temporal lobe is for nonverbal memory 3. Medial temporal lobe is for spatial navigation

Contralateral Neglect

A disturbance of the patient's ability to respond to visual, auditory, and somatosensory stimuli on the side of the body opposite to a site of brain damage, usually the left side of the body following damage to the right parietal lobe. Oftentimes it's unilateral. There are two theories as to what causes it: 1) faulty sensation and perception 2) faulty orientation and attention *An example of right parietal damage*

Uncinate Fasciculus

A fiber pathway that connects the temporal lobe and ventral prefrontal cortex. These connections are strengthened by the thalamus.

Dead Reckoning

A kind of spatial navigation that depends on the position of the self. Knowing where you are, where you started and how far away you are from the starting point (and the twists and turns it took for you to get there). Humans can track this through optic and auditory flow, colours, and such stimuli, but nonhuman animals rely entirely on their own movements. As in, they save a copy of their muscle movements to know where they are.

Cytochrome Oxidase

A mitochondrial enzyme responsible for making energy available to cells.

Default Network

A network of interacting brain regions known to activate "by default" when a person is not involved in a task (resting) (AKA when the mind is wandering) like the VMPFC and the DMPFC.

Describe the different types of dyslexia

A nice visual of the diagnostic process of the different types of dyslexia can be found on page 543 (figure 19.16) Attentional dyslexia: naming letters is easy when they're on their own, harder when there's more than one present, even if highlighted. Neglect dyslexia: misreading the first or last half of a word (like reading "weather" as "smother" or "strong" is read as "stroke") Letter-by-letter reading: they can only read words after spelling them out loud or in their heads Deep dyslexia: semantic errors. In increasing difficulty of reading and errors made are nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Phonological dyslexia: when you can't read nonsensical words, but otherwise reading is fine (dorsal stream???) Surface dyslexia: when you can't recognize written words until they're sounded out (nonexistent in languages where the words are said as they're written)

Retinotopic Map

A representation of what the retina perceives mapped onto the visual cortex. The image on the retina, however, is upside down, inverted, and reversed on the visual cortex: Upside down: upper visual field is represented on the lower occipital lobe and vice versa. Inverted: medial input from the retina goes to the lateral parts of the occipital lobe and vice versa. Reversed: input from the left visual field of both eyes goes to the right occipital cortex and vice versa.

Dual-Route Theory

A theory that posits two separate pathways for reading, one for comparing words to a mental dictionary (lexical) and another for converting letters to sounds (non-lexical) The nonlexical route is for nonwords, lexical is for real words and word pronounciation. See figure 19.17 on page 544 for a diagram of the two pathways. (end of chapter 19)

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory consisting of autobiographical memory. It consists of YOUR interpretation of experiences. This is information about you.

Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory including general knowledge, including where things are, what family members look like, and such. This is information about everything outside of you.

Saccade

A type of eye movement, made both voluntarily and involuntarily, in which the eyes rapidly change fixation from one object or location to another.

Apperceptive Agnosia

A type of object agnosia where you can't recognize the form of objects using only vision. They'll be able to recognize and identify them verbally once they touch or smell or perceive the object with their other senses, just not vision. They also won't be able to copy a picture of an object. However, if you tell them to draw the object they were trying to copy, but from memory, they'll do much better.

Asomatognosia

A type of somatosensory agnosia involving failure to recognize parts of one's own body. There are different varieties: Anosognosia (denial or lack of awareness of an illness) Anosodiaphoria (indifference to illness) Autopagnosia (inability to recognize/name body parts) Asymbolia for pain (lack of pain-related relfexes like jerking away a hand from a hot stove)

Explicit Memory

AKA "declarative memory". Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know. Includes episodic (autobiographical experiences) and semantic memories (general knowledge and facts)

Short Term Memory (STM)

AKA *working memory* or temporal memory, this is memory of recent events *and* their sequence/order. It's stored in the frontal lobes and gets its information from both dorsal and ventral streams. There are three types: 1. What: object recognition (ventral stream) 2. Where: spatial recognition (dorsal stream) 3. When: sequencing/ordering of events

Schizophrenia

Abnormality in the mesolimbic dopamine projection accompanied by decreased blood flow and atrophy of the frontal lobe.

Here's a fun fact in case you need a break!

About 55% of the entire cerebral cortex is dedicated to visual processing alone

Acquired vs. Developmental Dyslexia

Acquired is for when you develop reading problems after brain damage while developmental is when you have trouble developing the ability to read.

What are the afferent and efferent pathways of the parietal lobe?

Afferent: somatosensory cortex, proprioception, auditory, visual, motor, oculomotor, and vestibular areas (use the acronym PAVMOVS) Efferent: motor, supplementary motor, and premotor areas, and the PFC. Also three pathways belonging to the dorsal stream.

Describe the PFC's connections

All of these connections are bidirectional: *Sensory:* Auditory cortex Somatosensory cortex Brainstem Thalamus Visual cortex *Learning and memory:* Hippocampus Basal ganglia Ventral tegmentum *Emotion:* Cingulate cortex Amygdala *Movement:* Premotor Cortex Primary Motor Cortex

Patient HM

An epilepsy patient (refractory epilepsy, i.e. treatment-resistant epilepsy) Both hippocampi were removed via surgery as that was the origin of the seizure He lost most memories from the past decade, and couldn't form new ones, thhough his implicit memory and working memory was intact. While he couldn't make LTM, he could retain information (he could remember things for fiftenn minutes even if he couldn't remember the test for more than five)

Internal Cues

An internal set of "rules" based on the information we've gathered from temporal (AKA short-term memory). This is like knowing that you have things to do, so it's probably best that you don't stop to talk to a friend when class starts in 10min, for example.

Salience Network

Anterior cingulate cortex, supplementary motor cortex, and anterior insular cortex. It's active when it detects salient stimuli requiring a behavioural change. Damage to this results in an overactive default network, resulting in attention lapses. *It modulates the two other networks. It acts through the default network when it detects internal salient stimuli and through the central executive network when it detects external stimuli*

What is the functional difference between the anterior and posterior hippocampus?

Anterior hippocampus gives a more coarse-grained memory representation while the posterior hippocampus gives a more fine-grained representation.

What is the difference between anterior and posterior parietal lesions?

Anterior lesions have more to do with loss of sensation of stimuli. Posterior lesions have more to do with actions based on sensation.

How do lesions of the superior temporal gyrus affect music perception?

Anterior lesions to the right one result in problems with meter. Posterior lesions to either hemisphere result in problems with timing.

What are the main functions of the parietal lobe?

Anterior parietal (postcentral gyrus and sulcus) takes care of processing sensory information. Posterior parietal (superior and inferior parietal lobules) take care of integrating visual information for movement, and language and arithmetic. Spatial information (movement guidance, object identification, sensorimotor transformation, spatial navigation, mental manipulation, and mental arithmetic)

What are the anatomical divisions of the frontal lobes?

Anything anterior to the central sulcus and superior to the lateral fissure is frontal lobes.

How is the parietal lobe involved in short-term memory?

Anything involved in copying drawings (right parietal) or repeating words back to people (left parietal) is short-term memory

Pseudodepression

Appears after lesions of the left frontal lobe, Outward apathy, indifference, loss of initiative, Reduced sexual interest, Little or no verbal output

What are the cortical components of language impairments?

Apraxia comes from damage to the insula Impaired sentence comprehension comes from the dorsal bank of the superior temporal gyrus Recurrent utterances come from damage to the arcuate fasciculus WM and articulation impairments come from damage to the ventral frontal cortex

Describe the anatomy of Brodmann's areas 44 and 45

Area 44 has anterior and posterior areas Area 45 has dorsal and ventral areas For a visual of this and ventral premotor area 6, see figure 19.7 on page 528.

Sensorimotor Transformation

As body parts move, the information the brain has needs to be adjusted to know how it's going to move next. These adjustment calculations are the sensorimotor transformations. They happen in anticipation for movement, as if focusing on the goal of the movement.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

Assesses DLPFC function (cognitive reasoning) by having the participant sort the cards based on a changing set of criteria.

Thurstone Word Fluency Test

Assesses dorsomedial lesions above the anterior cingulate cortex as patients with these lesions would have the most trouble on this test. The participant is given five minutes to write as many words starting with a specified letter as possible, and four minutes to write as many four-letter words starting with that letter.

Gotman-Milner Design Fluency Test

Assesses general frontal lobe function. Participants are asked to draw as many abstract and unnameable shapes as possible. Frontal lobe patients will draw a small amount, nameable objects, or the same drawing over and over again.

Weschler Memory Scale

Assesses memory and cognition in several subtests, for example: Pari associates test: the subject is given two pairs of words (eg. north-south, cabbage-pen) such that when one word is read "cabbage", its associated word can be recalled "pen"

Self-Ordering Task

Assesses working memory. Participants are given a stack of cards with 12 verbal and nonverbal cues. They're then asked to point to stimuli on the cards and continue pointing to stimuli they haven't pointed to before.

What are the functions of the temporal lobe?

Auditory processing Language comprehension Visual perception (object identification) Transition from STM to LTM Categorizing stimuli Affect and personality (importance of certain stimuli)

How do left and right parietal lesions affect spatial cognition?

Based on the model that mental manipulation of images requires two processes: creating a mental image, and manipulating it. Left parietal lesions may affect the ability to create the mental image, and right parietal lesions may affect manipulation. Also, right parietal lesions result in more problems with topographic information (i.e. navigation)

What are the structural divisions of the temporal lobe?

Basically everything that isn't occipital below the lateral fissure is temporal lobe. The superior temporal sulcus (STS) separates the superior and middle temporal gyri (containing the amygdala and uncus, the hippocampus and the subiculum, entorhinal (28), and perirhinal cortices (35-36)) The fusiform and inferior temporal gyri are known as the *lateral temporal cortex*

How do we know that the basal ganglia is central to implicit memory?

Because Huntington's Disease patients showed problems with implicit but not explicit memory, while for medial temporal patients it was the other way around ... [groans] showing a double dissociation between implicit and explicit memory.

Why do frontal lesions result in less "intelligent" behaviours without IQ changes?

Because IQ tests measure convergent thinking, which is why we see IQ changes in posterior lesions. Divergent thinking is lost in frontal lesions.

Why is V1 also called the striate cortex?

Because it seems to have more than six layers. Layer IV on its own seems to have four distinct layers within it.

Why does childhood amnesia happen?

Because the brain is making new connections in the hippocampus to make new memories, but all of these new connections disturb the old ones.

Perseveration

Behavioural inflexibility

Patient DF

Bilateral damage in the lateral occipital (LO) area (junction of the parietal and occipital area) When asked to copy pictures of objects, she couldn't do it very well, but when asked to draw the objects from memory (not the pictures, objects she'd seen before), she could do it just fine. *We learned from her that guiding movements and recognizing objects takes two different areas*

Kluver Bucy Syndrome

Bilateral damage to the amygdala and the inferotemporal cortex causing symptoms like: Visual agnosia Hyperorality (oral fixation) Hypersexuality (overemphasis on sexual fantasies) Hyperphagia (excessive hunger/desire to eat) Memory loss Loss of fear or anger responses

Tower of Hanoi and Tower of London tests

Both are super sensitive to frontal lobe injury (as lesions to either left or right hemisphere will cause the participant to perform poorly on this task), but Tower of London is more so as it assesses planning functions. In both tests, the participant is asked to move pegs and discs with different instructions (eg. "a smaller disc can't be on top of a larger disc")

What are the brain regions responsible for speech?

Broca's area (inferior temporal gyrus, i.e. areas 44 and 45) Wernicke's area (superior temporal gyrus) The insula Ventral premotor area 6 (for facial movements accompanying speech). It has three subdivisions, superior to inferior. Heschl's gyrus (A1), and the anterior and posterior superior temporal planes (aSTP, pSTP) (these are literally just anterior and posterior superior temporal gyrus). These make up *the planum temporale*

How do left and right temporal lesions differ in terms of long-term memory?

Left lesions result in trouble remembering words and their meanings (like a short story), and right lesions result in trouble recalling non-verbal cues like geometric drawings.

Place Cells

Cells that activate when you're at a certain place. After getting into a new environment, the hippocampus will get to work on programming these. They respond to all kinds of *external* sensory cues not just visual, and they can also respond to an action taken at a certain place (like "turn left here"). These are special because hippocampal cells are the only ones that are versatile enough to reprogram themselves to respond to a different location if the cue they responded to changes places. These can be found in the *o*lfactory, *v*isual, and *a*uditory cortices, the *e*ntorhinal cortex, *s*ubiculum, and *h*ippocampus. Use the acronym SHAVEO ("ya veo" en Argentino) for these regions.

Gertsmann Syndrome

Characterized by Agraphia, Acalculia, Finger anosia, and Left/Right disorientation. *An example of left inferior parietal damage*

Bálint's Syndrome

Characterized by three symptoms shown by the patient: 1. They can't fixate on visual stimuli despite being able to move their eyes (likely due to superior parietal lesions) 2. Simultagnosia (not being able to perceive two stimuli at once) 3. Optic ataxia (trouble reaching for things based on visual stimuli alone, from posterior parietal lesions)

Wernicke-Geschwind Model

Comprehension is: 1. Extracted from sounds in Wernicke's area 2. Passed through the arcuate fasciculus to 3. Broca's area where it's converted into speech

What does the perforant pathway do?

Connects the hippocampus to the posterior temporal cortex

Describe the anatomy of the amygdala

Consists of four nuclei: Basolateral complex (contains the lateral, basal, and accessory basal nuclei) Cortical nucleus Medial nucleus Central nucleus

Describe the structure of the hippocampus

Consists of two structures: Ammon's horn: contains pyramidal cells divided into areas (CA1 to CA4), which are ordinally sensitive (CA1 is more sensitive than CA4) to toxins. Dentate gyrus: contains stellate granule cells. They're less sensitive to toxins than the pyramidal cells in Ammon's horn.

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

Convergent- believing there is a single correct answer Divergent- thinking there are multiple possible answers to a problem

Describe the aphasic symptoms produced during cortical stimulation

Cortical stimulation doesn't always mean good things as disinhibition is a thing that exists: Speech arrest and no spontaneous speech from stimulating the parts in the picture. Hesitation from stimulating the parts in the picture and slurred speech from stimulating dorsal Broca's and ventral motor facial areas. Distortion of words and syllables from stimulating Broca's, Wernicke's, and motor face areas Number confusion while counting from stimulating Broca's or Wernicke's areas Inability to name objects from stimulating Broca's and Wernicke's areas Perseveration (calling one object a bird, and then seeing a table and also calling it a bird) and misnaming objects (using words of the same sounds or saying "cutters" instead of "scissors" or the like) from stimulating Broca's and Wernicke's areas

Context Cues

Cues that tell you when certain behaviours are appropriate. This is like reading a room, being quiet in a library and loud at a party.

List the parts of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)

DLPFC (areas 9 and 46) DMPFC (medial parts of 8 and 9) VLPFC (areas 44 and 45) (Broca's area) VMPFC (areas 10, 14, 25, 32) OFC (areas 11, 12, 13, and lateral part of 47) Rostral PFC (area 10, most anterior) For a nice visual of where these are, search "BA 9 and 46" in "479 Class Notes" and see the image just above that.

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Damage to the dorsomedial hypothalamus and a deficiency of catecholamines in the frontal lobe. It's a metabolic CNS disorder that results in six main symptoms: 1. Retrograde amnesia 2. Anterograde amnesia 3. Confabulation 4. Meager content in conversation 5. Lack of insight 6. Apathy (easy boredom and indifference to change) *Symptoms appear acutely in the diencephalon and are caused by a vitamin B1 deficiency due to excessive alcohol intake*

How do other neurotransmitters work with acetylcholine to do the whole memory thing?

Death of cholinergic and serotonergic cells together causes more severe amnesia than when cholinergic cells die alone. Impairment of cholinergic and noradrenergic cells together causes severe learning problems while death of either of these doesn't majorly affect learning.

Optic Ataxia

Deficit of visually guided movements. They have no problems with somatosensation or motor cortices, they just can't move with vision alone as their input. They can even perceive depth well, but still have trouble grasping at objects. Results from damage to the posterior parietal lobe. Patient VK: had no problems identifying objects, but couldn't move them based on vision alone. *From him we learned that guiding movements and recognition take different mechanisms*

What is the purpose of colour vision?

Depth perception, motion perception (because no, motion isn't colourblind), and position. Animals without colour vision can't see as well as humans.

Monocular Blindness

Destruction of the retina or optic nerve of one eye that produces loss of sight in that eye

What happens if there are lesions to the postcentral gyrus?

Different thresholds in somatosensory neurons. They may not be able to tell when someone is passively moving their hand in the contralateral side to the lesion, and have diminished two-point sensitivity.

How do left and right parietal lesions affect drawing differently?

Left parietal lesions would just cause a less complete drawing as they'd just omit the left side of a drawing. Right parietal lesions would produce a much more distorted drawing as the right hemisphere contains more spatial functions.

Here's a list of frontal lobe lesion symptoms

Disturbances of motor function (fine movements, speed, strength, and motor programming, voluntary eye movement, reafference, and speech (Broca's and supplementary speech areas)) Loss of divergent thinking (spontaneous speech and ideas, and strategy formation where solution isn't obvious) Trouble using environmental cues to influence their behaviour (response inhibition, obedience, caution, autobiographic information, forming associations) Poor temporal memory (STM) Impaired social and sexual behaviour ( For a complete table of areas corresponding to their symptoms, see page 437, table 16.2

What are some symptoms of left parietal damage?

Disturbed language function, including dyslexia and agraphia Apraxia (problems with sequencing movements despite intact muscles) Dyscalculia (inability to do simple math) Poor number recall Trouble telling between right and left (characteristic of posterior parietal lesions) Right hemianopia

What are the three streams from the visual cortex?

Dorsal Stream (where/how): guides movement. Tells you where an object is and how you can interact with it. Occipital → Parietal lobe. Ventral Stream (what): object perception and identification. Occipital → Temporal lobe. Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS) Stream: recognizes the actions of others, and people (biological motion). Often recognized as part of the ventral stream since it's so close to the temporal lobe. Occipital → STS

Dual Contribution Theory

Dorsal stream projections to the medial temporal lobe contribute to spatial memory. Ventral projections contribute to episodic memory. But since they both converge at the hippocampus, hippocampal damage affects them both.

Which regions are commonly recruited for higher cognitive functions?

Dorsolateral, ventromedial, and anterior cingulate areas

Where in the temporal lobe does speech perception happen?

Left temporal lobe (that's where Wernicke's area is!). It's separate from the rest of auditory perception as it's processed like six times faster.

Egocentric vs. Allocentric Space

Egocentric Space: the location of an object relative to you (how you see it from where you are) Allocentric Space: the location of an object relative to another object

What happens to memory when the amygdala is lesioned?

Emotional memory is abolished but implicit and explicit memory are left intact.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

Exceptionally accurate memory for autobiographical memory. They have increased gray matter in the temporal and parietal lobes and bigger projections between the temporal and frontal cortices. (end of chapter 19)

Figure 19.14 on page 535 provides a nice summary of how words in different categories activate different brain regions

Figure 19.14 on page 535 provides a nice summary of how words in different categories activate different brain regions

Grid Cells

First off: the brain makes a grid in your head that doesn't change regardless of your direction or speed. Grid cells are entorhinal neurons that fire periodically as you cross parts of this grid. Different parts of the entorhinal cortex will respond to different-sized grids to map your environment. These can be found in the *e*ntorhinal cortex, *h*ippocampus, and *v*isual, *m*otor, and *s*omatosensory cortices. To remember these regions, use the acronym ME VHS

von Economo's Cytoarchitectonic Map

PE: integrates somatosensory and visual information PF: elaborates information from motor systems PG: polymodal and asymmetrical For a visual, see Figure 14.1 on page 375

Here's a list of parts of the visual cortices tuned to recognize specific body parts and objects

For a complete list, see table 13.1 on page 355 of the textbook.

For a list of regions affected corresponding to parietal lesion symptoms, see table 14.2 on page 395

For a list of regions affected corresponding to parietal lesion symptoms, see table 14.2 on page 395

For a list of symptoms common of right and left parietal regions, see table 14.1 on page 394

For a list of symptoms common of right and left parietal regions, see table 14.1 on page 394

For neuropsychological tests to use for different symptoms, see pages 396 of the textbook (Table 14.3)

For neuropsychological tests to use for different symptoms, see pages 396 of the textbook (Table 14.3)

What's the difference between frontal and temporal lesions?

Frontal lesions usually have equal magnitude of effect bilaterally, whereas temporal lesions on one hemisphere can be more fatal than on the other.

Visualization Tests

Help test mental manipulation of an object.

Asperger's Syndrome

High functioning autism. Patients have severe social impairments but their memories are incredibly good. This includes Savant Syndrome.

Describe the double dissociation between the hippocampus and the rhinal cortex

Hippocampal patients won't have trouble with object recognition but will have trouble with contextual information, whereas rhinal cortex patients will have trouble with object recognition. From this we learned that *the rhinal cortex is involved in object recognition* and the *hippocampus* is involved in retrieving and encoding episodic memories

How do left and right frontal lobe lesions differ in spontaneity?

Left lesions result in more inhibition of spontaneity (eg. less words spoken or less drawings in neuropsych tests), right lesions resulted in excessive spontaneity (eg excessive words)

Agrammatism

Impairment using verbs and proper grammar. Symptom of Broca's aphasia.

Where is route knowledge kept?

In the medial parietal region (MPR) (ventromedial to the PRR). This region *includes* the posterior cingulate cortex (which is also part of the parietal mediotemporal pathway in the dorsal stream) Lesions to this region (and medial parietal regions) cause the patient to get lost a lot.

What is the difference between object identification in the parietal and temporal cortices?

In the temporal lobe, object identification happens for the sake of knowing what an object is. In the parietal lobe, it's always goal-directed such that it requires movement of the eyes and head towards it.

Anterograde Disorientation

Inability to construct new representations of environments, although patients are still able to navigate successfully around previously learned environments. Due to parahippocampal cortex damage.

Transcortical Aphasia (isolation syndrome)

Inability to form spontaneous speech (*you can only repeat words said to you without any indication of you understanding them*) caused by dominant-hemisphere brain damage that spares the central perisylvian region (broca's, wernicke's, arcuate fasciculus) but disconnects (isolates) all or parts of the central region from the rest of the brain. -Usually caused by damage to the border zone (watershed regions) -Association fibers are compromised

Object Agnosia

Inability to recognize objects using only vision. Can be apperceptive (unable to recognize the shape of objects visually. You can't copy them either) and associative (you can't identify an object by name, but you can recognize the form)

Conduction Aphasia

Inability to repeat words despite intact speech generation and comprehension due to damage to the arcuate fasciculus.

Akinetopsia

Inability to see objects in motion (you can see them fine when they're still, but they vanish when they start to move) due to a lesion in V5. Patient L.M. could identify and reach for objects until they started moving and *we learned that V5 is involved in movement perception AND that object and movement perception happen in different areas, even if it's for the same object*

Achromatopsia

Inability to see, imagine, or remember colour. Patient J.I. was a patient with a lesion to V4 with this condition and *we learned that V4 is involved in colour vision* (sufficient)

Developmenta Topographic Disorientation (DTD)

Inability to segregate landmarks and derive meaning from them. They perform well on nonspatial tests but not on spatial tests, indicating that spatial memory isn't a type of episodic memory. It's *distinct*. DTD comes from abnormal dorsal stream projections to the hippocampus.

Insula

Includes the gustatory cortex and the auditory association cortex

Describe priming as a form of implicit memory

Initial stimulus presentation can sensitize the brain to the stimulus' presence later Like how amnesiac patients can identify the picture of the lion with less images needing to be shown to them (in that one test) Same thing happens with auditory modalities (if you present garbled speech followed by a sentence followed by garbled speech again, the subject is more likely to pick out the coherent sentence in the garbled speech)

Cross-Modal Matching

Integration of information from both visual and auditory inputs. Like when you hear a bird singing and look to see where it's coming from and see the bird, or when you touch an object and then identify it visually.

Internal and External Cues

Internal cues are things like memories and self-awareness (including autonoetic awareness). External cues are environmental. These have to do with association creation and the OFC.

How do the premotor cortex's projections influence movement?

It can influence movement directly through the corticospinal tracts, or indirectly through M1. It also receives input from PE and PF of the parietal cortex and the DLPFC.

What are the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex?

It gets projections from the *dorsomedial thalamic nuclei*, the *mesolimbic dopaminergic* cells in the tegmentum (this determines how the PFC reacts to stimuli, especially stressful ones)

How is the frontal lobe involved in spatial functions?

It selects among different places you can go. Selecting between things seems to be one prominent feature of the frontal lobe.

How does TMS map the brain?

It uses strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity by causing temporary lesions to the targeted area as a way to study brain regions. It can prime neurons to respond to certain stimuli.

How would a temporal lesion cause auditory problems?

It'd likely be to A1 and A2, showing symptoms like: 1. Problems discriminating between speech sounds 2. Auditory hallucinations (caused by lesions to the hippocampus as this retrieves your memories of sounds, and lesions to A1, leading to the perception that the voices come from outside) 3. Music perception disorders (problems discriminating pitches and rhythms and meters due to lesions to the interior superior temporal gyrus *and* amusia)

Describe V2's functional heterogeneity

It's arranged in stripes. The *thin stripe* takes care of *colour perception* while the *thick and pale stripes* take care of motion and form perception.

What are the gyri and sulci making up the parietal lobe?

It's delineated by the central fissure, lateral fissure, cingulate gyrus, and the parieto-occipital sulcus. The gyri and sulci filling in those borders are the postcentral gyrus (Brodmann's area 3-1-2), the superior parietal lobule (areas 5 and 7), parietal operculum (area 43), supramarginal gyrus (area 40), and angular gyrus (area 39). Areas 39 and 40 (angular and supramarginal gyri) are referred to often as the *inferior parietal lobe*

What are the functional divisions of the temporal lobe?

It's divided functionally into the parts for the ventral visual stream (the inferotemporal cortex, AKA TE, Brodmann's areas 20, 21, 37, and 38) and the areas for auditory functions (areas 41, 44, and 22)

What is the cerebellum's role in classical conditioning?

It's involved in learned reflexes. It encodes that implicit memory.

What does the temporal lobe do in terms of vision?

It's responsible for recognition of faces and places and such.

Discontinuity Theory

Language evolved super quickly and only appeared about 200k years ago. Not as supported as the continuity theory because of the similarity between neanderthals and humans (so it's unlikely that they didn't have language)

Continuity Theory

Language has a genetic basis and evolved gradually just like all other genetics. More supported than the discontinuity theory.

Procedural Memory

Learned motor skills like playing an instrument or sport, or speaking a language

What are the left and right temporal lobes' jobs in music?

Left temporal lobe covers rhythm (segmenting groups of notes based on how long they last, like picking out the melody) Right temporal lobe covers meter (the beat. The speed of the metronome). It's also more involved in remembering a melody. Both lobes have increased gray and white matter as musical aptitude goes up.

Heading Disorientation

Lesion to the posterior cingulate. Inability to represent direction of orientation with respect to environment. No sense of direction.

What are the three different types of reading disorders?

Letter blindness (can't recognize/name letters) Word blindness (can't read words) Sentence blindness (can't read sentences)

Here's a list of terms describing language

Lexicon: a collection of language-related things (be that an alphabet, or your vocabulary) Syntax: the grammar and sentence structure and rules of language Prosody: the "music" of language - speech intonation Semantics: the meaning created by words strung together Discourse: a narrative created by words and sentences strung together

Describe the preferential stimuli of inferotemporal neurons

Like any other neuron, they'll respond to very specific stimuli. Some will respond to visual stimuli like faces, and others will respond to auditory stimuli like a specific character in a movie talking. Neurons with similar function will organize themselves vertically.

How do neurons of the parietal cortex respond to visual input?

Like you'd expect any neuron to react. They're tuned to respond to very specific stimuli, like colour, form, and motion.

Mammilary Bodies

Located in the hypothalamus; relay stations for reflexes related to smell

Quadrantanopia

Loss of a quadrant of the visual field in both eyes due to a small lesion in the occipital lobe

Scotoma

Loss of a small part of the visual field in both eyes due to a very small lesion in the occipital lobe.

Alzheimer's Disease

Loss of neurons and cortical abnormalities. Anterograde amnesia FOLLOWED BY retrograde amnesia.

Nasal Hemianopia

Loss of only the inner half of the visual field ("nasal" because it's the half closest to the nose) in one of the eyes. Image shows all types of hemianopias, but for a similar image, see "479 Class Notes" and search "scotoma" and see the image below.

Homonymous Hemianopia

Loss of right visual field or left visual field in both eyes due to lesions to the contralateral side of the occipital lobe)

Multiple-Traces Theories

Made up of three parts: a) When you learn, the different memory types are encoded in parallel (at the same time) in different regions. b) Memories change over time as they're reconsolidated over and over. c) Different kinds of memory stored in different locations will be affected differently by TBI to different places.

How do males and females differ in spatial ability?

Males will navigate using spatial mapping procedures while females will tend to use landmarks, and more often than not, research has reported that males are better at it. This could be because evolutionarily, males had to go out and hunt more. This is the only conclusive result, but there has been research suggesting hormonal and genetic (sex-linked) causes behind better spatial skills.

Alexia

May be due to damage to the left fusiform and lingual areas. It's the inability to read and recognize letters and words.

Implicit Memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously. This is the procedural memory thanks to which we know how to ride a bike. Three types are procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming. *The basal ganglia is central to this* *filling in the blank counts as implicit memory*

Cognitive Spatial Routes

Mental maps of landmarks and what to do at each of them (like "turn right here")

Spatial Distortion

Misrepresentation in the image of the actual spatial relationships among objects.

Caching Behaviour

More than anything seen in birds and other animals in the way they hide their food ina scattered fashion and use spatial cues to find it again.

How can vision influence movement AND VICE VERSA?

Movement can influence vision through eye movements (to the extent that closing your eyes in the dark can prevent interference of eye movements from perceiving things with other senses) Vision influences movement through the dorsal stream. This is like when you're going to catch a ball, you need to see where it's coming from, how fast it's going, and such.

Polysensory Neurons

Neurons sensitive to both visual and auditory stimuli OR sensitive to both visual and somatosensory stimuli

Head Direction Cells

Neurons that fire based on which direction an animal is facing (as in North-South-East-West, not 35-degrees-to-the-right-of-forward) they're like compass needles that don't rely on external cues. They'll work even in darkness. These can be found in the vestibular cortex, the mammillary bodies, anterior thalamus, cingulate cortex, parasubiculum, and the hippocampus. Use the acronym VP MACH to remember the locations.

System Consolidation Theory

New memories are stored in the hippocampus for a lil bit and THEN transferred to the neocortex, and *that's* why more recent events are more vulnerable than LTM when dealing with hippocampal damage.

Do right temporal lesions have the same effect as left temporal lesions?

No. Right temporal lesions will cause more trouble looking at faces, perception in both visual fields (whereas just left will cause problems in the right visual field), and in music perception and switching between tasks. Also in remembering visual sequences (like the hammer bro boss battle in Mario Party DS)

Are inverted images processed in the same place as upright images?

No. They're processed in different places.

What is the right hemisphere's role in language?

Nonverbal cues like gesticulating and some facial things, as well as creating a narrative with words. Also auditory comprehension. It doesn't do much for speech but auditory comprehension is there.

How detailed does an image need to be for the brain to guide an action from visual input?

Not very. You don't even really need colour input when you're thinking about one object. HOWEVER, if you need to do something like grab a red cup instead of a blue one, you need to know how far apart they are, their different colours, and such. This information goes to the polymodal regions of the STS and hippocampal formations in the temporal lobe.

Landmark Agnosia

Object recognition deficit in which patients can recognize landmarks themselves, but not how they relate to their spatial cognitive map. Damage to the *lingual gyrus* mostly, parahippocampal gyrus, and FFA.

Describe the circuit for emotional memory

Okay... [deep breath]... LET'S DO THIS The cortices of the *lobes* and the *cingulate cortex* both give AND receive input from the *Hypothalamus and PAG*. This both gives AND receives input from the *amygdala*. which boht gives AND receives input from the *basal ganglia* and *medial temporal cortex* NOTE: it connects to the implicit memory circuit through the basal ganglia.

Describe the circuitry of the hippocampal formation (perforant pathway)

Okay... [deep breath]... still going The *neocortex* gives AND receives information from both *perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices*. Both of the above structures project to the *entorhinal cortex*, which also gives information back (and to other direct pathways) From here there are four projections: 1. to the dentate gyrus → CA3 → CA1 → Subiculum → mammilary bodies, anterior thalamus, and NAcc 2. directly to CA3, which continues on the above described pathway 3. directly to CA1, which continues on the above described pathway. This also projects BACK to the entorhinal cortex. 4. directly to the subiculum, which continues on the above described pathway. This also projects BACK to the entorhinal cortex. *basically, it's the hippocampus connecting to posterior parts of the medial temporal cortex*

Describe the explicit memory circuit

Okay... [deep inhale]... here we go: From the *brainstem*, you have the *cholinergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic* projections to the *cortex* (three branches) One branch goes to the *medial thalamus*, which projects to the *PFC* and from *temporal lobe structures*. All three of these structures give AND receive information from each other. Another branch goes directly to the *temporal lobe structures*, into the same circuit as the first branch. The third branch gives sensory and motor input to *the rest of the cortex* For a visual of this, see figure 18.6 on page 489

What are some structural landmarks of the occipital lobe?

On the lateral hemispheres, (from superior occipital to inferior occipital) there's the *cuneate gyrus*, the *calcarine sulcus*, and the *collateral gyrus* On the ventral side of the cortex, (from medial to lateral) there's the *fusiform gyrus* (contains V4), the *lingual sulcus*, and the *lingual gyrus* (contains V2 and VP).

Semantic Categorization

Organizing stimuli (like words) into more than one category (like "cats" can fit under the categories of animals, mammals, things that can be milked, fluffy things)

What do PMd and PMv do?

PMd chooses the movements making up a task from its movement lexicon. PMv has mirror neurons that recognize and differentiated others' actions. For a visual of these areas, see page 428, figure 16.1 of the textbook.

Classical Conditioning (as a type of implicit memory)

Paired stimulus to behaviour like learned reflexes (eg. a mom not dropping a pot of boiling water if she gets burned while her kid's nearby). The cerebellum is involved.

What happens if V1 is lesioned?

Patients aren't aware that they can see (they claim to be blind) but input is still getting to V2 through the LGN and to the rest of the cortex through the colliculus-to-thalamus projections. They can act on visual information (like correctly guessing whether or not lights are on) despite them not getting any input.

What happens if V4 is lesioned?

Patients can't see colour nor can they recall what it looked like.

Idk how useful this is going to be, but I found it cool, so here you go:

Patients with dementia, though their episodic and procedural memories were basically gone, had their emotional memory intact. They had emotional reactions but didn't know what they meant or how they came to be there. Eg. Demented patients consistently preferred to look at photos of their loved ones even though they didn't recognize the people in the pictures.

Executive Functions

Planning and selecting from many options (be that multiple options or which part of the eye field to pay attention to) Ignoring extraneous stimuli and persisting in the task at hand Keeping track of places you've been and things you've acquired from each of them.

Here's a list of common language disorder symptoms

Poor visual comprehension Poor auditory comprehension Poor articulation Word-finding deficit (anomia) Unintended words or phrases (paraphasia) Loss of grammar and syntax Inability to repeat aurally presented stimuli Low verbal fluency Agraphia (inability to write) Aprosidia (loss of tone in voice)

Cholinergic Cells

Project from the basal forebrain to the frontal and temporal lobes. They help maintain EEG waking states and their death results in memory problems.

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)

Responsible for cold executive functions like spatial STM, planning and executing, selecting appropriate behaviours based on context, and cognitive control. Projects to the posterior parietal cortex.

Rostral PFC

Responsible for metacognition and multitask coordination

Lingual Gyrus

Responsible for processing colour and form of objects.

Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex (DMPFC)

Responsible for the cold part of hot executive functions (emotional and social interactions, and thinking about things)

Central Executive Network

Responsible mostly for executive functions. Mostly contained in the DLPFC.

Spatial mapping/memory deficit

Retrograde or anterograde amnesia with emphasis on memories with rich spatial data due to hippocampal damage.

I didn't know how to put this in a term, but here you go:

Right parietal damage is more common than left parietal damage

To which areas does the parietal cortex project?

S1 (area 3-1-2) goes to S2 (areas 5 and 7), and from there, to the motor cortices. areas 5 and 7 are basiclly somatosensation, and the fact that they go to the motor cortices indicates that they play a role in guiding movements based on sensory input (dorsal stream, anyone?)

Autonoetic Awareness

Self awareness built by your past experiences that lets you "time travel" to your past and future selves (like sayinf what you're going to do two days from now)

Rhinal Fissure

Separates the pyriform lobe from the rest of the cerebrum. It's bordered by the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices, which provide major input to the hippocampus.

Describe Miyake's model for executive function

Shifting: switching between tasks (like trail making test B) Updating: keeping the object yoou're thinking about updated in your mind (like the matching-to-sample task) Inhibition: inhibiting the default response (like in the stroop task how you have to say the colour of the font instead of the first instinct to read the word)

How does handedness contribute to spatial ability?

Since the right hemisphere is disproportionately responsible for spatial abilities, left-handers may have better spatial skills, but we're not sure yet bc there are other factors.

How are spatial and episodic memories connected?

Since they both happen in the hippocampus, research has shown that you can't damage one without damaging the other.

Anomic Aphasia (amnesic aphasia)

Speech and comprehension are fine, but you cannot name objects. The cool thing about this one is that you can still use words as verbs without being able to access them as nouns (like there was this one patient that when shown a picture of an anchor, went "oh I know this one.... you use it to *anchor* down a ship" without recognizing that the name was in there)

Wernicke's Aphasia (fluent/sensory/receptive aphasia)

Speech production is fine, it's just often excessive and doesn't make any sense (word salad). Patients also show almost no signs of comprehension when someone speaks to them. They can't classify phonemes into their categories to derive meaning from them. They also can't write as they can't distinguish the graphemes and phonemes.

External Cues

Stimuli in the outside world that serve as triggers for behaviours that don't have anything to do with internal "rules". This is like when you're running late for class and you see a friend. Based on external cues only, you'd go talk to the friend. Internal cues would tell you "no, you idiot, get to class"

Herpes Simplex Encephalitis

Temporal damage results in severe memory impairments. Damage to the insula results in retrograde amnesia. and damage to the medial temporal cortex results in retrograde amnesia.

Temporal Lobe Personality

Tendency toward aggressive outbursts, paranoia, egocentricity, preoccupation with religion, perseveration on discussion of personal problems, overemphasis on trivia and petty details, hyper- or hyposexuality. Right temporal lobe has more to do with this than the left one.

Alternate Uses Test

Tests divergent thinking. DLPFC activates especially during this task. "come up with as many uncommon uses for this object as you can think of" and if it was a brick, you could use it as a phone stand, as a red crayon against cement, as a murder weapon, as a heat-resistant mat.

Describe the neural circuit for implicit memory

The *neocortex* gets sensory and input and sends it to the *basal ganglia*, which is also getting dopaminergic input from the *substantia nigra* From there, the basal ganglia projects to the *ventromedial thalamus* which projects to the *premotor cortex*. This circuit is very similar to those affected by Huntington's and Parkinson's, and sometimes those patients also experience implicit memory problems.

What is the best test for apraxia?

The Kimura Box Test: it's a box with a button, a handle, and a bar. You tell the participants to press the button with their index finger, grasp the handle, and then press the bar with their thumb. Apraxics don't do very well in this test. (end of chapter 14)

How do you test for parietal language impairments?

The Token Test (two ways): 1. Give them various "tokens" of different shapes and tell them to "touch the white circle token" and get progressively harder like "touch the large black square token and the small green circle token" 2. Reading comprehension: ask them to read a set of instructions and carry them out

Piloting (topographical guidance/place learning/locale navigation)

The ability to find your way around using landmarks (without following a premarked trail). Humans with temporal lobe damage can show deficits in this without showing cue-recognition impairments.

Crystallized Intelligence

The ability to use knowledge based on out previous experiences.

Disengagement

The act of taking away attention from one task to assign it to another. You are disengaging yourself from the task.

Describe the subspaces of the body

The body space: things on the surface of the body (clothes, backpacks, and such) The grasping space: anything within arm's reach of you, monitored by the ventral visual field. The dorsal visual field monitors the travelling space. The distal space: anything outside of arm's reach. Time space is also a thing. This is where autoneotic awareness really gets to shine.

Reconsolidation Theory

The claim that, when a memory is retrieved, it returns to its temporary, vulnerable form. The memory trace is susceptible to change or alteration at this time.

Parahippocampal Circuit

The connections between the hippocampal formation, the amygdala, and entorhinal and pararhinal cortices

Fusiform Face Area (FFA)

The core of the distributed network that recognizes parts of faces and puts them together as a whole. This network is specific to faces because facial recognition is special and doesn't happen with the rest of object recognition. The *right temporal lobe is more involved with this than the left*

Anterior Cingulate Cortex

The cortex of the anterior cingulate gyrus, which is involved in the emotional reaction to painful stimulation. It has von economo neurons!!

periaqueductal gray (PAG)

The gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains opiate receptors and activates a descending analgesia circuit

How do the dorsal and ventral language pathways differ?

The dorsal stream targets ventral premotor area 6 and the ventral stream targets BA 47 (anterior to area 45) The dorsal stream converts meaning into movement (vibrations into phonological sounds), while the ventral stream converts phonological sounds into meaning (derives the semantics from the phonemes) The dorsal stream is bottom-up (and activated when we repeat nonsense sounds) while the ventral stream is top-down The dorsal stream doesn't derive meaning from speech, the ventral stream does. The dorsal stream categorizes syntax based on frequency, while the ventral stream engages in syntax via grammar.

What is the biological basis for visual imagery? (i.e. imagining objects in your head)

The dorsal stream. People with visual agnosias can still imagine objects and some can draw them from memory and manipulate shapes in their head.

Intraparietal Sulcus (IPS)

The end of the dorsal stream involved in perception of location, visual attention, and control of eye and hand movements. It's made up of the: Lateral Intraparietal Sulcus (LIP): saccadic eye movements Anterior Intraparietal Sulcus (AIP): visual control and objective-directed grasping. Parietal Reach Region (PRR): visually guided grasping movements.

Scene Construction Theory

The hippocampus forms a coherent picture of spaces with input from a jumble of pathways that has four aspects: spatial navigation, episodic memory, imagining, and future thinking. It sounds weird, but there's actually a lot of evidence for it including the fact that autonoetic awareness involves scene construction.

Topographic Disorientation

The inability to find your way around an environment even in the presence of salient spatial cues. You can't locate things when blindfolded even if they were right in front of you before the blindfold. Due to lesioned hippocampus

Childhood (Infantile) Amnesia

The inability to remember things from your childhood. Everyone experiences this. We retain the knowledge we got during childhood, but we don't know how we got that knowledge.

Constructional Apraxia

The inability to reproduce geometric figures and designs. A person is often unable to visually analyze how to perform a task (like doing a puzzle or drawing) AKA Apraxia with a little spatial disorder sprinkled in.

Visuospatial Agnosia

The inability to spatially orient yourself around an environment you're familiar with (a disruptive form of topographical disorientation) Results from damage to the right medial occipitotemporal region (including the lingual and fusiform gyri). It's usually seen with another type of agnosia. An example is being able to answer how many bedrooms are in your house, but not being able to accurately draw where in your house those bedrooms are.

Egocentric Disorientation

The inability to tell where objects are in relation to the self caused by unilateral or bilateral damage to the posterior parietal cortex. For a visual of all kinds of disorientation, see page 579, figure 21.3

How has the parietal lobe changed over time?

The inferior parietal lobe has expanded quite a bit

Route Knowledge

The internal map your brain makes of your environment (based on spatial navigation)

Temporal-Parietal Junction (TPJ)

The intersection between the temporal lobe and parietal lobe, implicated in theory of mind *and in decision-making in social contexts*

What parts of the brain are connected by the corpus callosum?

The left and right superior temporal cortices. The anterior commissure connects the left and right medial temporal lobes.

Describe the lateralization of function in the frontal lobe

The left is more focused on word production and short-term memory. The right is more focused on nonverbal cues and facial expressions.

What part of the parietal lobe takes care of arithmetic calculations?

The left temporoparietal junction. It contains polymodal tissue. This area may also be involved in finding different meanings in sentences with the same words but in different order (eg. the words "pat" and "tap", "my son's wife" versus "my wife's son")

Fimbria Fornix

The loopy part of the medial hippocampus. Connects the *Hippocampus* to the (1) *Thalamus* (2) *Frontal Cortex* (3) *Basal Ganglia* (4) *Hypothalamus*.

Transient Global Amnesia

The loss of old memories and the inability to form new ones. *it's often temporary and happens super quickly*, though memory loss may become permanent.

Finger agnosia

The most common type of autopagnosia, which results in difficulty pointing with one single finger.

Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS)

The most superior sulcus in the temporal lobe, situated just below the superior temporal gyrus (the most prominent one). It's largely made up of polysensory neurons. *It's responsible for seeing movements made by other prople (biological motion, including in movies)* and is where the "third" visual stream ends up (though it can be considered an extension of the ventral stream) The input that comes here, since it's polymodal tissue, is involved in *social cognition* and theory of mind guessing at the intentions people have when moving towards us.

Reafference (Corollary Discharge)

The neural signal that tells your frontal cortex that your eyes or head will be moving momentarily to adjust your visual field such that it doesn't look like the entire world is moving, but instead remains stationary.

What are the subcortical components of language impairments?

The thalamus mostly, especially with the left ventrolateral thalamus and the pulvinar nucleus. Stimulation and damage to it results in speech arrest, dysphasia, slurring or hesitation in speech,

How do place cells, grid cells, and head direction cells work together to provide spatial information?

The place cells allow navigation by associating cues with the environment (allocentric) The head direction cells allow navigation based on the animal's own position (egocentric) The grid cells allow navigation by providing information about the size and shape of the environment (like latitude and longitude lines)

What does Bálint's syndrome teach us?

The superior and inferior parts of the posterior parietal regions aren't involved in the same functions as lesions to the inferior parietal region don't result in optic ataxia. There's something to be said about double dissociation here between the superior and inferior parietal regions.

Numb Touch (AKA Blind Touch)

The tactile equivalent of blindsight. When you don't consciously register being touched, but you can very accurately guess where you were touched. Only one case has been reported, but it suggests the existence of two mechanisms for touch: recognizing objects and localizing the stimulus.

What happens to patients with posterior parietal lesions?

They have trouble with mental manipulation of objects (an extension of manual object manipulation) *and* they have trouble telling between left and right.

How do the dorsal and ventral streams contribute to spatial functions in the temporal cortex?

They unite the egocentric and allocentric spatial guidance with relation to objects (this is where the ventral stream comes in). They both converge in the hippocampus.

Describe the connections between the temporal and frontal lobes

They're dorsal and ventral language pathways that can be seen as extensions of the dorsal and ventral streams. These receive information from all the senses, which could provide a biological explanation for how we understand braille.

How are math and arithmetics related to the parietal lobe?

They're spatial tasks (I know, right??), and are integrated in the parietal lobe. This may be why mathematics is better taught with visuals to represent equations.

What is the relationship between finger agnosia and arithmetic ability?

This curious relationship also points to math being a spatial experience. You know how kids learn arithmetic to count? To visualize the math? Well people with finger agnosia (or other finger impairments in childhood like spina bifida) turn out to be horrible at math

Core Language Network

This is just a fancy term for "all the things in the brain responsible for language and how they're connected" For a visual of this, see figure 19.13 on page 534, or see the image attached to this term.

Colour Constancy

This is knowing that a cup is blue even if it's under yellow light.

Affect

This is the name for the emotional sticker the amygdala alaps onto memories processed there.

How does imaging support the Milner-Goodale model?

This model is supported by fMRI and PET scans as they show blood flow to two different areas when acting on vision and when recognizing objects.

How do you test for contralateral neglect?

Thomas Shcenkenberg's line bisection test. The subject is asked to draw a line through the center of twenty different-positioned lines. If there's contralateral neglect, the participant will leave the lines on one side of the page untouched.

How would a temporal lobe lesion cause personality and affect problems?

Through *medial temporal* lesions, creating a *temporal lobe personality* consisting of egocentricity, perseveration, paranoia, and aggression. Damages to the amygdala can cause a faulty fear response.

How can lesions to the frontal lobe result in motor function disturbances?

Through lesions to the following places: M1: loss of finger movements, and speed and strength in the contralateral hand Frontal eye fields: loss of voluntary eye movement (you can't voluntarily focus on stuff) (assessed with the visual search task) Supplementary motor cortex: actually not too much happens as long as it's unilateral because the other hemisphere can compensate. DLPFC: if it's unilateral, you can't copy movements. If it's bilateral, you can't copy facial expressions either. Broca's area: agrammatism

How is the parietal lobe involved with planning movement?

Through the PRR (parietal reach region) area. Note that it's in the posterior parietal cortex (the one that sends goal-directed movement information to the PFC). This region is active when an animal is preparing for an activity (before any movement is executed).

How would frontal lobe lesions result in dysregulation of behaviour?

Through the inability to use context to regulate behaviour such as through: Perseveration Risk-taking Rule-breaking Problems with set-shifting, forming associations, and response inhibition (i.e. they'll fail the stroop test)

How does the temporal lobe categorize stimuli?

Through the left temporal lobe, mostly, I think. This is like when you think a category like "animal" and come up with many examples under this category like "dog" or "cat". Semantic categorization also takes place here.

How would a temporal lobe lesion cause visual processing problems?

Through three specific symptoms: 1. Problems with object recognition and complex pattern recognition from lesions to the ventral stream 2. Facial recognition problems from lesions to the fusiform face area (FFA) 3. Problems with biological motion perception from lesions to the STS

How does the posterior parietal region contribute to the dorsal stream?

Through unconscious visuospatial functions, like reaching for things (like reflexes??). The parieto-prefrontal and parieto-medial temporal pathways influence movement less directly than the parieto-premotor version.

What are the four aspects of music perception?

Timbre: characteristic sound. Like how you can tell the difference between middle C on a piano versus on a guitar. Loudness: amplitude of the soundwaves. Volume. Pitch: frequency of the soundwaves. Rhythm: sound duration and grouping and temporal regularity (i.e. meter)

How is the parietal lobe conventionally divided?

Two functional areas: Areas 3-1-2 and 43 (postcentral gyrus and parietal operculum) are referred to as the *anterior zone* and everything else is referred to as the *posterior parietal cortex*

Spontaneous Speech

Unscripted speech, i.e. authentic conversation which is unplanned and so usually contains non-fluency features. Another example is when you're asked to name animals starting with the letter A. Just any speech you haven't practiced before.

How do you test for somatosensory threshold?

Use the two-point discrimination test. Start with two points on a person's arm far apart, and slowly close the distance between them and see where they stop recognizing two points of contact.

Describe the hierarchal wiring of the visual cortices (visual pathway)

V1: first to get the information. Most of its input comes *from the LGN* and goes to all parts of the occipital lobe. V2: receives information from V1 (and a wee bit from the LGN) and also sends it to all parts of the occipital lobe. From here, the pathway splits into the *dorsal stream* (going to the parietal cortex for visual guidance for movements), and the *ventral stream* (going to the superior temporal sulcus, and inferior temporal cortex for recognition and perception of objects, movements, and colour (V4)) For a visual of this, see Figure 13.5 of the textbook.

Describe the five visual cortices

V1: the striate cortex. First to get information from the LGN. Sends it out to other cortices from here. V2: gets information from V1 (and a wee bit from the LGN) and just sends it through either dorsal or ventral stream. V3: gets information from V2 and is responsible for *dynamic form* (recognizing the shape of objects in motion). It's sufficient but not necessary. V4: gets information from V1 and V2 (ventral stream) and is responsible for colour recognition when looking at it, remembering it, or imagining it, though it's not the only region responsible for this. V5: the middle temporal. Gets information from V2 and *detects motion*. When this area is lesioned, we can see objects but they vanish the second they start to move.

Macular Sparing

Vascular lesion of PCA or branches which causes loss of vision except for macula due to sufficient collateral blood flow from the MCA.

Verbal/Nonverbal Fluency Task

Verbal: come up with as many words as you can starting with the letter ___. Nonverbal: come up with as many symbols as you can with these four lines

The Milner-Goodale Model

Vision and its associated functions can be divided into two pathways: Dorsal stream for actions associated with what you're seeing (guiding movements) Ventral stream for analyzing the heck out of what you're seeing (identifying objects)

What part of vision do temporal lesions affect?

Visual *perception*, not visual field

What have fMRI studies taught us about language functions in the brain?

Visual and auditory word formation is independent as activity between them didn't overlap during rsfMRI Motor and sensory facial areas, supplementary motor cortex, and the cerebellum are activated bilaterally while talking. Generating verbs activates the frontal cortex, posterior temporal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and the cerebellum. Naming tools activates the premotor cortex, but naming people, places, and tools activates the inferotemporal lobe.

What is the main function of the posterior parietal cortex?

Visuomotor functions.

Describe the polymodal nature of speech

We can understand speech better when we're looking at person's lips as they're moving, especially in a place that's very noisy.

Contrast lesions to the dorsal and ventral streams

We'll compare object agnosia to optic ataxia: Object agnosia would fail object recognition while optic ataxia would do fine, BUT ask object agnosia to move an object relative to another (like inserting a card through a slot) and they would do fine while optic ataxia would have trouble. *We learn three things from this: 1. there's double dissociation between the dorsal and ventral streams 2. guided movements and object recognition take different mechanisms 3. visual processing isn't a unified process no matter how simultaneous it may seem* end of chapter 13

Word Deafness

When a person can't hear spoken words or repeat them but other sounds can be detected

Asymmetrical Retrograde Amnesia

When episodic memory is lost, but semantic memory is spared. Happens due to right ventral PFC damage, particularly to the *uncinate fasciculus*

How can people's memories be "primed"?

When reconstructing memory, people are very prone to suggestion, so when someone suggests something to them that has a similar gist, they'll be "primed" to remember it the way they were told to.

Time-Dependent Retrograde Amnesia

When the severity of TBI determines how far back the amnesia goes. Like how after a concussion you can't remember the events leading up to it, versus a more severe blow extending retrograde amnesia.

How do you test for spatial relations?

With left-right differentiation. You can either give them drawings of left and right body parts in different angles and orientations and ask them to identify them as left and right, OR, give them commands like "touch your right hand to your left ear" This test is sensitive to damages in the left parietal and frontal lobes

How do you test for tactile form recognition?

With the Seguin-Goddard Broad Form Test. A blindfolded participant places blocks of different shapes into same-shaped holes on a board. Afterwards, have the participant draw the board.

Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC)

Works with VMPFC for hot executive functions (selecting context-appropriate behaviour, reward-based decision making, and forming associations) Gets input from the amygdala and sensory cortices and outputs back to the amygdala and the hypothalamus. *These connections influence the autonomic system and this is how we pair emotions to physiological response*

Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (VMPFC)

Works with the OFC for the hot executive functions (selecting context-appropriate behaviour, reward-based decisionmaking, and forming associations) Gets information from the DLPFC, amygdala, hypothalamus, and medial temporal lobe.

Describe the anatomy of producing speech sounds

You have two parts: the sound production, and the filters the sound has to go through Air from the lungs vibrates the *vocal cords* (folds of tissue inside the *larynx*) at a pitch-determining frequency. This travels through the pharyngeal, nasal, and vocal cavities (the *vocal tract*) to the nostrils and lips. The vocal tract structures the sound (blocks some frequencies and lets others flow free) into *formants* (vowel-specific sounds) See figure 19.1 on page 517 for a visual of this

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

Parahippocampal Cortex

a region of limbic cortex adjacent to the hippocampal formation that, along with the perirhinal cortex, relays information between the entorhinal cortex and other regions of the brain

Stereognosis

ability to recognize objects by feeling their form, size, and weight while the eyes are closed. Inability to do this is called *astereognosis*

Acalculia

acquired inability to perform calculations due to lesions in the parietal lobe.

Bottom-Up Processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information (like motor feedback into the cerebellum and basal ganglia)

Afferent Paresis

clumsy finger movements due to lack of kinesthetic feedback about finger position (this is the feedback that would go to the cerebellum and basal ganglia)

Depth of Processing Effect

deeper processing at encoding of new information improves the ability to remember that information later (like focusing on a word's meaning and shape instead of just the word itself)

Rey Complex Figure Test

examinees are asked to reproduce a complicated line drawing, first by copying it, and then from memory. Many different cognitive abilities are needed for a correct performance, so the test evaluates visuospatial abilities, memory, attention, planning, and working memory (executive functions) (end of chapter 15)

Route Following

follow a familiar route from one place to another. Used by neuropsychologists to test learning of spatial cues such that a response to that cue can be formed (taxon navigation).

Macular Region

highest concentration of rods and cones (the center of the visual field)

Phoneme vs. Morpheme

phoneme- in language the smallest distinctive sound unit (like the sound "do") morpheme- smallest unit that carries meaning, may be a word or part of a word (like pre/suffixes on chemical names, or how we know the meaning of "un" in "undo" or "unbelievable" to be a negation of what follows it)

Autonoetic Awareness

the ability to consciously place oneself in time periods such as the past, future, or alternate events that are based on personal autobiographical experiences. "Stored" in the medial and ventral anterior frontal areas.

The Gist

the main goal of reconstructing memory. This is one of the main things retained during reconstruction, so the details aren't all that important. Which is why when you study, getting the "gist" isn't enough according to Kolb and Whitshaw.

Prosody

the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry

Perceptual Bias

the tendency to see and understand something based on the way you expected it to be

Preferred Cognitive Mode

the use of one thought process in preference to another (eg. verbal cognitive mode or spatial/non-verbal cognitive mode)