New 2.14
How is this shown with graphs?
-two graphs
• Nonequivalent control group design
...
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many interactions will Dr. Gavin need to examine?
1
cross-lag correlations.
2 of the correlations drawn from longitudinal designs. usually researchers main focus in longitudinal designs. they show whether the earlier measure of one variable is associated with the later measure of the other variable. can see which of the variables came first in time before the other or if they are mutually reinforcing each other.
How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary's study?
3
How many independent variables and how many cells are there in a 2 × 3 × 4 study?
3 independent variables, 24 cells
Compute the difference of the differences:
3.5
- 2 independent variables - 3 levels of one IV, 4 levels of the other - 12 conditions
3x4 factorial design example
control group
A level of an independent variable that is intended to represent "no treatment" or a neutral condition.
When determining mediation, how many steps are necessary?
5??
Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: "The study used a 2 x 2 x 4 design." Based on this sentence alone, you would know all of the following pieces of information EXCEPT: a. The number of participants in the study b. The number of main effects that need to be examined c. The number of interactions that need to be examined d. The number of cells e. The number of independent variables
A
When conducting an experiment, what is provided by the independent variable?
A comparison group
_______ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked.
A manipulation check
posttest-only design
An experiment using an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the dependent variable only once.
A confound that keeps a researcher from finding a relationship between two variables is known as a/an: a. Weak confound b. Insensitive confound c. Null confound d. Reverse confound e. None of the above
B
An independent-groups design is also known as a
Between-subjects design
In the case of a factorial design, another term for independent variable is: a. Interaction b. Main effect c. Cell d. Factor e. Moderator
C
Individual differences
Can be a problem to independent-groups design and can be another source of within-group variability.
an association between two variables which is not a straight line; instead, as one variable increases, the level of another variable increases and then decreases (or vice versa)
Curvilinear association
The Third Variable Problem
DV=Behavior Problems IV=Time Allowed For Recess r=-.55
Why Not Just Do an Experiment?
Good experiments are the only way to establish causation. Ethics Practicality
Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality?
Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered
What represents a null hypothesis?
Ho: u=0
Control for
Holding a potential third variable that is intended to represent 'no treatment' or a neutral condition
4. In understanding "controlling for" a third variable, which of the following is a similar concept? TRUE or FALSE Creating a longitudinal study Identifying subgroups Creating an operational definition Conducting a replication
Identifying subgroups
How to prevent history threats
Include an appropriate comparison group
How to prevent maturation threat
Include an appropriate comparison group
How to prevent regression threats
Include an appropriate comparison group, and also carefully inspect the pattern of the results
What is the priority when interrogating an experiment?
Internal validity
Which of the following is true of statistical significance testing?
It can lead to an incorrect conclusion about the population
Why is the statistical validity of a multiple regression design more complicated to interrogate than a bivariate design?
It is harder to detect outliers.
Lower within-groups variability is better because
It makes it easier to detect a difference between the independent variable groups
Which of the following is NOT a problem with journalists ignoring the importance of pattern and parsimony in research?
It makes people read fewer studies about psychology
What type of research design involves measuring the same variables, for the same people, across different time points?
Longitudinal
What type of study design is Dr. Farah using?
Longitudinal design
Why is a longitudinal design called a multivariate design?
Longitudinal designs are multivariate because they even if they measure the minimum two variables to check for correlation, they measure them at two different points in time, which actually means they are measuring four variables all together.
In an experiment, researchers:
Manipulate one variable and measure another
According to the textbook, why is it important to study interactions?
Many outcomes in psychology are interactions
When a relationship between two variables depends on the level of a third variable, that kind of third variable is called a _________?
Moderator
What is the relationship between moderators and external validity?
Moderators suggest that associations may not generalize to all subgroups of people.
correlation is
NOT CAUSATION
condition
One of the levels of the independent variable in an experiment
Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a:
Pilot Study
Jenny reads the headline, "Tea Party Supporters Have Slipped To 20 Percent." She asks, "What is the margin of error of the estimate?" What validity is she interrogating?
Statistical Validity
A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .32 and reports p < .05. The p value indicates which of the following?
The correlation is unlikely to have come from a zero association population.
How to control observer bias and demand characteristics
The most appropriate way to avoid demand characteristics and observer bias is to conduct a double-blind study
Treatment Group
The participants in an experiment who are exposed to the level of the independent variable that involves a medication, therapy, or intervention.
When determining whether a study should be conducted, we have to balance which two issues?
The potential risks to participants vs. the value of knowledge we can gain.
In addition to the three principles derived from the Belmont Report, which of the following two principles were added in the principles put forth by the American Psychological Association?
The principle of integrity and fidelity/responsibility
When a measurement tool potentially causes a great deal of random error,
The researcher can cancel out many errors simply by including more people in the study
Predictor variables
The rest of the variables measured in a regression analysis
Good experimenters try to maximize the power of their experimental designs by
Their "light source" or by increasing the size of their effects
Which of the following is NOT a reason that a researcher might choose a pretest/posttest design?
To allow for the study of spontaneous behaviors
How many possible orders for full counterbalancing are there in a study with four conditions?
Twenty-four -For full counterbalancing, all the possible condition orders must be used, which is 24 for four conditions
Which of the following is TRUE about the difference between beta and r?
Unlike r, beta reflects the independent contribution of the predictor variable, controlling for the contributions from the other predictor variables.
In a study in which two variables are measured at two different points in time, which of the following is an example of a cross-lag correlation?
Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 2
correlation
When authors of a research article are describing just the results of a factorial study, which of these terms would you not expect to see?
floor effects
Which of the following is not one of the three most common threats to internal validity?
__________ is a simple study that uses a separate group of participants that is generally completed before conducting the study of primary interest in order to confirm the effectiveness of a manipulation. A pilot study A Latin square Counterbalancing A manipulation check
a
control group
a level of an independent variable that is intended to represent "no treatment" or a neutral condition
noise
a reason why a study might return a null effect is there is too much unsystematic variable.
An example in the text hypothesized that 4% of the variability in life expectancy was accounted for by variability in smoking behavior. The values of r and r^2 respectively are equal to a. .20 and .04 b. .04 and .16 c. .04 and .20 d. more information is needed
a. .20 and .04
5. Which of the following sentences describes a moderator for the relationship between risk taking and liking spicy foods?
a. There is a positive relationship between liking spicy foods and risk taking for men, but no relationship for women.
full counterbalancing
all possible condition orders are represented. Ex: A - B- C, A - C- B, B - A - C, B - C- A, C - A - B, C - B - A 2 conditions = 2 orders 3 conditions = 6 orders 4 conditions = 24 orders
Occurs when a certain kind of participant drops out before the end of the study.
attrition threat
an association that involved exactly two variables
bivariate correlation
What is the name for a variable that the experimenter holds constant on purpose? dependent variable independent variable control variable confound variable
c
5. Which of the following statements is an example of a mediator of the relationship between Facebook use and college grades?
c. Facebook use and college grades are cor-related because Facebook use leads to less time studying, which leads to lower grades.
Which r-value represents the strongest correlation? a. +.50 b. -.50 c. -.75 d. 1.65
c.-.75
Which of the following is not a method to interrogate construct validity in an experimental design? pilot studies checking for statistical significance manipulation checks adding additional conditions
checking for statistical significance
outlier
extreme score. usually a single case that stands out far away from the pack.
Which of the following threats to internal validity CANNOT occur in just any study?
history threats
what could potentially test a causal claim?
if either variables is manipulated
A study in which the same variables are measured in the same people at different points in time.
longitudinal design
A simple average
marginal means
A study designed to test an association involving more than two measured variables.
multivariate design
A quasi-experiemental study that has at least one treatment group and one comparison group, but participants have not been randomly assigned to the two groups
nonequivalent control group design
n
number of participants
when subjects receiving an experimental treatment experience a change only because they believe they are receiving a valid treatment (e.g., taking a sugar pill)
placebo effects
problem with outliers in bivariate correlation?
problematic when they involved extreme scores on both of the variables. example of correlation between height and weight. very tall and heavy person would make r appear stronger and vice versa.
what is the statistically valid way to analyze when there is a curvilinear relationship
quadratic model
1. measurement error 2. individual differences 3. situational noise
reasons for within-group variability
As you interrogate external validity
recall that the size of the sample does not matter as much as the way the sample was selected from the population of interest
when a study reports that there is no relationship between two variables, what is usually really happening?
the relationship is actually curvilinear. very high at beginning and end and low in the middle. r describes the slops of the best straight line through the scatterplot and does not accurately describe a curvilinear relationship. could get r value of like -0.01
Which of the following is NOT a required member of an institutional review board (IRB)?
the researcher whose study is under review
When there is only one group of participants, and each person is presented with all levels of the independent variable
within-groups design
Selection Effect
A threat to internal validity that occurs in an independent-groups design when the kinds of participants at one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those at the other level.
Bivariate correlation
is an association that involves exactly two variables
• Construct Validity
...
Observer bias
- A type of bias that occurs when researchers' expectations influence their interpretation of the results - A threat to internal validity because an alternative explanation exists for the results - A threat to construct validity because the data does not represent the "true" data
• External Validity
...
control group
A level of an independent variable that is intended to represent ' no treatment ' or a neutral condition.
comparison group
A group in an experiment whose level on the independent variable differs from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way.
In studies that have a pretest and posttest, attrition (sometimes referred to as mortality) is
A reduction in participant numbers that occurs when people drop before the end
The numerator in all F-ratios is A) the Mean Square within B) the Mean square between groups C) an estimate of inherent variability in the raw score population D) variability due to the effect of the treatment (if there is an effect) E) both B and D
E) both B and D
2. Which of the following is a NECESSARY component of a longitudinal design? TRUE or FALSE Measuring the same variables at two or more points in time Measuring at least four variables at one time Measuring different age groups at two different times Manipulating a variable at two points in time
Measuring the same variables at two or more points in time
Conditions
One of the levels of the independent variable in an experiment. Similar enough to also be known as a variable's levels.
Regression threats
Only occur in a pretest/posttest design, and only when a group has an extreme score at pretest
Regression threat
Refers to the statistical concept 'regression to the mean'; when a performance is extreme at Time 1, the next time that performance is measured (Time 2), it is likely to be less extreme - that is, closer to the typical or average performance.
Random Assignment
The use of a random method (e.g., flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups. A way of desystematizing the types of participants who end up in each level of the independent variable. Used to avoid selection effects
Outliers matter the most when
a sample is small
It doesn't matter what type of graph you make or what statistic you use. When both variables are measured, the claim being tested is an _____ claim.
association
how to prevent regression threats?
comparison groups and careful inspection of pattern of results. if comparison and experimental group equally extreme in pretest can account for any regression effect in their results. regression pulls an extreme gorup closer to the mean but not along the line of the mean and in the opposite direction
One extreme score can have a strong effect on the________.
correlation coefficient, r
When an experiment contains cues that lead participants to guess its hypothesis
demand characteristics
Researchers manipulate at least one variable and measure another
experiment
On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. Professor Mitchell points out that in her classes, students always do better on the second exam because they are more used to her tests. What threat to validity is she suggesting?
maturation
Which of the following is NOT a form of replication in psychological research?
meta-anaylsis replication
On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. What is the formal name for this type of design?
one-group, postest/pretest
Dr. Keller wants to test the effect of a new anti-anxiety medication. He recruits a group of anxious patients and randomly assigns them to two groups. One group will receive his new medication and the other will receive a sugar pill. What is the second group called?
placebo group
In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following does NOT exist?
placebo group
When a control group is exposed to an inert treatment
placebo group
An experiment in which researchers do not have full experimental control. Participants are assigned to the independent variable by teachers, political regulations, acts of nature-or even by their own choice
quasi-experiment
random assignment
randomly assigning each participant in a sample into one experimental group or another
power
the likelihood that a study will show a statistically significant result when some effect is truly present in the population; the probability of not making a type 2 error
A sample's results
usually mirrors what is happening in the population, but not always
Ceiling effect
- An effect in which all the scores are squeezed together at the high end. - This can be the result of a problematic independent variable or poorly designed dependent variable.
Cross-lag correlations...
- show whether the earlier measure of one variable is associated with the later measure of the other variable - are the primary interest of researchers, rather than cross-sectional correlations and autocorrelations - all researchers to investigate how people change over time -- and therefore establish temporal precedence
• Be able to explain the characteristics of a multivariate regression design
...
• Be able to graph an interaction, and to describe the interaction in words
...
• Be able to identify and know the characteristics of the following designs
...
• Be able to interpret the effect of your predictor or independent variable on your dependent variable while also controlling for potential third variables
...
• Be able to relate every type of validity to longitudinal, multivariate regression, and experimental designs. For instance, you should be able to question any type of design using the four validities
...
• In any factorial design, be able to name the independent variables and identify the levels of each independent variable
...
• Internal Validity
...
• Interrupted time-series design
...
• Know and be able to explain the four types of validity
...
• Know and be able to explain the three causal rules and how they relate to experimental design
...
• Know and be able to recognize and explain the characteristics of an independent variable, dependent variable, and confound.
...
• Know and be ready to explain the characteristics of a mediator, moderator, and third variable. Be able to tell the difference between the three
...
• Know the characteristics of the following small-N designs: stable-baseline designs, multiple-baseline designs, and reversal designs
...
• Know the characteristics of the following types of simple experiments (examples from notes):
...
• Know the relationship between interaction, moderator, and external validity
...
• Nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design
...
• Quasi-experimental designs and small-n designs
...
Describe Cohen's guidelines for effect size strength
.20 = small or weak comparable to an r of .10 .50 = medium, or moderate comparable to an r of .30 .80 = large or strong comparable to an r of .50
Longitudinal studies help establish causation because
1. Significant relationships in longitudinal designs help establish covariance. When two variables are significantly correlated, there is covariance 2. Each variable in a longitudinal study is measured in at least two different points in time, allowing researchers to know which came first in time 3. However, longitudinal studies do not help rule out third variables
Your SPSS printout tells you that beta=10 and that the constant =50. Use the formula Y=a+bX What would the predicted score (Y) be for a person who scores 10 on the predictor variable(X)?
150
You have a 2x2x4 factorial design. How many IVs? How many levels for each IV?
3-IVs 16-Levels
A researcher wants to run a 2 x 3 mixed factorial design. The first factor is within-subjects. The second factor is between-subjects. If the researcher wants 20 observations per cell, how many participants will he need in total?
60
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many cells are in his design? a. 2 b. 4 c. 6 d. 8 e. 10
A
Masked design
A study in which participants know which group they are in but the observers do not. This is also known as a blind design
Moderating Variable
A third variable that changes the relationship between two other variables
Longitudinal Designs 2
Aggression is consistent/persistent, but amount of time watching violence is not. TV Violence 3rd,College_r=.05 Aggression 3rd,College_r=.38*
Independent-Groups Design
An experimental design in which different groups of participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable, such that each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable. AKA: between-subjects design or between-groups design
Studies that found null effects
Are hard to find in the popular press due to a bias in both what gets published in scientific journals and which stories are picked up by magazines and newspapers.
Refer to Research Study 11.2 above to answer the following question. In the study described above, Dr. Elder will need to examine _________ main effects and __________ interactions. a. 3, 3 b. 3, 4 c. 3, 8 d. 4, 4 e. 8, 3
B
A researcher was interested in examining the different levels of aggression shown by college students and prisoners with life sentences. Aggression was measured by surveys. Which analysis should the researcher perform on the mean aggression scores of the groups? A) 1-sample t-test B) independent t test C) ANOVA D) Z-test
B) independent t test
The analysis of variance compares: A) the total variance to the variance within groups B) the total variance to the variance between group means C) the variance between group means to the variance within groups D) the variance within groups to the variance among all data points
C) the variance between group means to the variance within groups
Longitudinal Designs 1
Cause must precede effect. How much violent TV and how aggressive?
Longitudinal Designs 3
Cause must precede effect. Cross-lagged designs are only suggestive.
Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. Running this preliminary study helps establish which of the following?
Construct validity
Order effects can be controlled by using which of the following techniques?
Counterbalancing
_______ is a sub discipline of psychology that is primarily in generalization mode. It examines how cultural contexts shape the way a person thinks, feels, and behaves.
Cultural psychology
Refer to Research Study 10.2 above to answer the following question. Imagine that Dr. Bloedorn finds no difference between the calories consumed with the drink additive and without. This is known as: a. Situation noise b. Within-group variance c. A null effect d. Placebo effect e. None of the above
D
Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. In graphing the results of his study, which of the following would be true for Dr. Elder? a. Dr. Elder would see a crossover interaction. b. Dr. Elder would reach different conclusions based on which independent variable he put on the x-axis. c. Dr. Elder would have to use a line graph. d. Dr. Elder would see a difference between the differences for one variable but not the other variable. e. None of the above are true.
D
Refer to Research Study 11.2 above to answer the following question. Based on the graphs above, Dr. Elder should conclude which of the following? a. There is a main effect for participants' age. b. The three-way interaction does not look significant. c. The interaction between activity focus and activity type depends on participants' age. d. Participants' age appears to mediate the relationship between activity focus and activity type. e. None of the above should be concluded.
D
The mathematical way to describe an interaction is: a. A difference in differences b. A caveat c. A qualified main effect d. A patterned pattern e. All of the above
D
All other things being equal, one study will have more power than another study if: A) it has more subjects B) it controls error variance better C) it compares groups that are more extreme D) all of the above
D) all of the above
Between-groups variance may reflect: A) chance B) the treatment C) a confound D) all of these
D) all of these
Variance in an experiment may be due to: A) chance B) the independent variable C) a confound D) all of these
D) all of these
Dr. Acitelli was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease which of the following?
Demand characteristics
Three common threats to internal validity:
Design confounds, selection effects, and order effects
autocorrelations
Determine the correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions. EX: tv violence in third grade compared to tv violence in '13th' grade
autocorrelations
Determine the correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions. Evaluate the associations of each variable with itself across time EX: tv violence in third grade compared to tv violence in '13th' grade
Which of the following should Dr. Lonsbary conclude from her study? a. Being in a mood other than neutral causes people to have a better memory. b. Listening to music can cause changes in mood. c. Being in a happy mood does not cause more of a change in memory than being in a sad mood. d. Both a and c can be concluded. e. all of the above
E
Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's:
External Validity
In most experiments, tradeoffs are made between validities because it is not possible to achieve all four at once. What is the most common tradeoff?
FEEDBACK: Producers of Information: Prioritizing Validities — Experiments are studies designed to show causality, which depends on internal validity. In order to emphasize causality, the generalizability of the results is reduced. NOTT Increased statistical validity results in decreased internal validity.
Which of the following is NOT one of the three most common threats to internal validity?
Floor effects
What kind of a claim is the following headline making? "You Gotta Have Friends? Most Have Just Two True Pals."
Frequency Claim
What kind of a claim is the following headline making? "You Gotta Have Friends? Most Have Just Two True Pals."
Frequency claim
What is the relationship between moderators and external validity?
Generalizability is affected by moderators, could suggest that your association does not generalize to all groups of people
Interaction
How two independent variables are related, whether one depends on the other. - difference in differences = the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends on on the level of the other independent variable
Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. What is a question that one could ask to assess the construct validity of this association?
How well was delay of gratification measured?
In understanding *"controlling for"* a third variable, which of the following is a similar concept?
Identifying subgroups
Order Effect
In a within-groups design, a threat to internal validity in which exposure to one condition changes participants' responses to a later condition.
Manipulation Check
In an experiment, an extra dependent variable researchers can include to determine how well an experimental manipulation worked.
unsystematic variability
In an experiment, when levels of a variable fluctuate independently of experimental group membership contributing to variability within groups.
Unsystematic Variability
In an experiment, when levels of a variable fluctuate independently of experimental group membership, contributing to variability within groups
mediator/mediating variable
In statistics, a mediation model is one that seeks to identify and explicate the mechanism or process that underlies an observed relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable via the inclusion of a third explanatory variable, known as a mediator variable. Rather than hypothesizing a direct causal relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, a mediational model hypothesizes that the independent variable influences the mediator variable, which in turn influences the dependent variable. Thus, the mediator variable serves to clarify the nature of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.[1] In other words, mediating relationships occur when a third variable plays an important role in governing the relationship between the other two variables. Mediation is definitively established only when the proposed causal variable is measured (or manipulated) first in a study, followed by the mediating variable, followed by the proposed outcome variable.
Which type of validity is typically not relevant to association claims?
Internal
What type of validity does counterbalancing help?
Internal Validity
Professor Horvat studies the relationships between job and home satisfaction. She designs a study to test the same group of workers on various factors of work satisfaction and home satisfaction. She administers the test two times, one year apart. She finds that at both testings, there is a strong correlation between job satisfaction and home satisfaction, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at time one and home satisfaction measured a year later. Which of the three rules of causation is not addressed by the results of this study?
Internal validity (This study does not provide evidence regarding third variables.)
Multivariate designs
Involve more than two measured variables
Which of the following is NOT a problem with journalists ignoring the importance of pattern and parsimony in research?
It makes people read fewer studies about psychology.
Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. A colleague of Dr. Farah's asks her why she did not simply conduct an experiment. Which of the following is a probable reason for Dr. Farah's choice not to conduct an experiment?
It would be unethical to manipulate whether students are told to do homework for a semester.
Which of the following is a NOT control variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?
Mood of the participants
Which of the following phrases would NOT indicate that a researcher is making a causal claim?
NOT Curbs
Regression Does Not
Not (definitively) Establish Causation
attrition
On the first midterm exam in an introductory psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cellphones from her class between the first midterm and the second midterm. When she compares the scores on the two exams for the people who had been using computers and cellphones, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. When Professor Mutola rechecks her data, she finds that the five multitasking students with the lowest scores on the first exam have dropped the class. What threat to internal validity is this?
Nested Factorial Design
One independent variable in primary, and the other indpendent variable is nested under it i.e. researcher studies two school districts and then three schools within each district (district is first IV and three schools are second, nested, IV)
Condition
One of the levels of the independent variable in an experiment.
Maturation, history, regression, attrition, testing, and instrumentation threats are all due to the ______, _____/_____ design while observer bias, demand characteristics, and placebo effects could occur in any experiment.
One-group, pretest/posttest
Given that Dr. Acitelli's participants have agreed to participate for three nights each, which type of counterbalancing should she use?
Partial counterbalancing
10. " QUESTION Dr. Uchida's finding that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women suggests which of the following? TRUE or FALSE Participant sex is a moderating variable. Emotional well-being is a mediating variable. Dr. Uchida's study was conducted incorrectly. Dr. Uchida's study was conducted unethically.
Participant sex is a moderating variable.
When reading popular press articles, why does the inclusion of participant variable information often denote a factorial design?
Participant variables are often used as moderators
Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?
Participant's mood
What type of interaction is this?
Participants were asked to report how jealous they would be if their partner had an affair. Researchers found that the interaction between participant marital status (married/single) and gender (m/f) on jealousy depends on the type of affair (emotional/physical infidelity).
What is it called when researchers investigate causality by using a variety of correlational studies that all point in a single, causal direction?
Pattern and Parsimony
Dr. Ellison finds a relation between the amount of sleep and problem solving. Specifically, having a higher amount of sleep the night before an exam is associated with higher scores on two measures of problem solving. This is an example of which type of association?
Positive Association
power
Refers to the ability of a study to show a statistically significant result when an independent variable truly has an effect in the population.
A friend looks at these data and says, "the only reason French rap predicts violence is because the kids who listen to rap music are just more into violent media in general. I bet they watch more violent TV and stuff like that."
Reply:This challenge question moves students toward applying multiple regression to the third variable problem. Students should reply that your friend is wrong—the relationship between French rap and violence is still significant, even when controlling for exposure to violent media. This result rules out exposure to violent media as a third variable.
Pattern and parsimony
Researchers can investigate causality by using a variety of correlational studies that all point in a single, causal direction.
Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following?
Selection effects
Which of the following is the mediating variable in Dr. Uchida's hypothesis?
Social support
In a study of the relationship between depression and income, the same group of participants are studied two times, two years apart. At both times, they complete a measure of depression and income. Results: Income and depression are highly correlated at time 1. In come at time 1 is correlated with depression at time 2. But depression at time 1 is not correlated with income at time 2. For which rule of causation do these two correlations provide evidence?
Temporal precedence
cross - sectional correlations
Test to see whether two variables, measured at the same point in time, are correlated. EX: observing aggression in third graders, as well as their tv violence preference at the same point in time.
When the data show less variability within the groups
The larger the effect size will be, and the more likely the mean difference will be statistically significant.
The greater the overlap
The less apparent the average difference
The less within-group variability
The less likely it is to obscure a true group difference
Professor Nakum designs a memory experiment to test the effect of word familiarity on memory. Three lists of words are created: common words, uncommon words, and made-up words. Participants study one of the lists of 30 words for 5 minutes, do math problems for 5 minutes, then write all the words they recall from the list. Their score is the number of words correctly recalled. Which of the following is the dependent variable in this study?
The number of words correctly recalled
treatment group
The participants in an experiment who are exposed to the level of the independent variable that involves a medication, therapy, or intervention.
How to rule out a placebo effect
The standard approach to determine whether an effect is caused by a therapeutic treatment or by placebo effect is to include a special kind of comparison group.
• Temporal precedence
The study measured deep talk and well-being during the same, short time period, so we cannot be sure whether an increase in deep talk came first, followed by an increase in well-being, or whether people were happy first and then engaged in more deep conversations.
random assignment
The use of a random method (e.g. flipping a coin) to assign participants to different experimental groups.
The *pattern and parsimony* approach to causation is a good example of which cycle in research?
Theory-data cycle
Within-Groups design/ Within - Subjects Design
There is only one group of participants, and each person is presented with all levels of the independent variable
• Covariance (if you get group differences)
There must be correlation, or association, between the cause variable and the effect variable
What are the minimum requirements for a study to be an experiment?
To be an experiment the study must have at least one measured and one manipulated variable.
Most researchers prefer
To keep within-group variability to a minimum, so that they can more easily detect between-group differences
The best alternative to using reliable, precise measurements is
To measure a larger sample (e.g., more people, more animals, more books). - In other words, one solution to measuring badly is to take more measurement
Experimental Design
What are the pros of such a design? -more control over confound variables. (associational designs in contrast can only statistically control for third variables that are measured).
Regression is especially problematic in which of the following situations?
When one group has an extremely high score at pretest
counterbalancing
When researchers use counterbalancing, they present the levels of the independent variable to participants in different orders. With counterbalancing, any order effects should cancel each other out when all the data are collected.
placebo group/placebo control group
When the control group is exposed to an inert treatment such as a sugar pill
In which of the following cases might a small effect still be important?
When the study has life-or-death implications
An operationalization with a lot of measurement error
Will result in a set of scores that are more spread out around the group mean
all of them are manipulated
Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. Which variable is a participant variable?
Which of the following graph formats is the best way to examine an association claim between a categorical variable and a quantitative variable?
a bar graph
placebo group
a control group that is exposed to an intern treatment
control variable
a potential variable that an experimenter holds constant on purpose
Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. A main effect of price and a main effect of picture were found. It was found that the impact of price on tastiness/expensiveness judgments was weaker in the self than in the classmate. What type of interaction does this describe?
a two-way interaction between price and consumer -This means that in looking at the tastiness/expensiveness ratings for self, there is a smaller difference between the inexpensive and expensive ratings than there is in those ratings for classmate.
practice effect
a type of order effect in which people's performance improves over time because they become practiced at the dependent measure (not because of the manipulation or treatment)
carryover effect
a type of order effect in which some form of contamination carries over from one condition to the next
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
a value selected for the mug
manipulated variable
a variable that is controlled. (Independent Variable)
Chapter 12: Interactions allow researchers to examine _________ variables. a) moderating b) confounding third c) main effect d) mediating
a) moderating
Which of the following is an association claim? a. "Owning a dog is related to higher life satisfaction" b. "A majority of Americans like dogs" c. "Dog traveled 500 miles to find its owners" d."Being visited by dogs in the hospital causes decreases in recover time" e. None of the above are association claims
a. "Owning a dog is related to higher life satisfaction"
A researcher is conducting a 2x4 independent-groups factorial design. How many interactions will need to be examined? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 6
a. 1
8. Researchers speculated that the reason bilingualism is associated with later onset of dementia is that bilingual people develop richer connections in the brain through their experiences in managing two languages; these connections help stave off dementia symptoms. This statement describes:
a. A mediator
1. Dr. Weber conducted a long-term study on friendship. He noticed that the most introverted people dropped out by the third session. Therefore, his study might have which of the following internal validity threats?
a. Attrition
5. The researchers found that in the two cities that imposed water usage fines, water use dropped dramatically in subsequent months. Which of the following would be a threat to internal validity in this study?
a. If the cities that imposed fines also hap-pened to use a public service ad campaign to reduce water usage.
1. A headline in Yahoo! News made the following (bivariate) association claim: "Facebook users get worse grades in college" (Hsu, 2009). The two variables in this headline are:
a. Level of Facebook use and college grades.
3. What type of design is Max's experiment?
a. Posttest-only design
5. Which of the following sentences describes a moderator for the relationship between risk taking and liking spicy foods? a. There is a positive relationship between liking spicy foods and risk taking for men, but no relationship for women b. There is a positive relationship between liking spicy foods and risk taking, and it is equally strong for both older and younger adults c. The relationship between liking spicy foods and risk taking does not depend on where you grew up.
a. There is a positive relationship between liking spicy foods and risk taking for men, but no relationship for women
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that, at both the first time point and the second time point, there is a strong correlation between work satisfaction and home life satisfaction. What type of correlations are these? a. cross-sectional b. cross-lag c. autocorrelations d. curvilinear
a. cross-sectional Cross-Sectional Correlations — These two tests are made a year apart, showing the relationship between the factors of job satisfaction and home satisfaction.
An independent variable is one that: a. is manipulated b. is measured c. is kept constant d. has one level e. none of the above
a. is manipulated
Which of the following is a necessary component of a longitudinal design? a. measuring the same variable at two points in time b. measuring at least four variable at one time c. measuring different age groups at two different times d. manipulating a variable at two points in time e. none of the above
a. measuring the same variable at two points in time
All other things equal, the MSerror in a repeated measures design is ____ than the corresponding MSerror in a between-subjects design a. smaller b. larger c. the same size d. we have no way to predict
a. smaller
What is the advantage of multiple regression?
ability to rule out third variables by measuring multiple IVs and seeing whether they are significant predictors of the DV. -so if you suspect something of being a CV, then measure it and add it into the multiple regression and see if your beta is still significant. your beta may change and become no longer significant (bad).
Frances did a study to investigate the effect of concreteness on memory. She created a list of 12 items that are very concrete (such as pencil and table) and a list of 12 items that are very abstract (such as justice and freedom). Each item was viewed for one second, then participants recalled them in order. Ten participants were tested in each condition. The study showed null effects, and large variability within the groups. What is a likely solution?
add more participants
• Internal validity
addresses the degree to which a study supports a causal claim. Although it is not necessary to interrogate internal validity for an association claim because it does not make a causal statement, it can be tempting to assume causality. third variable problem in associational designs.
This is a correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions or __________
an autocorrelations
manipulation check
an extra dependent variable that researchers can insert into an experiment to help them quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked.
directionality problem
another name for temporal precedence (need to establish causation)
third-variable problem
another name for the internal validity rule (need to establish causation)
Latin square
another technique for partial counterbalancing). formal system of partial counterbalancing that ensures that each condition appears in each position at least once. A-E in random order across, then A-E in order down in columns.
When one variable measured at time one correlates with ________, there is a cross-lag correlation.
another variable measured at time two
control variable
any variable that an experimenter holds constant. when manipulating independent variable, have to make sure only changing one thing. example-one varied pen color but kept ID numbers the same size, exact same anagram tests, same experimenter for each session and etc. kept these constant. not really variables at all because they do not vary. allow to separate one potential cause from another and eliminate alternative explanations for results-good for internal validity
construct validity of independent variables
ask how well they were manipulated. example-social exclusion versus inclusion. assess face validity-does the manipulation fit the researchers' definition of the construct.
All of the following are advantages of within-groups designs EXCEPT: a. Participants in the treatment/control groups will be equivalent b. It is less time-consuming for the participants c. It gives researchers more power to find differences between conditions d. They require fewer participants e. All of the Above are advantages of within-groups designs
b
Cara is running a study to examine the effect of music on mood. She randomly assigns participants to three conditions — rock, jazz, and country. She has the participants rate their mood with a short questionnaire, then listen to their assigned music for 20 minutes, and then fill out the mood questionnaire again. What kind of design is she using? posttest only pretest/posttest concurrent measures repeated measures
b
Dr. Keller wants to test the effect of a new anti-anxiety medication. He recruits a group of anxious patients and randomly assigns them to two groups. One group will receive his new medication and the other will receive a sugar pill. What is the second group called? treatment group placebo group experimental group manipulation group
b
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? role of the participant value selected for the mug type of mug the range of prices that the buyer and seller each consider
b
Which of the following does NOT need to be considered as an alternative explanation of the results in a within-groups design experiment? order effects selection effects practice effects carryover effects
b
difference between beta and b
b is unstandardized coefficient. both denotes a positive or negative association (when other predictors are controlled for), but you cannot compared b values. b is computed from original measurements of predictor values (dollars, centimeters, percentages, inches) but betas computed from predictor variables that have been changed to standardized units. large b may not mean stronger relationship to dependent variable than a predictor variable with a smaller b.
All of the following are advantages of withingroups designs EXCEPT: a) Participants in the treatment/control groups will be equivalent b) There is a smaller chance of participants detecting the experimental manipulation c) It gives researchers more power to find differences between conditions d) They require fewer participants
b) There is a smaller chance of participants detecting the experimental manipulation
Chapter 10: __________ is a simple study that uses a separate group of participants that is generally completed before conducting the study of primary interest in order to confirm the effectiveness of a manipulation. a) a latin square b) a pilot study c) counterbalancing d) a manipulation check
b) a pilot study
A 2 x 4 factorial has a. 8 subjects b. 2 levels of one variable and 4 levels of the other c. 8 factors d. one variable with 4 levels and 2 subjects
b. 2 levels of one variable and 4 levels of the other
3. A regression threat applies especially:
b. When the researcher recruits a sample whose average is extremely low or high at pretest.
The number of main effects that need to be examined is ____ the number of independent variables. a. more important than b. equal to c. similar to d. unrelated to e. independent of
b. equal to
de Abreu, Gathercole, and Martin (2011) found that the correlation of non-word repetition and digit recall in a memory was r = .59. Based on Cohen's (1992) guidelines, how would you describe this effect size? a. small b. large c. medium d. more information is needed to make this determination
b. large Feedback: Table 8.4- According to the table, an r of approximately 0.50 is considered to have a large or strong effect size
A factorial analysis of variance has a. more than on dependent variable b. more than on independent variable c. every level of every independent variable paired with every level of every other independent variable d. both b. and c.
b. more than on independent variable
Dr. Ellison finds a relation between the amount of sleep and problem solving. Specifically, having a higher amount of sleep the night before an exam is associated with higher scores on two measures of problem solving. This is an example of which type of association? a. negative association b. positive association c. zero association d. curvilinear association e. there is not enough information to answer this questions
b. positive association
1. Suppose you hear that conscientious people are more likely to get regular health checkups. Which of the following correlations between conscientiousness and getting checkups would probably support this claim? a. r = .03 b. r = .45 c. r = -.35 d. r = -1.0
b. r = .45
Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: "The study used a 2 x 2 design." Where are you likely to have encountered this sentence? a. the introduction b. the method section c. the results section d. the discussion section e. the references
b. the method section
what kind of graph is used in an association claim is one variable is categorical?
bar graph
intuitive interactions***
behaviors, thoughts, motivations, and emotions are rarely simple-usually involved interactions between two or more influences. so much of the most important research is psychology explores interactions among multiple independent variables.
Following a study using deception, how does the researcher attempt to restore an honest relationship with the participant?
by debriefing each participant in a structured conversation
effect of outlier on r?
can be very strong, if it sits very far out of the range of the rest. can make a medium sized correlation appear a lot weaker than it really is.
situation noise-within groups variability obscured the group differences
can cause variability within groups and obscure true group difference. example- do the money study on happiness in the student union, lot of distractions that could effect results/or level of happiness of participants. variability in the external situation can create variability within each group in an experiment.
Dr. Whetstone is curious about how self-esteem changes as a result of a new counseling program. She is concerned about testing threats in her study. Which of the following would you NOT recommend to her as a way to address this type of threat?
collecting pretest data twice
A study's independent variable should not be confused with it's levels, which are also referred to as ________.
conditions
Dr. Stevens did a study that found that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years because people who are highly educated take cognitively demanding jobs, and people who are highly educated have better cognitive skills. She found that the amount of education is a ________ in the relationship between having demanding job and cognitive benefits in later years.
confounding third variable
Hypothesis is testing is part of a. descriptive statistics b. order statistics c. test construction statistics d. inferential statistics
d. inferential statistics
cues that lead participants to guess a study's hypotheses; solution: double-blind study
demand characteristics
a situation in which it is unclear which variable in an association came first
directionality problem
when neither subjects nor experimenter knows who is in each condition.
double-blind study
It is relevant to ask about the construct validity of
each variable
When researcher's create settings in which people experience authentic emotions, motivations, and behaviors
experimental realism
pilot study
exposing people to the manipulation and then asking them if they felt socially excluded. simple study, use a separate group of particiapnts that is completed before the study of primary interest is conducted. use to confirm the effectiveness of their manipulations
Correlation is not a term used in describing the results of a strictly ______ study, though it may be used within the same article.
factorial
A design in which there are two or more independent variables
factorial design
Where all possible condition orders are represented
full counterbalancing
When researcher's want to generalize the findings from the sample in their study to a larger population
generalization mode
instrumentation threats to internal validity
happen when a measuring instrument changes over time from having been used before. example-maybe the campers didn't get better, he just became more tolerant. also happens when different pre and posttest forms are used and they are not equivalent.
placebo effect (threat to internal validity)
happens when people receive a treatment and really improve only because they believe they are receiving a valid treatment. happens because people think they are getting treatment so they should be getting better.
what does a nonsignificant result mean?
higher p value than 5% or 0.05, there probability of getting some correlation just by chance is relatively high. considered to be this.
Threats to internal validity
history (external event affects people in an experimental group) -maturation (people adapt/change over time) -attrition (dropping out) -regression to the mean (people don't stay extreme, will score closer to mean when retested)
construct validity refers to what?
how well a variable has been measured or manipulated
The variables in a bivariate correlation can be either quantitative or categorical. However,
if both variables are quantitative, the data are usually depicted in a scatterplot; if one variable is categorical, the data is usually depicted in a bar graph
interactions: is there a difference in differences?
in a factorial design with two independent variables, the first two results obtained are the main effects for each independent variable. third result is this.
Selection effects only apply to _________ designs.
independent-groups
When different groups of participants are placed into different levels of the independent variable
independent-groups design
A design in which both independent variables are studied as independent-groups
independent-groups factorial design
Occurs when a measuring instrument changes over time.
instrumentation threat
multivariate designs
involve more than two measured variables
Determining statistical significance
is a process of interference
Which of of the following is NOT a problem that may contribute to null effect in a study?
large sample size
difference between main effects and interaction
main effects are simple differences and interaction is difference in differences
experimental design allows researchers to do what?
make causal claims rather than association
In an experiment, researchers:
manipulate one variable and measure another.
Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an example of which of the following threats to internal validity?
maturation
A change in behavior that emerges more or less spontaneously over time.
maturation threat
In a study, a way of mathematically averaging the results of all the studies that have tested the same variables, to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence supports
meta-analysis
attrition
mortality, when people drop out of a study before it is over
A statistical technique that computes the relationship between a predictor variable and a criterion variable, controlling for other predictor variables. Also called multivariate regression.
multiple regression
When there is too much unsystematic variability within each group
noise
This occurs when researchers' expectations influence their interpretation of the results
observer bias
occurs when researchers' expectations influence their interpretation of the results; - threatens internal validity and construct validity; solution: double-blind study
observer bias
a score that stands out as either much higher or much lower than most of the other scores in a sample
outlier
A repeated-measures design is a type of within-groups design in which:
participants are measured on a dependent variable after exposure to each level of the independent variable.
For full counterbalancing, all the _______ must be used.
possible
Longitudinal studies conducted in this way do not help to rule out:
possible third variables
Experimental Design:What are the pros of such a design?
prioritizes internal validity (correlational research only show covariance; correlations CANNOT show that changes in one variable are only due to the influence of the other variable (this is a failure to rule out 3rd variables)
manipulated
researchers assign participants to one level or another of the variable. example-manipulated ink color by rolling dice, participants did not get to choose. ink color variable because it had more than one level.
By conducting a multivariate design
researchers can evaluate whether a relationship between two key variables still holds when they control for another variable
Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following?
selection effects
Researchers cannot study everybody in a population
so they study only one sample at a time and make an inference from the sample about the population
quadratic model
specifically tests the correlation between one variable and the square of the other. good for curvilinear relationships.
In an empirical journal article
statistically significant associations are recognizable by their p values
Which of the following provides information about the statistical validity of Dr. Lonsbary's study?
the d coefficient
Main Effect
the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the other levels of he other independent variable - not necessarily most important -simple difference
Instrumentation threat occurs when:
the pretest and posttest are not sufficiently equivalent.
In a third-variable explanation, the third variable is external to
the two variables in the original bivariate correlation.
Betas are similar to correlations in that
they denote the direction and strength of a relationship
In association research, when the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of a ________, that is called a moderator.
third variable
autocorrelations.
type of correlation drawn from longitudinal designs. determine correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions. example measured preference of violent TV in the third grade with preference of violent TV in the 13th grade. could be stable or unstable over time.
confounds acting in reverse-null effect
usually just for internal validity (alternative explanations for some observed difference in a study). good for these too.
Within a single regression table
we can usually compare predictor variables that show larger betas to predictor variables with smaller betas -- the larger the beta, the stronger the relationship
demand characteristics (threat to internal validity)
when participants guess what the study is supposed to be about and change their behavior in the expected direction and change their behavior in the expected direction.
statistically significant
when researchers obtain a correlation coefficient, they establish effect size but also determine that
When is an outlier most likely to be problematic?
when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both variables
interaction
when you ask about the effect of an additional independent variable, you are wondering about this of two independent variables. looking at whether the effect of the original independent variable (cell phone use) depends on another independent variable (driver age).
Mediators address the question of:
why two other variables are related
variability within the groups?
within-group variance
When interrogating the external validity of an association claim
you ask whether the association can generalize to other people, places, and times
apply intuitive interactions mathematically***
you like ice cream more than you like it cold (cold minus hot is a positive value0 but you like pancaces cold less than you like them hot (cold minus hot is a negative value)
Crossed Factorial Design
-factorial design where researchers cross the two independent variables and study each possible combination of the independent variables.
Within-Groups Design
An experimental design in which each participant is presented with all levels of the independent variable. Also called within-subjects design.
Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following? a. An order effect b. A selection effect c. A practice effect d. A carryover effect e. None of the above
B
Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following? a. Random selection b. Selection effects c. Carryover effects d. Large effect sizes e. Demand characteristics
B
What are some advantages of within groups designs?
It ensures the participants in the two groups will be equivalent (because they are the same people). Variations among participants will not effect results because their scores are only rated against themselves and not others. Statistically speaking, extraneous differences in personality, living conditions, gender, ability etc are held constant across all conditions, so researchers will be more likely to detect an effect of the independent variable manipulation if there is one. Generally requires fewer participants overall.
Outliers are most problematic when
the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both variables.
selection effects
Which of these is not a source of error variance?
large sample size
Which of these is not one of the problems with study design that may cause the study to return a null hypothesis when the independent variable actually does cause a change in the dependent variable?
attrition
Which threat to internal validity occurs when there is a greater systematic loss of participants in one condition than the other condition?
When both variables in an association are measured on a quantitative scales
a scatterplot is usually the best way to represent the data
What is the name for the level of the independent variable that is intended to represent a neutral condition?
control group
Any variable than an experimenter holds constant on purpose
control variable
What is the name for a variable that the experimenter holds constant on purpose?
control variable
2. How is a testing threat to internal validity dif-ferent from an instrumentation threat?
d. A testing threat refers to a change in the participants over time; instrumentation threats refer to a change in the measuring instrument over time.
Which of the following phrases would indicate that a researcher is making a causal claim? a. curbs b. seems to decrease c. enhances e. all of the above would indicate a causal claim.
e. all of the above
Regression is especially problematic in which of the following situations? a. when on group has an extremely low score at pretest b. when one group has an extremely high score at pretest c. when the experimental and comparison groups are equal at pretest d. both a and b e. all of the above
e. both a and b
Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an example of which of the following threats to internal validity? a. regression b. attrition c. observer bias d. placebo effects e. maturation
e. maturation
Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs? a. Selection effects b. design confounds c. counterbalancing d. demand characteristics e. practice effects
e. practice effects
Characteristics of a small-N experiment?
each person in a small-N design is treated as a separate experiment -when you measure baseline, administer treatment, measure during treatment, then remove the treatment and measure to see if behavior reverts back, this is called a reversal design
A small sample is more
easily affected by chance events than a large sample is. In other words, in a population in which the association is zero, studies with small samples might show weak correlations relatively frequently.
A study's similarity to real-world contexts
ecological validity
When a study takes place in the real world
field setting
In a study, the idea that a meta-analysis might be overestimating the true size of an effect because null effects, or even opposite effects, have not been included in the collection process
file drawer problem
How many possible orders for full counterbalancing are there in a study with four conditions?
twenty-four
How many possible orders for full counterbalancing are there in a study with four conditions? four eight sixteen twenty-four
twenty-four
Floor effects are a special case of ______ and________, not one of the three most common threats.
manipulations and insensitive measures
Identifying Factorial Designs in Popular Press Articles — Peer-reviewed journals publish _________, so this would not be a cue specific to a factorial study.
many types of studies
When examining the statistical validity of a frequency claim, one should look for the:
margin of error estimate
Any factor that can inflate or deflate a person's true score on a dependent measure
measurement error
When the independent variable manipulated by the experimenters did not result in a change in the dependent variable.
null effect
What design is an experiment in which each participant is randomly assigned to one level of the independent variable and then tested on the dependent variable once?
posttest only
Occurs when a long sequence might lead participants to get better at the task, or to get tired or bored toward the end
practice effects
Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs?
practice effects
_______ are one of the possible problems in within-groups designs, as the participants respond to each independent variable more than once.
practice effects
measured
records of behavior ar attitudes, like self report, behavioral observations, or physiological measures. RECORD WHAT HAPPENS. measured how many anagrams each person solved.
Which of the following would not be a cue that the study was a factorial design in a popular press article?
reference to a peer-reviewed journalq
participants may perform very well or very poorly due to chance-if they were tested again then they would 'regress' (go back) to the average score (e.g., HW#3 question with the extreme score during pretest); how to minimize: include control group and closely inspect the data
regression (to the mean) threat
A study in which a researcher observes a problem behavior both with and without treatment, but takes the treatment away for a while to see whether the problem behavior returns
reversal design
When authors of a research article are describing just the results of a factorial study, which of these terms would you not expect to see?
"Correlation" is not a term used in describing the results of a strictly factorial study, though it may be used within the same article.
Which popular press headline does NOT suggest that a multiple regression has been used?
"Dog ownership decreases stress."
Which of the following phrases would NOT suggest that multiple regression was used?
"made a difference in"
If an experiment reveals that the independent variable conditions are not significantly different:
(1) Ask whether the study was designed to elicit and detect between-groups differences (e.g., was the manipulation strong? was the dependent measure sensitive enough to detect group differences?) (2) Ask about the study's ability to minimize within-group differences
How to accommodate individuals differences
(1) Change the design from an independent-groups design to a within-groups, which compares each participant with himself or herself, thus controlling individual differences (2) If a within-groups design is inappropriate due to order effects, demand characteristics, or practicality, adding more participants to the study can control individual difference variability. The more people you measure, the less any one, extreme person will have on the group average. Adding more people reduces the impact of individual differences within groups and will increase the study's ability to detect difference between groups.
To establish a causation, a study has to satisfy three criteria:
(1) Covariance of cause and effect: There must be a correlation, or association between the cause variable and the effect variable (2) Temporal precedence: The causal variable must precede the effect variable; it must come first in time (3) Internal validity: There must be no plausible alternative explanations for the relationship between the two variables
To achieve a goal of 20 observations per cell in a 2 × 2 × 3 mixed experiment with the first two factors run within groups and the last factor run between groups, what would be the number of participants needed?
- 60 If this was just a 2 × 2 within-groups design, it would need just 20 participants. Adding the third between groups factor makes 60 necessary: 20 for each level.
Null effect
- A finding that an independent variable did not make a difference in the dependent variable; there is no significant covariance between the two; also known as null result - A null effect can happen in a posttest design, within-groups design, or a pretest/posttest design. In these cases the independent variable manipulated by the experimenters did not result in a change in the dependent variable - A null effect outcome can also occur due to the study not being designed or conducted carefully enough.
Multiple regression (or multivariate regression)
- A statistical technique that computes the relationship between a predictor variable and a criterion variable, controlling for other predictor variables - Helps rule out some third variables - Researchers use this to study three or more variables
Placebo effect
- A type of effect that occurs when people receive a treatment and really improve - but only because the recipients believe they are receiving a valid treatment - Placebo effects are not imaginary and have been shown to reduce real symptoms, such as depression
Situation noise
- An external distraction of any kind; can cause variability within groups and obscure true group differences - Can add unsystematic variability to each group in an experiment which can obscure true differences
Measurement error
- Any factor that can inflate or deflate a person's true score on a dependent measure; a possible reason for high within-group variability. - All dependent measures involve a certain amount of measurement error, and researchers try to keep those errors as small as possible
Criterion variable
- The variable researchers choose that they are more interested in understanding or predicting - Also known as the dependent variable - Criterion variables are almost always specified either in the top row or in the title of the regression table
Within-Groups Factorial Designs
- both independent variables are manipulated as within groups. - in a 2x2 there is only one group of participants who participate in all four combinations
Results of Strayer and Dweyer's studies
- effect of talking on a cell phone did not depend on age. Older drivers did tend to brake more slowly than younger ones, consistent with past research on aging drivers. -the effect of using a cell phone did not differ with age = cell phone use did not interact with age.
Spreading interaction
- lines not parallel, do not cross over ( treat and no treat/ say something and say nothing) - one line flat, one line increase or decrease but never cross
Cross-sectional correlations....
- test to see whether two variables, measured at the same point in time, are correlated - are a type of multivariate design
A recent study (Koordeman et al., 2011), conducted in the Netherlands, on the effects of commercials for alcohol or alcohol consumption in the movie theater, found that young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week are influenced by the commercials, whereas young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week were not influenced. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their drinking habits. What type of design is this?
-independent-groups factorial
When the effect of variable A depends on variable B, this is an example of what type of effect in a factorial design?
-interaction effect
When we are interested in just a simple difference (do the levels in one IV differ from each other), i.e., an overall effect of an IV on the DV, ignoring the other IV, what are we interested in?
-main effect
Mixed Factorial Designs
-one independent variable is manipulated as independent groups and the other is manipulated within groups - i.e. old and young group, each group drove with and without cellphone condition -strayer and and drews
Factorial Designs Can Test Limits
-test whether IV affects different kinda of people, or people in different situations, in the same way. -would cell phone use while driving only affect one age group? or have same effect on people of different ages? -function as form of external validity: testing whether effect generalizes (when IV effects groups in the same way. suggests effect generalizes to all) -Interactions show moderators - Test Theories
What differences need to be investigated when a three-way design is used?
-three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction
6. Dr. Sparrow is a social psychologist who studies romantic relationships. Several researchers have found that there is a link between income and marital satisfaction (e.g., Dakin & Wampler, 2008). Dr. Sparrow is curious as to whether there is a causal link between the two variables, such that having a higher income causes higher levels of marital satisfaction. He is confident that he cannot reasonably or ethically manipulate people's income level, so he decides to use a multivariate design. He is also curious as to whether there is a causal link between these two variables or if two other variables (number of arguments and life satisfaction) can explain the relationship. He measures his three variables in a sample of 124 married couples recruited from a local community center. Below are his results. DV: Marital Satisfaction Variable-Income: B=2.30 Beta(p)=.73 Significance (p)=.03 Variable-Number of Arguments: B=-1.96, Beta(p)=-.69 Significance (p)=.01 Variable-Life Satisfaction: B=0.54, Beta(p)=.13 Significance (p)=.81 QUESTION Which of the following is IS NOT a predictor variable in Dr. Sparrow's study? IS NOT Marital satisfaction Life satisfaction Income Number of arguments
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Predictor variable = IDV) . .. . Marital satisfaction = criterion variable =DV
9. Dr. Uchida is a clinical psychologist who is curious about how people deal with natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, tornados, earthquakes). His previous research suggests that there is a relationship between how much people feel their emotional well-being was affected by the natural disaster and their likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, he is curious as to whether the effect of emotional well-being goes through another variable, that of social support. He conducts a study in which he asks 174 men and women affected by the 2011 tsunami in Japan to report on how their well-being was affected by the tsunami, the social support felt after the storm, and the number of PTSD symptoms. Dr. Uchida finds support for his proposed relationship. However, in examining his data more closely, he finds that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women. QUESTION Which of the following is the mediating variable in Dr. Uchida's hypothesis? TRUE or FALSE Emotional well-being PTSD symptoms Social support Participant sex
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social support
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at the first time point and home life satisfaction measured at the second time point. Which of the three criteria for causation does Professor Horvat's study fulfill? Question 9 options: covariance and internal validity covariance and temporal precedence temporal precedence and internal validity covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity
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Understand the idea of levels of an independent variable. Be able to recognize these levels from a presented experiment.
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be able to describe the number of cells in a factorial experiment from a notation, and vice versa
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mediator
...
moderator
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pre-test & post-test independent group design
...
third variable
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• Be able to calculate marginal means and difference in differences, and know the relationship between "difference in differences" (or, in the case of a three-way interaction a "difference in the difference of differences") and interaction
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• Be able to calculate the number of participants needed based on the notation of the design and the knowledge of the type (fully between-subjects, fully within-subjects, mixed-factorial design)
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• Be able to evaluate the four validities in quasi-experimental and above-named small-N designs
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• Factorial Designs, two - and three-way interactions
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• From a notation, be able to identify the number of main effects and number of two and three-way interaction effects
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• Know the different variations of a factorial design: fully between-subjects, fully within-subjects, mixed-factorial design
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• Read a regression table with multiple predictors
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• Statistical Validity
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• Understand a cross-lagged design (I sometimes referred to it as a cross-lagged panel model) and understand what each path tells you. Below, I pasted an example from the notes. When you study, play around with changing each path to non-significant or significant and decide how it affects the interpretation
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• Understand the components of factorial designs: main effects marginal means and interaction effects
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• Understand what is matching (an alternative to random assignment) and when you would use it.
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• Understand what it means to "covary" or to "control" for a variable
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• concurrent measures within-group design
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• repeated measures within-group design
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To minimize the likelihood of Type 1 and Type 2 errors, I would set the alpha level=BLANK and design the study so Power= BLANK. .01, .90 .05, .90 .01, .80 .10, .80 .15, .20
.01, .90
Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 How many participant variables exist in Dr. Elder's study?
0
what should you consider when examining the statistical validity of an association claim?
1) effect size-how strong is r 2)if the correlation is stat significant. p value. probability that association in sample came from association of zero in population. 3) any subgroups? 4) any outliers? 5 if r=0, could there be a curvilinear relationship
disadvantages of within groups (3)
1) repeated measures designs have the potential for order effects, threatens internal validity. 2) when people see all levels of the independent variables and changes the way they would normally act. might blow cover of independent variable like im temp guessing experiment. 3)sometimes within groups design might be impossible. example-wants to see which method is better for teaching kids how tot ride a bike. cant teach them one way and then expect them to learn in a different way.
3 threats to internal validity that can apply to experiments
1)observer bias 2) demand characteristics 3) placebo effect
how to avoid measurement error?
1)reliable, precise measurements (have excellent internal, interrater and test-retest), also the more precisely an experimenter can measure the dependent variable the less chance there is a measurement error 2)measure more instances. measure a larger sample or find a precise, reliable, measurement tool
Regression phrases in popular press articles
1. "Controlled for" 2. Taking into Account" 3. "Correcting for" or "Adjusting for"
Calculations help estimate the following:
1. ) What kinds of r results would we typically get from a zero-correlation population if we conducted the same study many, many times with the samples of the same size? 2.) How often would we get an r of (ex: r = -.19), just by chance, even if there is no association in the population
Longitiduinal designs can provide some evidence for a causal relationship by means of the three criteria for causation:
1. Covariance - significant relationships in longitudinal designs help establish covariance. When two variables are significantly correlated, there is covariance. 2. Temporal precedence - a longitudinal design can help researchers make inferences about temporal precedence because each variable is measured in at least two different points in time. They will know which came first. Using the strength of the cross-lag correlations, the researchers can see which path is stronger. If one is stronger than the other, the researchers move closer to determining which variable came first, causing the other. 3. Internal validity - When conducted simply, longitiduinal studies do not help rule out third variables. Careful researchers may be able to design their studies or conduct the analysis in ways that address some third variables.
longitudinal design
1. Covariance . Significant relationships in longitudinal designs help establish covariance. When two variables are significantly correlated (as in the cross-sectional correlations in Figure 9.1), there is covariance. 2. Temporal precedence . A longitudinal design can help researchers make infer-ences about temporal precedence. Because each variable is measured in at least two different points in time, they know which one came first. By com-paring the relative strength of the two cross-lag correlations, the research-ers can see which path is stronger. If one of them is stronger (as in the TV/aggression example), the researchers move a little closer to determining which variable comes first, causing the other. 3. Internal validity . When conducted simply—that is, by measuring only the four key variables (Time 1 and Time 2 of the two key variables)—longitudi-nal studies do not help rule out third variables. For example, the Eron study cannot clearly rule out the possible third variable of sensation seeking, the desire to engage in risky or dangerous activities. Kids who are higher in sensation seeking would probably have preferred violent TV shows as third graders and might also have acted more aggressively in thirteenth grade. The study design Eron and his colleagues used does not rule out this possibility.
Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 In Dr. Elder's study, how many possible main effects exist?
2
Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 To determine if there is a main effect for type of activity, Dr. Elder must examine how many marginal means?
2
Of the correlations listed in the table, how many are autocorrelations?
2
Susan ran a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-60 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What is the factorial notation for this design?
2 x 2
A design in which there are two independent variables, but one has two levels and the other has three levels
2 x 3 factorial design. Six cells in this design
Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think more differently about the category of "southern" if they are also thinking about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Elder also is curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, he recruits a group of 10-year-olds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. In the study described above, Dr. Elder will need to examine how many two-way interactions?
3
How many main effects? How many two-way interactions?
3 main effects (A, B, C) -3 two-way interactions (A*B, A*C, B*C)
TV violence early related to aggression later. Aggression early not related to TV violence later. Suggests that early exposure to violence is related to later aggression.
3rd Grade Aggression & College TV Violence, _r=.01 3rd Grade TV Violence & College Aggression_r=.31*
Aggression and violent TV related in 3rd grade, but not in college.
3rd Grade, Aggression_r=.21* College, Aggression_r=.05
Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. How many cells was each participant in?
6
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many cells are in his design?
8
Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. How many cells are there in this study?
8
Yan and Sengupta examined he effects of price, attractiveness and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 x 2 x 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. How many cells are there in this study?
8
Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 In graphing the difference between the differences, which of the following values would Dr. Elder use?
9
The correclation between amount of caffeine consumed and nervous behavior was found to be 0.30 what conclusion can be drawn from this finding?
9% of the vaiability in nervous behavior can be accounted for by variability in amount of caffeine consumed
Use this formula: Y==99+(-8)X What would the predicted exam score be for people sitting in row 1 (X=1)? How about for row 5?
91, 59
According to the textbook, why is it important to study interactions? a. Because they are more scientific b. Because many outcomes in psychology are interactions c. Because many outcomes in life are interactions d. Both b and c are true e. All of the above are true
A
An independent-groups design is also known as a _____________. a. Between-subjects design b. Matched-groups design c. Within-groups design d. Mixed design e. Multivariate design
A
Dr. Sanderson is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. She assigns half her participants to play a violent video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play the same game for 25 minutes. Afterward, she has them play a board game and has a well-trained coder determine whether they are very aggressive in their playing style, barely aggressive, or not at all aggressive. She finds that a vast majority of her participants, regardless of group assignment, are rated as very aggressive. This outcome would be known as a/an: a. Weak manipulation b. Ceiling effect c. Floor effect d. Outlier e. Large within-group variance
A
Dr. Whetstone is curious about how self-esteem changes as a result of a new counseling program. She is concerned about testing threats in her study. Which of the following would you NOT recommend to her as a way to address this type of threat? a. Collecting pretest data twice b. Conducting a posttest-only study c. Using a different measure of self-esteem at pretest than at posttest d. Using a comparison group e. All of the above can be used to address testing threats
A
Refer to Research Study 10.2 above to answer the following question. The addition of a control group that does not use the drink additive would help Dr. Bloedorn address which of the following threats to internal validity? a. History b. Demand characteristics c. Instrumentation d. Placebo effects e. All of the above
A
Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. To make his study a 2 x 2 x 3 factorial design, which of the following would Dr. Elder need to do? a. Add a second dependent variable (quality of the category attributes listed) b. Add a new manipulated variable (time to complete the task: 5 minutes versus 10 minutes versus 15 minutes) c. Add a new participant variable (sex: males versus females) d. Both b and c could be done e. All of the above could be done
A
Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. Which of the following could be said of the focus of activity variable in Dr. Elder's study? a. There appears to be a main effect for the focus of activity variable. b. Without the proper statistical test, it cannot be said whether the main effect is statistically significant. c. There appears to be an overall effect for the focus of activity variable. d. All of the above could be said. e. None of the above could be said.
A
Refer to Research Study 9.2 above to answer the following question. Given that Dr. Acitelli's participants have agreed to participate for all three nights, which type of counterbalancing should she use? a. Partial counterbalancing b. Full counterbalancing c. Minimal counterbalancing d. Carryover counterbalancing e. None of the above
A
When interrogating experiments, on which of the big validities should a person focus? a. Internal validity b. External validity c. Construct validity d. Statistical validity e. No one validity is more important than another when interrogating experiments
A
When reading popular press articles, why does the inclusion of participant variable information often denote a factorial design? a. Because participant variables are often used as moderators b. Because participant variables are only found in factorial designs c. Because studies with participant variables always find significant interactions d. Both a and b e. All of the above
A
Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality? a. Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people b. Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered c. Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words d. Both a and b e. Both b and c
A
a. They help define the control group. b. They help establish internal validity. c. They are essential in experimental designs. d. They are not really variables. e. They are kept the same for all participants.
A
history
A city in California has asked Professor Rodriguez to conduct an experiment on earthquake preparedness. Professor Rodriguez will assess the preparedness of a random sample of residents in the city and the city will mail out their annual brochure on earthquake safety. Then, two weeks later, he will again assess the preparedness of those residents. Right after the brochures are mailed, a large earthquake is reported in Japan. What threat to internal validity does this pose?
Placebo Group
A control group that is exposed to an inert treatment (e.g., a sugar pill). AKA: placebo control group
Latin Square
A formal system of partial counterbalancing that ensures that each condition in a within - groups design appears in each position at least once. The first row is set up according to a formula, and then the conditions simply go in numerical order down each column
Latin Square
A formal system of partial counterbalancing that ensures that each condition in a within-groups design appears in each position at least once.
Confound
A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding (a threat to internal validity).
confound
A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding (a threat to internal validity).
Confounds
A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding (a threat to internal validity). For any given research question, there can be several possible alternative explanations.
Comparison Group
A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way. AKA: Comparison Condition
comparison group
A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way. Also called comparison condition.
Control Group
A level of an independent variable that is intended to represent "no treatment" or neutral condition.
practice effects/fatigue effects
A long sequence might lead participants to get better at the task, or to get tired or bored towards the end.
A researcher can get away with having fewer participants in the study when
A measurement tool is known to have very little measurement error
Full Counterbalancing
A method of counterbalancing in which all possible condition orders are represented.
Partial Counterbalancing
A method of counterbalancing in which some, but not all, of the possible condition orders are represented.
__________ is a simple study that uses a separate group of participants that is generally completed before conducting the study of primary interest in order to confirm the effectiveness of a manipulation.
A pilot study
In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following does NOT exist?
A placebo group
Control Variable
A potential variable that an experimenter holds constant on purpose.
control variable
A potential variable that an experimenter holds constant on purpose.
Control variable
A potential variable that an experimenter holds constant on purpose. When researchers manipulate a variable, they need to make sure they are only varying one thing at a time. Researchers control potential third variables in their studies by holding all other factors constant. Any variable that the experimenter holds constant on purpose is called the control variable. Control variables are important for establishing internal validity
Dr. Kline is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kline is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then he will wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kline plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Refer to Research Study 4.1 to answer the following thirteen questions. Imagine that Dr. Kline is a clinical psychologist who volunteers his time at a local prison counseling several inmates. Because of his connections there, he is considering using prisoners as his participants. The institutional review board (IRB) that reviews his committee must have which of the following as a member?
A prisoner advocate
Restriction of range
A problem in a correlational study when there is not a full range of scores on one of the variables in the association, thus making the correlation appear smaller than it really is.
Demand characteristics
A problem that occurs when participants guess what the study is supposed to be about and change their behavior in the expected direction
1. Design confounds
A second variable that unintentionally varies systematically with the independent variable. Example:From Chapter 10 : If pasta served in a large bowl appeared more appetizing than pasta served in a medium bowl. ?: Did the researchers turn nuisance variables into control variables, for example, keeping the pasta recipe constant?
Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following?
A selection effect
Testing threat
A specific kind of order effect which refers to a change in the participants as a result of taking a test (dependent measure) more than once. Participants may become sensitized to particular issues due to pretests or may perform better on a posttest simply because they had more time to practice.
Multiple regression
A statistical technique that can help rule out some third variables. This helps us know whether one variable or another is a true explanation for the association. When researchers use multiple regression, they are studying three or more variables. The first step is to chose the variable that they are most interested in understanding or predicting. Help establish internal validity by statistically controlling for some potential third variable
Double-blind study
A study in which neither the participants nor the researchers who evaluate them know who is in the treatment group and in the comparison group.
Double-blind placebo control study
A study in which neither the people treating the patients nor the patients themselves know whether they are in the real group or in the placebo.
Experiment
A study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is measured
Experiment
A study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is measured.
Selection-history threat
A threat that occurs when an outside event or factor systematically affects people in the study - but only those at one level of the independent variable.
Selection-attrition threat
A threat that occurs when only one of the experimental group experiences attrition
design confound
A threat to internal validity in an experiment in which a second variable happens to vary systematically along with the independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results.
selection effect
A threat to internal validity that occurs in an independent-groups design when the kinds of participants at one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those at the other level.
History threat
A threat to internal validity which results from a "historical" or external event that affects most, or all, members of the treatment group at the same time, thus making it unclear whether the change in the experimental group is caused by the treatment or historical factor.
9. Testing
A type of order effect: An experimental group changes over time because repeated testing has affected the participants. Subtypes include fatigue effects and practice effects. Example: A classroom 's math scores improve only because the students take the same version of the test both times and therefore are more practiced at posttest. ?: Did the researchers have a comparison group take the same two tests? Did they use a posttest-only design, or did they use alternative forms of the measure for the pretest and posttest?
Manipulated Variable
A variable in an experiment that a researcher controls, such as by assigning participants to its different levels (values).
Measured Variable
A variable in an experiment whose levels (values) are observed and recorded.
predictor variable (independent variables)
A variable in multiple-regression analysis that is used to explain variance in the criterion variable. A variable that is manipulated in an experiment. ex: the amount of recess time each classroom had and the proportion of the students eligible for free lunch.
Mediating Variable
A variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables
Mediator
A variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables
Independent Variable
A variable that is manipulated in an experiment. In a multiple-regression analysis, a predictor variable used to explain variance in the criterion variable.
independent variable
A variable that is manipulated in an experiment. In a multiple-regression analysis, a predictor variable used to explain variance in the criterion variable.
Moderator
A variable whose level changes the relationship between two variables
Repeated - measures design
A within groups design in which participants are measured on a dependent variable more than once - that is, after exposure to each level of the independent variable. EX: participant --> interact with own toddler --> measure oxytocin levels --> interact with new toddler ---> measure oxytocin level.
Power is defined as the probability of A) Rejecting Ho when it is supposed to be rejected B) Rejecting Ho when it is not supposed to be rejected C) Retaining Ho when it is supposed to be rejected D) Retaining Ho when it is not supposed to be rejected
A) Rejecting Ho when it is supposed to be rejected
When we speak about error variance in the independent groups analysis of variance we are speaking of: A) differences among subjects in the same group B) differences between subjects in different groups C) the overall variability of scores in the experiment D) an error in coding the data
A) differences among subjects in the same group
In a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design, how many independent variable are there? a. 2 b. 4 c. 6 d. 8 e. 10
A. 2
Which of the following is (are) true?
All of the above: The t-test is used when comparing the means of two groups. The F-test can be used when there are three or more groups. Both the t-test and the F-test examine the ratio of systematic differences (variance) in the means to error or random variance.
repeated-measures design
An experiment using a within-groups design in which participants respond to a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent variable.
Posttest-only Design
An experiment using an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the dependent variable only once. AKA: equivalent groups, posttest-only design
Pretest/Posttest Design
An experiment using an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the key dependent variable twice: once before and once after exposure to the independent variable.
pretest/posttest design
An experiment using an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the key dependent variable twice: once before and once after exposure to the independent variable.
independent-groups design
An experimental design in which different groups of participants are assigned to different levels of the independent variable, such that each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable.
Matched groups
An experimental design technique in which participants who are similar on some measured variable are grouped into sets; the members of each matched set are then randomly assigned to different experimental conditions. This method is particularly useful if the experiment's design has outliers (exceptionally clever or inept participants) and if the sample groups are small in size. This method also ensures that the groups are equal on some important variable, such as IQ, before the manipulation of the independent variable.
Matched Groups
An experimental design technique in which participants who are similar on some measured variable are grouped into sets; the members of each matched set are then randomly assigned to different experimental conditions. AKA: matching
matched groups
An experimental design technique in which participants who are similar on some measured variable are grouped into sets; the numbers of each matched set are then randomly assigned to different experimental conditions.
8. Instrumentation
An experimental group changes over time, but only because repeated measurements have changed the quality of the measurement instrument. Examples: Coders get more lenient over time, so the same exact behavior is coded as less rambunctious at post-test than at pretest. ?:Did the researchers train coders to use the same standards when coding? Are pretest and posttest measures demonstrably equivalent?
6. Attrition
An experimental group changes over time, but only because the most extreme cases have systematically dropped out and their scores are not included in the post test. Examples: Because the most rambunctious boy in the cabin leaves camp early, his disruptive behavior affects the pretest mean but not the post test mean. ?: Did the researchers compute the pretest and post test scores with only the final sample included, removing any dropouts data from the pretest group average?
4. Maturation
An experimental group improves over time only because of natural development or spontaneous improvement. Example: Rambunctious boys settle down as they get used to the camp setting. ?: Did the researchers use a comparison group of boys who had an equal amount of time to mature but who did not receive the treatment?
7. Regression to the mean
An experimental group whose average is extremely low (or high) at pretest will get better (or worse) over time, because the random events that caused the extreme pretest scores do not recur the same way at post test. Examples: A group's average is extremely depressed at pre-test, in part because some of the people volunteered for therapy when they were feeling much more depressed than usual. ?:Did the researchers include a comparison group that was equally extreme at pretest but did not receive the therapy?
10. Observer bias
An experimental group's ratings differ from a comparison group's, but only because the researcher expects the groups ratings to differ. Example: The researcher expects a low-sugar diet to decrease the campers unruly behavior, so he notices only their calm behavior and ignores the wild behavior. ?:Were the observers of the dependent variable unaware of which condition participants were in? (A comparison group does not automatically get rid of the problem of observer bias.)
design confound
An experimenter's mistake in designing the independent variable; it is a second variable that happens to vary systematically along with the intended independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results. Can be a threat to internal validity
Outlier
An extreme score -- a single case (or sometimes a few) that stands out far away from the pack
Dr. Ramon makes the following claim: "Watching television leads people to spend less time communicating with their spouses, study says." Dr. LaSalle makes the claim: "Research shows that making more money correlates with spending less time talking with your spouse." Refer to Research Study 3.2 to answer the following three questions. Which type of claim is Dr. LaSalle making?
Association claim
3. According to the text, when researchers conduct longitudinal research, the type of correlation they are most interested in is which of the following? TRUE or FALSE Autocorrelation Cross-sectional correlation Cross-lag correlation Multivariate correlation Sequential correlation
Autocorrelation Cross-sectional correlation Cross-lag correlation <-- most important
Dr. Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 x 4 within-subjects factorial design. Which of the following things will change? a. The number of main effects that need to be examined b. The number of interactions that need to be examined c. The number of participants needed d. The number of cells e. All of the above will change
B
RESEARCH STUDY 11.1 Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they are also thinking about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. Type of Activity Cutting out Pictures Drawing Pictures Focus of the activity Dogs and cats 15 9 Dogs only 7 6 8. Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. Which of the following best describes Dr. Elder's study? a. A 2 x 3 crossed factorial design b. A 4 x 2 nested factorial design c. A 2 x 1 mixed factorial design d. A 2 x 2 within-groups factorial design e. None of the above
B
Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. Imagine that in Dr. Schulenberg's study, he notes that all of the students do extremely well on the midterm exam. When he looks at the results of the final exam, he notices that all the students' exam scores went down. Which of the following pattern of results would suggest that there is a threat to internal validity? a. The final exam scores were lower in the preparation group than the meaning group. b. The final exam scores were equally low in both groups. c. The final exam scores were lower than those of students in his fall semester class. d. The final exam scores were lower than the final exam scores of students of his colleague, Dr. Fao. e. None of the above would suggest a threat to internal validity.
B
Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. Which of the following reasons is the most likely reason Dr. Elder conducted a factorial design? a. To determine whether a mediator was present in participants' ability to categorize b. To test whether there is a difference between creating and searching for category members c. To test whether there is a difference between thinking about a category and thinking about a category and its opposite d. To test whether task type interacts with the effect of activity focus e. All of the above are likely reasons
B
Refer to Research Study 9.2 above to answer the following question. Given that there are three conditions/levels of the independent variable, how many orders of the conditions are possible in Dr. Acitelli's study? a. Three b. Six c. Nine d. Twelve e. Twenty-seven
B
Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality? a. Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people b. Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered c. Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words d. Both a and b e. Both b and c
B
Which of the following is NOT a method researchers used to identify or correct for attrition? a. Drop the original/pretest scores of participants who left the study b. Not allow participants to leave a study once it has started c. Determine whether those who dropped out of the study had a different pattern of scores than those who stayed in the study d. Neither a nor b is used e. Neither a nor c is used
B
Which of the following is NOT necessary for a study to be a crossed factorial design? a. There are at least two independent variables. b. The study examines every possible combination of independent variables. c. The data result in a crossover interaction. d. All of the above are necessary. e. None of the above are necessary.
B
Which of the following research designs is used to address possible selection effects? a. Posttest-only designs b. Matched-groups designs c. Pretest/posttest designs d. All of the above address selection effects e. None of the above address selection effects
B
Which of the following studies would NOT have a possible threat of observer bias? a. A study looking at the relationship between the frequency of eating fruits and vegetables and general physical fitness b. A study looking at the relationship between college GPA and SAT scores c. A study looking at the number of hours spent listening to music and singing ability d. A study looking at the rate of text messaging in a day and writing/English composition skill e. All of the above studies run the risk of observer bias
B
A randomized 3 groups design is analyzed by using a: A) One sample t-test B) 1-way ANOVA C) Independent group t-test D) Three t-tests
B) 1-way ANOVA
For an independent groups ANOVA, comparing three treatment means with a sample of 9 in each treatment, the F-ratio would have degrees of freedom equal to A) 27 B) 2, 24 C) 2, 27 D) 3, 24
B) 2, 24
Which of the following is LEAST important in determining the size of an f ratio? A) Sum of squares between groups B) Total sums of squares C) Mean square within D) Mean square between
B) Total sums of squares
Reducing error variance decreases the probability of: A) a Type I error B) a Type II error C) rejecting the null hypothesis D) none of these
B) a Type II error
We want to study the mean difference in autonomy between first-born and second-born children. Instead of taking a random sample of children we take a random sample of families and sort the children into 1st and 2nd born. The dependent variable is a measure of autonomy. This experiment would most likely employ A) a one-sample t-test. B) an independent measures ANOVA. C) a dependent t-test. D) an independent t-test
B) an independent measures ANOVA.
Which of the following types of content does not belong in the introduction of an APA style lab report? A) statement of purpose B) descriptive statistical results C) hypothesis D) brief overview of study's procedures E) both B abd D
B) descriptive statistical results
Which of the following is the correct order of information in the results section of a report? A) inferential statistics, descriptive statistics, decision concerning the null hypothesis B) descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, decision concerning the null hypothesis C) decision concerning the null hypothesis, inferential statistics, descriptive statistics D) descriptive statistics, decision concerning the null hypothesis, inferential statistics
B) descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, decision concerning the null hypothesis
The sampling distribution of F-ratios is A) symmetrical with a mean of 0 B) positively skewed with all values greater than or equal to 0 C) negatively skewed with all values less than or equal to 0 D) symmetrical with a mode equal to 1
B) positively skewed with all values greater than or equal to 0
In the Independent Groups ANOVA, the Mean Square within is A) the variability among the treatment means B) the average variability among the scores within each group C) the numerator of the F-ratio D) an indication of the influence of the independent variable
B) the average variability among the scores within each group
To increase power, the easiest variable to control in designing an experiment is usually: A) the difference between the population means B) the sample size C) the sample standard deviation D) the shape of the distribution
B) the sample size
In the preceding question on autonomy in children, we would be most likely to use that design, rather than random sampling of children, because A) we want to control for differences in means. B) we want to control for differences in parenting style. C)we expect scores of children in the same family to be unrelated. D)we want to control for differences in age between first and second born children
B) we want to control for differences in parenting style.
Based on her pattern of correlations, which of the following can Dr. Farah safely conclude?
Because Correlation 3 is significant but Correlation 4 is not, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.
Which of the following should Dr. Lonsbary NOT conclude from her study?
Being in an angry mood likely has the same effect on memory as being in a sad mood.
2. Refer to Research Study 9.1 above to answer the following question. Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? a. Number of groups participants were assigned to b. Feeling happy c. Participant's mood d. Type of card drawn e. None of the above
C
Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a: a. Pretest/posttest study b. Concurrent measure study c. Pilot study d. Pretest-only study e. None of the above
C
RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. 16. Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. The study described above is an example of which of the following? a. A one-group, pretest/posttest design b. A null effect c. A double-blind study d. Observer bias e. None of the above
C
RESEARCH STUDY 9.2 Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep regularly. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. 32. Refer to Research Study 9.2 above to answer the following question. Which of the following designs is Dr. Acitelli using? a. Pretest/posttest design b. Concurrent-measures design c. Repeated-measures design d. Posttest-only design e. None of the above
C
Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. Dr. Schulenberg likely designed his study so that neither he nor his students knew which group they were in to address which of the following? a. Placebo effects b. Attrition c. Demand characteristics d. Maturation e. All of the above
C
Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. To determine if there is a main effect for type of activity, Dr. Elder must examine how many marginal means? a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. 5 e. It varies
C
Refer to Research Study 11.2 above to answer the following question. Based on the graphs above, why should Dr. Elder conclude that there is a three-way interaction? a. There is a two-way interaction for 10-year-olds but not for 20-year-olds. b. There is a two-way interaction for 20-year-olds but not for 10-year-olds. c. There is a two-way interaction for 10-year-olds that is different from the two-way interaction for 20-year-olds. d. There is no two-way interaction for either 10-year-olds or 20-year-olds. e. Three-way interactions cannot be determined from the examination of just two graphs.
C
Refer to Research Study 9.2 above to answer the following question. Dr. Acitelli was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease which of the following? a. Order effects b. Selection effects c. Demand characteristics d. Counterbalancing effects e. None of the above
C
Which of the following provides information about the statistical validity of Dr. Lonsbary's study? a. The sources of Dr. Lonsbary's participants b. The method of random assignment c. The d coefficient d. The number of people in each group e. The mood reported by the participants
C
Which of the following study types can result in a null effect? a. Pretest/posttest designs b. Correlational designs c. Within-groups designs d. Posttest-only designs e. All of the above
C
Which of the following things can be done to reduce the effect of individual differences? a. Using a matched-groups design b. Using a within-groups design c. Collecting measurements from more people d. All of the above can be done to reduce the effect of individual differences e. Nothing can be done to reduce the effect of individual differences
C
Knowledgeable and unbiased observers have generally noted, and studies have reliably shown, that psychotherapy is better than no treatment at all for a person who is seriously depressed. My study on the effectiveness of therapy failed to find a difference. Which of the following is the best conclusion I could make? A) Psychotherapy really is not effective B) My sample size was too large C) My study may have lacked sufficient power to find a difference D) Other psychologists don't know what they are talking about
C) My study may have lacked sufficient power to find a difference
A Type 2 error is defined as A) Rejecting Ho when it is supposed to be rejected B) Rejecting Ho when it is not supposed to be rejected C) Retaining Ho when it is supposed to be rejected D) Retaining Ho when it is not supposed to be rejected
C) Retaining Ho when it is supposed to be rejected
When we reject the null hypothesis in the analysis of variance we can conclude that: A) all of the means are the same B) all of the means are different from each other C) at least one of the means is different from at least one other mean D) only one mean is different from one other mean
C) at least one of the means is different from at least one other mean
Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or with photographs. A group of 45 first-graders are shown two copies of a book (Little Red Riding Hood) at the same time. Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs?
Concurrent-measures design
Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Her decision to include this step was done to address the study's:
Construct Validity
Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Her decision to include this step was done to address the study's
Construct validity
construct validity
Construct validity is "the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring
Control for Income
Control for something: to rule it out statistically After you take the relationship of income on behavior problems, will there still be a relationship between time allowed for recess and behavior problems?
For Dr. Farah to make the claim that homework causes academic achievement, which correlation does she predict will NOT be significant?
Correlation 4
Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. Imagine that Dr. Farah noted a cyclical, reinforcing relationship between homework and academic achievement. For this to be case, which of the following correlations would need to be significant?
Correlations 3 and 4
Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. Imagine that Dr. Farah noted a cyclical, reinforcing relationship between homework and academic achievement. For this to be case, which of the following correlations would need to be significant?
Correlations 3 and 4
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned that he could have a problem with order effect in his study. How can Eric fix this problem?
Counterbalancing
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned that he could have a problem with order effect in his study. How can Eric fix this problem?
Counterbalancing -Eric could avoid an order effect by having participants consume and rate the drinks in varying orders
When using multiple regression, what is the term for the variable that the researcher is most interested in explaining or predicting?
Criterion
When using multiple regression, what is the term for the variable that the researcher is most interested in understanding or predicting?
Criterion (Multiple regression is used to study three or more variables and the variable chosen as one that researchers want to understand is called the criterion variable.)
Professor Horvat studies the relationships between job and home satisfaction. She designs a study to test the same group of workers on various factors of work satisfaction and home satisfaction. She administers the test two times, one year apart. She finds that at both testings, there is a strong correlation between job satisfaction and home satisfaction. what type of correlations are these?
Cross-Sectional Correlations
Professor Hu is examining the relation between memory and time spent sleeping in different age groups. He administers a memory test and a sleep time questionnaire to two groups of participants: one which is made up of 50-year-olds and the other made up of 65-year-olds. He finds the correlations between memory performance and sleep time for each group. What type of correlations are these?
Cross-sectional
Dr. Joseph thinks that most people are generally trusting of strangers. He did a study at his university in the United States to test this idea, and the results confirmed his hypothesis. Dr. Joseph is discussing the results of this study with a friend who is a psychology researcher in China, Dr. Ming. Dr. Ming thinks that people in Eastern cultures, such as China, are less trusting of strangers in Western cultures, such as the United States. Dr. Joseph and Dr. Ming decide to run a second study where they have a group of participants in China and a group of participants in the United States both complete the task used in Dr. Joseph's study. This second study is an example of ________.
Cultural psychology
Dr. Deveraux has conducted a study that has resulted in a null effect. Nonetheless, she suspects that there truly is a causal relationship between her independent and dependent variables. Which of the following might be to blame? a. A weak manipulation b. An insensitive measure c. A reverse confound d. None of the above are reasons e. All of the above are reasons
D
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. Assuming he wants 25 people in each cell, how many participants does Dr. Gavin need to recruit? a. 100 b. 125 c. 150 d. 200 e. 250
D
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many independent variables are in his study? a. 2 b. 4 c. 6 d. 8 e. 10
D
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many interactions will Dr. Gavin need to examine? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 6
D
Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. Which of the following aspects of Dr. Schulenberg's study allows him to prevent observer bias? a. Keeping his students unaware of which type of essay they are writing b. Having his teaching assistant assign students randomly to the two groups c. Grading the exams himself (a Ph.D.) instead of having his teaching assistant (a college senior) do it d. Having the person grading the exams unaware of each student's writing group e. Using the grades from the midterm exam rather than the final exam
D
Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. In Dr. Elder's study, how many possible main effects exist? a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3 e. 4
D
Regression is especially problematic in which of the following situations? a. When one group has an extremely low score at pretest b. When one group has an extremely high score at pretest c. When the experimental and comparison groups are equal at pretest d. Both a and b e. All of the situations above run the risk of regression threats to internal validity
D
The addition of a comparison group can address all of the following threats to internal validity EXCEPT: a. History b. Maturation c. Regression d. Attrition e. A comparison group can address all of these threats to internal validity
D
Unsystematic variability in a study is also known as: a. Error variance b. Noise c. Group inconsistency d. Both a and b e. All of the above
D
What are the two main reasons to conduct a factorial study? a. To increase internal validity and to establish external validity b. To compare participant variables and to establish covariance c. To find moderators and to find mediators d. To examine main effects and to decrease order effects e. To test limits and to test theories
D
Which of the following is NOT a disadvantage of within-groups designs? a. There is a potential for order effects. b. There is a potential for demand characteristics. c. Depending on the independent variable, these designs are not always possible. d. All of the above are disadvantages of within-groups designs. e. None of the above are disadvantages of within-groups designs.
D
Which of the following is a control variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? a. The number of words on the word list b. The amount of time allowed for remembering/writing the words c. The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words d. All of the above e. None of the above
D
Which of the following things CANNOT be done to reduce measurement error? a. Using more precise measurements b. Using more reliable measurements c. Using a pretest/posttest design d. Collecting measurements from more people e. All of the above can be done to reduce measurement error
D
An important reason for using random assignment in a study with independent groups is to: A) prevent any systematic differences between groups on extraneous variables B) be able to generalize to broader populations C) rule out competing interpretations of any differences we find D) (a) and (c) but not (b)
D) (a) and (c) but not (b)
If we test the mean amount that alcoholic subjects drink before and after therapy, and that difference is not significant, this could mean A) the therapy was not effective. B) the sample size was too large. C) the study lacked sufficient power. D) a) and c)
D) a) and c)
We are evaluating a method of therapy for extremely underweight adolescents. If we weighed our subjects at the beginning and end of therapy, a difference in weight could mean A) that our therapy worked. B) that people gain weight over time regardless of what we do. C) there was a confounding variable. D) all of the above.
D) all of the above.
When we are worrying about power we are most concerned with: A) a Type I error B) a Type II error C) failing to reject the null hypothesis D) both B and C
D) both B and C
Which of the following statistical results contains an error? A) t(19) = 3.20, p<.05 B) f(2,27) = 1.92, p > .05 C) z = 2.9, p < .05 D) f(0, 27) = 2.85, p <.05
D) f(0, 27) = 2.85, p <.05
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
Distance out of alignment of the rods -Tetiana is measuring how far out of alignment the rods are, making that the dependent variable.
1. Which of the following studies is an example of a longitudinal design? TRUE or FALSE Dr. jonason's study in which he measured job satisfaction in a group of Chinese factory workers and a group of American factory workers Dr. Stabler's study in which he measured teenagers' experiences with bullying in sixth grade and their aggressive tendencies in 12th grade Dr. Benson's study in which she measured people's spatial manipulation ability in August and measured their ability again in May after they had taken two semesters of art classes
Dr. Benson's study in which she measured people's spatial manipulation ability in August and measured their ability again in May after they had taken two semesters of art classes
(The first paragraph is repeated from earlier. The second paragraph is specific to the new set of questions. The first paragraph is necessary to set up the original study.) Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think more differently about the category of "southern" if they are also thinking about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Elder also is curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, he recruits a group of 10-year-olds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. The results are below. 17. Refer to Research Study 11.2 above to answer the following question. Which of the following is the correct factorial notation for Dr. Elder's new study? a. 1 x 2 x 4 b. 2 x 2 x 2 c. 2 x 2 d. 2 x 4 e. None of the above
E
. Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is true for Dr. Kline's study? a. He is lacking a control group. b. He did not manipulate an independent variable. c. He cannot make a causal statement. d. He is unable to determine covariance. e. All of the above are true of his study.
E
A "difference in the difference between the differences" would indicate which of the following? a. An overall effect b. A main effect c. A two-way interaction d. A within-groups factorial design e. None of the above
E
Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. One group (A) listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song entitled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). One group (B) listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song entitled "Alone Again"). One group (C) listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for 5 minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, she would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. If the participant drew a 1, 2, or 3, he or she was assigned to Group A. If the participant drew a 4, 5, or 6, he or she was assigned to Group B. If a participant drew a 7, 8, or 9, he or she was assigned to Group C. The participants were then given a CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. There were no identifying marks on the CD indicating what was contained on the disc. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to put the CD in the computer, put on the headphones, and listen to the CD while trying to memorize the list of words. When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. In addition, all participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Which of the following is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? a. Number of words on the list b. Number of groups participants were assigned to c. Time given to remember the words d. Time given to memorize the words e. Number of words remembered
E
RESEARCH STUDY 10.2 Dr. Bloedorn is a health psychologist who researches nutrition. She is curious as to whether a new drink additive will help people consume fewer calories during a meal. The drink additive is a white, odorless, tasteless powder that a person can add to any drink. She collects a random sample of 63 overweight students on campus and measures the calories they eat during lunch, using a bomb calorimeter. She then gives this additive to the same 63 participants to use at dinner and measures how many calories they eat (again, using the bomb calorimeter). 21. Refer to Research Study 10.2 above to answer the following question. Which of the following threats to internal validity will Dr. Bloedorn NOT be worried about? a. History b. Attrition c. Instrumentation d. Placebo effects e. She should be worried about all of the above
E
Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. In examining the difference between the differences, which of the following values would Dr Elder NOT find? a. 1 b. 3 c. 6 d. 8 e. 9
E
When conducting an experiment, what is provided by the independent variable? a. A comparison group b. Evidence of covariance c. Proof of temporal precedence d. Confirmation of internal validity e. Both a and b
E
Which of the following is NOT a reason that a study must yield a null result? a. A lack of between-group variance b. Too much within-group variance c. A "true" null result d. All of the above are reasons e. None of the above are reasons
E
Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs? a. Selection effects b. Design confounds c. Counterbalancing d. Demand characteristics e. Practice effects
E
Which of the following is true of instrumentation threats? a. They are the same as testing threats. b. They occur only when using mechanical instruments (e.g., blood pressure cuffs, scales). c. They can be avoided with one-group, pretest/posttest designs. d. They are only problematic in observational research. e. None of the above are true.
E
Which of the following is true of testing effects? a. It is an example of an order effect. b. It can lead to increased/higher scores. c. It can lead to decreased/lower scores. d. It can sensitize people to being tested. e. All of the above are true of testing effects.
E
In ANOVA, if the null hypothesis is false, we would expect the obtained F ratio A) to be smaller than the critical F B) to not fall in the region of rejection C) to have a value higher that 1 D) to occur by chance less than p = .05 E) both C and D are true
E) both C and D are true
In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Which of the following aspects of Dr. Schulenberg's study allows him to prevent observer bias?
Ensuring the person grading the exams is unaware of each students writing group
Why are experiments useful?
Experiments establish covariance. Experiments establish temporal precedence. The ability to establish temporal precedence is a feature that makes experiments superior to correlational designs. Well-designed experiments establish internal validity. To be internally valid, a study must ensure that the causal variable and not other factors, is responsible for the change in the effect variable.
A recent headline read, "School Lunches Make Kids Fat." The article cited a study comparing children at two schools. The school with the lower obesity rate had few children who ate school lunches (lunch provided by the school). The other school had a greater percentage of obese children and most of these children ate school lunches. No mention was made that many of the children who eat school lunches are low-income children who receive free lunches. Poverty is a major factor in obesity. Which validity is threatened by the potential confound, poverty?
FEEDBACK: Interrogating Causal Claims — Confounds, or third variables, are an example of an internal validity problem — an alternative explanation for the finding. NOT External validity
• Covariance
From the study's results, we already know deep conversations are associated positively with well-being. As the percentage of deep conversation goes up, well-being goes up, thus showing covariance of the proposed cause and the proposed effect.
There is a strong positive association between years of education and income. The mean income for American adults in 2005 was $32,000 and the average number of years of education was 12. Mr. Lopez has 16 years of education. What would you predict about his income?
HIs income is probably higher than $32,000
Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality?
Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered
Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is NOT true of Dr. Kline's study?
He does not have a dependent variable
Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is NOT true of Dr. Kline's study?
He does not have a dependent variable.
precision
In an experiment on improving children's handwriting, two different techniques of improving handwriting and a control condition are used. Using a pretest/posttest design, both groups who received the treatment showed more improvement than the control group. However, the two groups didn't show any difference from each other. The researcher believes that there is a difference, but that the 5-point assessment scale of handwriting cannot detect it. What measurement problem is the researcher concerned with?
Counterbalancing
In an experiment, presenting the levels of the independent variable to participants in different sequences to control for order effects.
Systematic variability
In an experiment, the levels of a variable coinciding in some predictable way with experimental group membership, creating a potential confound
Systematic Variability
In an experiment, the levels of a variable coinciding in some predictable way with experimental group membership, creating a potential confound.
systemic variability
In an experiment, the levels of a variable coinciding in some predictable way with experimental group membership, creating a potential confound.
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the variable that is measured. In a multiple-regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable, the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting. AKA: outcome variable
Unsystematic variability
In an experiment, when levels of a variable fluctuate independently of experimental group membership, contributing to variability within groups. (random or haphazard variability across both groups) Unsystematic variability can lead to problems; it can obscure, or make it difficult to detect differences in the dependent variable.
...
Is there covariance? Yes. Many studies have shown that the correlation between watching violent TV shows and acting aggressively is moderately strong, around r = .35 (e.g., Paik & Comstock, 1994). These two variables are clearly related. ■ Is there temporal precedence? A typical correlational study cannot establish temporal precedence. In some early studies on TV viewing and aggressive behavior, researchers measured aggressive behavior at the same time as TV preferences. Such a study does not show which one comes first. It is pos-sible that watching violent TV shows comes first and causes people to be more aggressive. It is also possible, however, that a person's aggressiveness comes first and affects his or her TV viewing habits. (In other words, aggressive people choose to watch more violent TV shows, and less aggressive people choose to watch less violent ones.) ■ Is there internal validity? The association between TV violence and aggressive behavior might potentially be explained by a third variable, such as a personality trait. Perhaps people who seek extreme emotional situations (known as sensation seekers) are more likely to both act aggressively and prefer violent TV shows. In this explanation, sensation seeking comes first and causes both aggressive behavior and a preference for violent shows. Or perhaps the third variable is gender: Men are both more likely to watch violent shows and more likely to act aggressively than women.
demand characteristics
Job-rating experiment
Dr. Sparrow is a social psychologist who studies romantic relationships. Several researchers have found that there is a link between income and marital satisfaction (e.g., Dakin & Wampler, 2008). Dr. Sparrow is curious as to whether there is a causal link between the two variables, such that having a higher income causes higher levels of marital satisfaction. He is confident that he cannot reasonably or ethically manipulate people's income level, so he decides to use a multivariate design. He is also curious as to whether there is a causal link between these two variables or if two other variables (number of arguments and life satisfaction) can explain the relationship. He measures his three variables in a sample of 124 married couples recruited from a local community center. Below are his results. Which of the following is NOT a *predictor variable* in Dr. Sparrow's study?
Marital Satisfaction
Dr. Sparrow is a social psychologist who studies romantic relationships. Several researchers have found that there is a link between income and marital satisfaction (e.g., Dakin & Wampler, 2008). Dr. Sparrow is curious as to whether there is a causal link between the two variables, such that having a higher income causes higher levels of marital satisfaction. He is confident that he cannot reasonably or ethically manipulate people's income level, so he decides to use a multivariate design. He is also curious as to whether there is a causal link between these two variables or if two other variables (number of arguments and life satisfaction) can explain the relationship. He measures his three variables in a sample of 124 married couples recruited from a local community center. Below are his results. Which of the following is NOT a predictor variable in Dr. Sparrow's study?
Marital Satisfaction
If a researcher is asking why the relationship between two variables exists, she is curious about which of the following?
Mediation
Is this an example of a mediator or moderator? researcher finds that the relationship between media exposure and self-esteem is stronger for females than for males
Mediator
What kind of third variable explains the relationship between two other variables?
Mediator
What is a mediator variable?
Mediator is a mechanism for a relationship between two variables. Why are these two variables correlated? Keyword: "because" of this mediator variable. Mediators - third variables that are potentially the "mechanism" or the driving effect that explains A and C No different than any third variable, but the researcher can make a story out of it
Mediators vs 3rd Variables
Mediators are similar to third-variable explanations, in that both of them involve multivariate research designs, and researchers can use the same statistical tool (multiple regression) to detect them both. However, they function differently with respect to some bivariate correlations In third-variable explanation, the proposed third variable is external to the two variables in the original bivariate correlation; it might even be seen as a problematic lurking variable that potentially distracts from the relationship of interest. A mediator variable is internal to the causal variable and often of direct interest to the researchers, rather than a nuisance.
Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality?
Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people
instrumentation
On the first midterm exam in an introductory psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cellphones from her class between the first midterm and the second midterm. When she compares the scores on the two exams for the people who had been using computers and cellphones, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. Professor Mutola looks back over the second exam and begins to wonder if it was just an easier exam. What threat to internal validity is she considering?
attrition
On the first midterm exam in an introductory psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cellphones from her class between the first midterm and the second midterm. When she compares the scores on the two exams for the people who had been using computers and cellphones, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. She then compares scores for the other students in the class and finds less of an improvement. Which of these threats should she still consider?
one-group, pretest/posttest
On the first midterm exam in an introductory psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cellphones from her class between the first midterm and the second midterm. When she compares the scores on the two exams for the people who had been using computers and cellphones, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. What is the formal name for this type of design?
Dr. Uchida is a clinical psychologist who is curious about how people deal with natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, tornados, earthquakes). His previous research suggests that there is a relationship between how much people feel their emotional well-being was affected by the natural disaster and their likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, he is curious as to whether the effect of emotional well-being goes through another variable, that of social support. He conducts a study in which he asks 174 men and women affected by the 2011 tsunami in Japan to report on how their well-being was affected by the tsunami, the social support felt after the storm, and the number of PTSD symptoms. Dr. Uchida finds support for his proposed relationship. However, in examining his data more closely, he finds that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women. Dr. Uchida's finding that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women suggests which of the following?
Participant sex is a moderating variable
RESEARCH STUDY 9.3 Dr. Uchida is a clinical psychologist who is curious about how people deal with natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, tornados, earthquakes). His previous research suggests that there is a relationship between how much people feel their emotional well-being was affected by the natural disaster and their likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, he is curious as to whether the effect of emotional well-being goes through another variable, that of social support. He conducts a study in which he asks 174 men and women affected by the 2011 tsunami in Japan to report on how their well-being was affected by the tsunami, the social support felt after the storm, and the number of PTSD symptoms. Dr. Uchida finds support for his proposed relationship. However, in examining his data more closely, he finds that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women. Refer to Research Study 9.3 to answer the following two questions. Dr. Uchida's finding that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women suggests which of the following?
Participant sex is a moderating variable.
Concurrent - measures design
Participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable. EX: babies shown male and female faces at the same time. The babies chose to look at the female face more often than not.
pretest/pottest design
Participants are randomly assigned to at least two groups and are tested on the key dependent variable twice - once before and once after exposure to the independent variable. Researchers might do this if they want to evaluate whether random assignment made the groups equal This design also works well to track how participants in the experimental groups have changed over time in response to some manipulation.
11. Experimental demand
Participants guess what the study's purpose is and change their behavior in the expected direction. Example: Campers guess that the low-sugar diet is supposed to make them calmer, so they change their behavior accordingly. ?: Were the participants kept unaware of the purpose of the study? Was it an independent-groups design, which makes participants less able to guess the study 's purpose?
Dr. Kline is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kline is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then he will wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kline plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Refer to Research Study 4.1 to answer the following thirteen questions. Dr. Kline plans to use deception in his study and is thinking about a debriefing session. Which of the following is true of the debriefing?
Participants must be told the reasons for the deception.
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. They found â = -0.39 for foreign language anxiety. What does this mean?
People with lower levels of anxiety about learning a foreign language have higher levels of achievement in foreign language.
In a *multiple regression design*, ________ is to independent variable as ________ is to dependent variable.
Predictor variable, criterion variable
In a multiple regression design, ________ is to independent variable as ________ is to dependent variable.
Predictor variable, criterion variable
Martins et al. (2010) studied factors relating to the retrieval of names of famous people based on pictures. Famous faces tests are used in studies of memory. They were interested in understanding the factors that influence successful recall. Five groups of stimuli were formed based on reason for celebrity and time of peak fame. Multiple regressions for age, gender, and education were performed for each of the groups. Which of the following is not a predictor variable?
Recall of names
In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Imagine that in Dr. Schulenberg's study, he notes that all of the students do extremely well on the midterm exam. When he looks at the results of the final exam, he notices that all the students' exam scores went down. Given this information, which of the following threats might be present in his study?
Regression
What are three main disadvantages on within-groups?
Repeated-measures designs have the potential for order effects, which can threaten internal validity. Within-Groups design might not be possible or practical. People can see all levels of the independent variable and then change the way they would normally act.
cross-lag correlations
Show whether the earlier measure of one variable is associated with the later measure of the other variable. The two cross-lag correlations thus address the directionality problem and help establish temporal precedence. EX: aggression in third grade, is this associated with tv violence in 13th grade? And vice versa, is tv violence in 3rd grade associated with aggression in 13th grade?
carryover effects
Some form of contamination carries over from one condition to the next.
Which of the following is true of operational definitions?
Some psychological concepts are more difficult to operationally define than others.
Insensitive measures
Sometimes a study finds a null result because the researchers have not used an operationalization of the dependent variable with enough sensitivity.
2. Order effects
Sometimes, being exposed to one condition changes how participants react to the other condition. this happens when exposure to one level of the independent variable influences responses to the next level of the independent variable. Example: From Chapter 10 : All participants in a bonding study play with their own toddler, followed by a different toddler. ?: Did the researchers counterbalance the orders of presentation?
7. A researcher has examined a variety of correlational studies that point to a causal relationship between two variables. All of the studies have found a positive relationship between the two variables, but for ethical reasons, no experiments have been conducted. Using an approach of pattern and parsimony, the researcher may begin to make a causal claim by doing which of the following? TRUE or FALSE Running another correctional study but with more people Specifying a mechanism or explanation for the causal relationship Examining the dates of the studies to look for temporal precedence Replicating all of the original studies
Specifying a mechanism or explanation for the causal relationship (using the patterns to give a parsimonious explanation)
Jenny reads the headline, "Tea Party Supporters Have Slipped To 20 Percent." She asks, "What is the margin of error of the estimate?" What validity is she interrogating?
Statistical validity
add more participants
The Ranschburg effect in short-term memory involves repeated items: if they are close together in a list, recall is facilitated; if they are far apart, recall is impaired. Francis designs an experiment on this effect using three conditions for a 12 animal names list: no repetition, repetition of the third animal as the fifth item, and repetition of the second animal as the tenth item. Each item is viewed for one-second, then participants recall them in order. Ten participants are tested in each condition. The study showed null effects, and large variability within the groups. What is a likely solution?
attrition
The Ranschburg effect in short-term memory involves repeated items: if they are close together in a list, recall is facilitated; if they are far apart, recall is impaired. Francis designs an experiment on this effect using three conditions for a 12 animal names list: no repetition, repetition of the third animal as the fifth item, and repetition of the second animal as the tenth item. Each item is viewed for one-second, then participants recall them in order. Ten participants are tested in each condition. The study showed null effects. Which is not a possible explanation?
repetition condition
The Ranschburg effect in short-term memory involves repeated items: if they are close together in a list, recall is facilitated; if they are far apart, recall is impaired. Francis designs an experiment on this effect using three conditions for a 12 animal names list: no repetition, repetition of the third animal as the fifth item, and repetition of the second animal as the tenth item. Each item is viewed for one-second, then participants recall them in order. Ten participants are tested in each condition. What is the independent variable?
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Considering Dr. Oswald's sample, which of the following statements is true?
The association found in her study could probably generalize to elderly people in other large cities in Tennessee.
Dr. Sparrow is a social psychologist who studies romantic relationships. Several researchers have found that there is a link between income and marital satisfaction (e.g., Dakin & Wampler, 2008). Dr. Sparrow is curious as to whether there is a causal link between the two variables, such that having a higher income causes higher levels of marital satisfaction. He is confident that he cannot reasonably or ethically manipulate people's income level, so he decides to use a multivariate design. He is also curious as to whether there is a causal link between these two variables or if two other variables (number of arguments and life satisfaction) can explain the relationship. He measures his three variables in a sample of 124 married couples recruited from a local community center. Below are his results. One of Dr. Sparrow's colleagues argues that he should have considered years of marriage in his study, which is a known predictor of marital satisfaction. If Dr. Sparrow conducts his study again and asks people to report on how many years they have been married as well, which of the following statements is true?
The beta value for number of arguments may no longer be statistically significant.
• Temporal precedence (because IV always comes before DV)
The causal variable must precede the effect variable; it must come first in time
Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following can be inferred from the study?
The effect of the alcohol commercial on alcohol consumption depended on whether the viewer was usually a heavy drinker or a light drinker.
Dr. Kang, a cognitive psychologist, conducts an experiment examining the effect of emotion on memory. He provides lists of 15 words to two groups of participants at his university. He puts the names of all the participants in a hat. The first 20 names he assigns to Group A, and the last 20 he assigns to Group B. Group A is given a list of words that are very emotional in content (e.g., passion, murder). Group B is given a list of words that are neutral in content (e.g., houseplant, desk). He then measures how many words each group is able to remember after being distracted for 5 minutes by watching a video about the history of the university. He finds that Group A remembers 15% more words than Group B. Refer to Research Study 3.4 to answer the following seven questions. Which of the following is the independent variable in Dr. Kang's study
The emotional or neutral word list
On a graph, how can you tell which is the I.V. and which is the D.V.?
The independent variable is almost always on the x-axis, and the dependent variable is almost always on the y-axis.
Power
The likelihood that a study will show a statistically significant result when some effect is truly present in the population; the probability of not making a Type II error when the null hypothesis is false.
The more unsystematic variability there is within each group
The more the scores in the two groups overlap with each other.
The more sources of random error there are in a dependent variable's measurement
The more variability there will be within each group in an experiment
What is the difference between independent groups and within groups designs?
The number of levels of the independent variable the participants are exposed to. In a within groups design they are exposed to all levels, in an independent groups design they are only exposed to one level.
Anton and his friends are discussing a study he read about in his developmental psychology class. In the study, the researcher made the claim that a majority of middle school students who are bullied have low self-esteem. Clarissa questions the study, saying, "I am not sure that I am convinced—I am not sure you can really measure being bullied." Quinn also questions the study, saying, "Which middle school students did they study? I am curious if they included both private and public school students." Manish also is curious about the study, asking, "I wonder how strong the relationship is between bullying and self-esteem. Could you predict one from the other?" Refer to Research Study 3.3 to answer the following five questions. Anton is concerned that the researcher made a Type I error. What does that mean?
The researcher concluded there was a relationship, but there isn't really one.
Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: "Female Engineering Majors' Effort on Math Problems Depends on Sex of Role Model." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Stout, Dasgupta, Hunsinger, and McManus, 2011.) In the study, female students were asked by either a male math major or a female math major to complete a math test. Female students tried to solve more of the math problems when asked by a female math major than they did when asked by a male math major. Which of the following is a variable in this study/headline?
The sex of the role model
How to prevent instrumentation threats
The simple way to avoid instrumentation threats is to use a posttest-only design, in which behavior is measured only once. However, if pretest/posttest design is required, researchers should ensure that the pretest and posttest measures are equivalent and are calibrated at the same time. Researchers might also retrain their coders throughout the experiment, or even counterbalance the versions of the test.
A study still might return a null result even though:
The study has a strong independent variable manipulation, a sensitive and precise dependent variable measure, careful situational controls, and a large number of participants. In this case, the independent variable truly does not affect the dependent variable
Anton and his friends are discussing a study he read about in his developmental psychology class. In the study, the researcher made the claim that a majority of middle school students who are bullied have low self-esteem. Clarissa questions the study, saying, "I am not sure that I am convinced—I am not sure you can really measure being bullied." Quinn also questions the study, saying, "Which middle school students did they study? I am curious if they included both private and public school students." Manish also is curious about the study, asking, "I wonder how strong the relationship is between bullying and self-esteem. Could you predict one from the other?" Refer to Research Study 3.3 to answer the following five questions. Quinn's concern is addressing which of the following?
The study's external validity
`Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. The beta for the predictor variable of perceived scholastic competence was positive and statistically significant. Why couldn't you say that perceived scholastic competence improves foreign language achievement?
The temporal precedence is not established and there may be another variable that accounts for the relationship.
For a third variable to be plausible as the explanation in an established association, which of the following must also be true?
The third variable must be related to both of the measured variables in the original association.
Criterion Variable (dependent variable)
The variable in a multiple - regression analysis that the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting. . In an experiment, the variable that is measured. This variable is almost always specified in either the top row or in the title of a regression table.
A multiple-regression analysis is run to examine third variables as a follow-up to the study indicating that boys with unusual names are more likely to commit crimes. Unusual names, ethnic backgrounds, and geographical regions are all included as predictor variables. Even after controlling for all of these variables, unusual names still predict criminal activity. Why doesn't this study establish causation?
There may be some other third variable.
A multiple-regression analysis is run to examine third variables as a follow-up to the study indicating that boys with unusual names are more likely to commit crimes. Unusual names, ethnic backgrounds, and geographical regions are all included as predictor variables. Even after controlling for all of these variables, unusual names still predict criminal activity. Why doesn't this study establish causation? Question 5 options: Temporal precedence isn't established. The beta values are not shown, so there isn't enough information to conclude causation. There may be some other third variable. No cross-lag correlation was done.
There may be some other third variable.
Beta
There will be one beta value for each predictor variable. Beta is similar to r, but reveals more than r does. Betas are similar to correlations in that they denote the direction and strength of a relationship. There are no quick guidelines for beta to indicate effect sizes that are weak, moderate, or strong. You cannot compare two betas from two different regression tables.
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Dr. Oswald creates a scatterplot of the relationship between the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. In doing so, she realizes there are three scores that seem to be very extreme and are nowhere near the other points on the scatterplot. Specifically, it appears that three people report very high levels of daily stress and very low levels of life satisfaction. Which of the following statements is NOT true?
These scores are more likely to have an effect because of the large sample size
Which of the following is true of instrumentation threats?
They can be avoided with counterbalancing
According to the textbook, which of the following is a reason that multiple regression designs are inferior to experimental designs?
They can only control for third variables that are measured.
5. Which of the following is a reason that multiple regression designs are inferior to experimental designs? TRUE or FALSE They can only control for third variables that are measured. They cannot establish temporal precedence. They take longer to conduct.
They can only control for third variables that are measured. They cannot establish temporal precedence.
When distortions of measurement are random
They cancel each other out across a sample of people and will not affect the group's average, or mean
All of the following are true of outliers EXCEPT:
They have the biggest effect when dealing with large sample sizes.
Which of the following is NOT true of control variables?
They help define the control group.
Which of the following is NOT true of control variables?
They help define the control group. Which is true= they help establish internal validity. They are essential in experimental designs. They are kept the same for all participant
Which of the following is the essential feature of studies that support association claims?
They involve two measured variables.
All of the following are true of IRBs in the United States EXCEPT:
They must have a psychologist as a member
Researchers increase the power of their study when
They use a within-groups design, employ a strong manipulation, carefully control the experimental situation, or add more participants to a study
Although mediators are similar to third-variable explanations, in that both of them involve multivariate research designs and researchers can use the same statistical tool (multiple regression) to detect them both, they function differently:
Third-variables are external to the two variables in the original bivariate correlation and can be seen as problematic "lurking variable" that potentially distracts from the relationship of interest. However, a mediator variable is internal, in that researchers propose mediator variables when they are interested in isolating which aspect of the causal variable is responsible for that relationship.
Which of the following is TRUE about the difference between beta and r? Question 1 options: Unlike r, beta cannot be negative. Unlike r, beta reflects the independent contribution of the predictor variable, controlling for the contributions from the other predictor variables. Unlike r, the size of beta is not related to the magnitude of the effect. Unlike r, a beta of zero reflects a statistically significant relationship between the predictor variable and the criterion variable.
Unlike r, beta reflects the independent contribution of the predictor variable, controlling for the contributions from the other predictor variables.
a no-treatment/no-placebo group
What should be added to a double-blind placebo control study to demonstrate that the placebo had an effect?
internal validity and construct validity
What two types of validity in an experiment can observer bias threaten?
Noise
When a study has a null effect due to too much unsystematic variability within each group. This is also known as error variance or unsystematic variance.
Demand Characteristics aka Experimental Demand
When an experiment contains cues that lead participants to guess its hypothesis.
Weak manipulations
When interrogating a null result, it is important to ask how the researchers operationalized the independent variable; in other words, ask about the construct validity
12. Placebo effects
When the control group is exposed to an inert treatment such as a sugar pill.Participants in an experimental group improve only because they believe in the efficacy of the therapy or drug they receive. Example: Women receiving cognitive therapy improve simply because they believe the therapy will work for them. ?:Did a comparison group receive a placebo (inert) drug or a placebo therapy?
Spontaneous remission
When the symptoms of depression or other disorders disappear, for no known reason, with time; another name for maturation
Using a matched-group design is especially important in which of the following cases?
When you have only a few people in your study
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety, a known predictor of foreign language achievement, using a multiple regression analysis of variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. Which of the following questions interrogates external validity of this study?
Which languages were studied? (External validity-we want to know if they apply to all languages.)
use a double-blind study
Which of these is not a solution to individual differences as a source of within-group variability?
Describe how counterbalancing improves the internal validity of a within - groups design?
With counterbalancing, any order effects should cancel each other out when all the data are collected.
a two-way interaction between price and consumer
Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. A main effect of price and a main effect of picture were found. It was found that the impact of price on tastiness/expensiveness judgments was weaker in the self than in the classmate. What type of interaction does this describe?
a two-way interaction between picture and consumer
Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. A main effect of price and a main effect of picture were found. It was found that the picture had a greater impact on tastiness/expensiveness judgments in self than in classmate. What type of interaction does this describe?
Martins et al. (2010) studied factors relating to the retrieval of names of famous people based on pictures. Famous faces tests are used in studies of memory. They were interested in understanding the factors that influence successful recall. Five groups of stimuli were formed based on reaosn for celebrity and time of peak fame. Multiple regressions for age, gender, and education were performed for each of the groups. For "Current National Entertainers" B=-0.39 for age. What does this mean?
Younger people are better than older people at recalling names of "Current National Entertainers." (Negative beta means negative relationship between the predictor variable and the dependent variable.)
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the independent variable in this experiment? role of the participant price that the buyer will pay price that the seller will accept type of mug
a
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? distance out of alignment of the rods how long the participant takes to complete the experiment improvement in performance by the participant eye/eyes used
a
Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Which of the following scenarios would present a design confound in this experiment? All participants in the 2-minute condition are tested at 8:00 a.m.; those in the 5-minute condition are tested at noon; and those in the 10-minute condition are tested at 4:00 p.m. The same list is used for each condition and is randomized for each participant. The three groups are run simultaneously in three different rooms, and the room for each condition is randomly chosen before each group arrives. Three different experimenters are in charge of administering the task, and they rotate which condition they are administering.
a
Which of these is NOT an advantage of within-groups designs? elimination of practice effects assurance of equivalence of the groups requirement of fewer participants more statistical power
a
Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 Which of the following best describes Dr. Elder's Study?
a 2' 2 crossed factorial design
The mathematical way to describe an interaction is:
a difference in differences
When examining an association claim using a bar graph, an association is indicated by which of the following?
a different in the height between the bars
In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. The study described above is an example of which of the following?
a double blind study
latin square
a formal system of partial counterbalancing that ensures that each condition in a within-groups design appears in each position at least once
confound
a general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding
comparison group
a group in an experiment whose level on the independent variable differs from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way. also called comparison condition
The degree to which a quasi-experiment supports a causal claim depends on which of the following: a. Its design and its results b. its duration and its sample size c. its importance and its external validity d. its statistical significance and its practical significance e. all of the above
a its design and its results
When an experiment is not practical or ethical
a longitudinal correlational design is a good option. In regard to the tv violence and aggression study, it would be challenging to do an ethical experiment study of the effects of long-term exposure to media violence, especially when children are involved in the study, so longitudinal correlational designs are a more attractive alternative
Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity?
a manipulation check
Which of the following is NOT a way that a researcher might indicate a statistically significant result in a journal article?
a notation of p= .20
Jenna is interested in the association between the height of professional basketball players and their free-throw shooting percentage. She looks at the correlation between NBA players and their free-throw percentage from last season and she finds a statistically significant negative association. Jenna's friend Elizabeth suggests that Jenna should look at scatter plot of the data. Jenna follows Elizabeth's advice and finds that one of the players is much shorter than the rest of the players and that player has a much better free-throw shooting percentage. When Jenna removes this player from her analysis, she finds that there is no longer a statistically significant relationship between height and free-throw shooting. What kind of problem has Elizabeth helped Jenna identify?
a problem with an outlier in the sample
Which variable is the mediator in this example:
a researcher is interested in examining whether the effect of work-family conflict on marital satisfaction goes through another variable, emotional exhaustion.
reversal design , as in the other two small- N designs:
a researcher observes a problem behavior both with and without treatment, but takes the treatment away for a while (the reversal period) to see whether the problem behavior returns (re- verses).
Cross-lag correlations are used in a longitudinal design to check if a variable measured at one point in time correlates with
a second variable measured at a different point in time.
Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following?
a selection effect
A stable-baseline design is:
a study in which a researcher observes behavior for an extended baseline period before beginning a treat-ment or other intervention; if behavior during the baseline is stable, the researcher is more certain of the treatment's effectiveness.
Dr. Thompson researches gang-related crime in Chicago. She notices that more graffiti appears when there are more ice cream trucks in town. She does a study that measures the frequency of new graffiti being reported and ice cream truck sales for each week over a year. She finds a positive association between ice cream truck sales and graffiti and concludes that the ice cream trucks are encouraging graffiti. Her colleague, Dr. Richardson, points out that both ice cream sales and graffiti might be influenced by rising temperatures during the summer. What kind of problem has Dr. Richardson identified?
a third variable problem,
design confound
a threat to internal validity in an experiment to which a second variable happens to vary systematically along with the independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results
selection effect
a threat to internal validity that occurs in an independent groups design when the kinds of participants at one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those at the other level
demand characteristics
a threat to internal validity that occurs when some cue leads participants to guess a study's hypotheses or goals
Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique, irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. High anxiety increased distance in the technique condition but not in the other two conditions. What does this describe?
a two-way interaction between anxiety and condition -This wording suggests that the dependent variable was changed by the anxiety manipulation in the technique condition, but not in the other conditions.
Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. A main effect of price and a main effect of picture were found. It was found that the picture had a greater impact on tastiness/expensiveness judgments in self than in classmate. What type of interaction does this describe?
a two-way interaction between picture and consumer -This means that in looking at the tastiness/expensiveness ratings for self, there is a larger difference between the attractive and unattractive ratings than there is in those ratings for classmate.
Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. Caucasian "Competitors" were identified more easily than the other two Caucasian personality types, but there was no difference in accuracy for African-American faces. What does this describe?
a two-way interaction between race and personality
What is a moderator?
a variable that moderates the relationship between two other variables shows that the relationship (or effect) is stronger in one group versus another the relationship is different depending on this moderator variable
Dr. Morimoto is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. He assigns half his participants to play a video game for five minutes and the other half to play for seven minutes. He finds that there is no relationship between playing the game longer and being more aggressive. What might be to blame for this null effect?
a weak manipulation
Dr. Morimoto is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. He assigns half his participants to play a video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play for 7 minutes. He finds that there is no relationship between playing the game longer and being more aggressive. What might be to blame for this null effect? a) A weak manipulation b) An insensitive measure c) A reverse confound d) Ceiling effect
a) A weak manipulation
In the first experiment the stimuli included the target with curly hair wearing one outfit and straight hair wearing another outfit. Here her outfit is an example of ________ in the study. a) confound b) covariate c) control d) mediator
a) confound
Chapter 11: A city in California has asked Professor Rodriguez to conduct an experiment on earthquake preparedness. Professor Rodriguez will assess the preparedness of a random sample of residents in the city and the city will mail out their annual brochure on earthquake safety. Then, two weeks later, he will again assess the preparedness of those residents. Right after the brochures are mailed, a large earthquake is reported in Japan. What threat to internal validity does this pose? a) history b) maturation c) selection d) testing
a) history
Chapter 11: As part of an experiment on the effects of behavior modeling, a set of raters are evaluating the prosocial behavior in a series of videotapes of a class of preschoolers. Initially, the raters were quite strict in their ratings, but after three hours of rating, their criteria had changed. What type of threat to internal validity has occurred? a) instrumentation b) history c) testing d) regression to the mean
a) instrumentation
Chapter 10: What design is an experiment in which each participant is randomly assigned to one level of the independent variable and then tested on the dependent variable once ? a) posttest only b) withingroups c) pretest/posttest d) repeated measures
a) posttest only
Chapter 11: Emma is planning an experiment to examine whether reading to children increases their vocabulary size. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18montholds, read to them three times a week for three months, then measure their vocabulary size again. How could Emma change the design of the study to remove a major threat to internal validity? a) she could add a comparison group b) she could counterbalance her conditions c) she could add a manipulation check d) she could make it a doubleblind placebo control study
a) she could add a comparison group
Using a matchedgroup design is especially important in which of the following cases? a) when you have a relatively small sample in your study b) when you have at least three levels/conditions of the independent variable c) when you do not have a control group d) when you are worried order effects
a) when you have a relatively small sample in your study
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. They found that foreign language anxiety was â =-0.39 and academic achievement was â = 0.29. What does this mean? a. Foreign language anxiety has a bigger effect than academic achievement b. More foreign language anxiety is related to higher foreign language achievement. c. Foreign language anxiety is not related to foreign language achievement. d. Academic achievement has a bigger effect than foreign language anxiety does on foreign language achievement
a. Foreign language anxiety has a bigger effect than academic achievement does on foreign language achievement. Beta Basics — The absolute value of beta is larger for foreign language anxiety than for academic achievement, so it has a bigger effect.
Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. What is a question that one could ask to assess the construct validity of this association? a. How well was delay of gratification measured? b. Is there a third variable that explains this relationship? c. Can the results be generalized to all American children? d. Were the results statistically significant
a. How well was delay of gratification measured? Construct Validity: How Well Was Each Variable Measured? — Table 8.5 lists the validity questions, including convergent validity, or how well the results of two tests correlate with each other.
5. Dr. Banks modifies her design and conducts a second study. She used the same number of dogs and the same design, except now she re-warded one group of dogs with miniature hot dogs, and another group of dogs with pieces of apple. She found a big difference, with the mini-hot-dogs group learning the command faster. Dr. Banks avoided a null result this time, because she:
a. Increased the between-groups variability.
1. What is the term for a quasi-experimental design with at least one treatment group and one comparison group, in which the partici-pants have not been randomly assigned to the groups?
a. Nonequivalent control group design
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. What does this correlation tell him about which students take advantage of the extra credit option? a. Students with higher grades are more likely than students with lower grades to do extra credit work b. Students with lower grades are more likely than students c. Students with higher grades are less likely than students with lower grades to do extra credit work d. All students are equally likely to do extra credit work
a. Student with higher grades are more likely than students with lower grades to do extra credit work Introducing Bivariate Correlations- This association is positive, meaning that the cloud of points in the scatterplot would slope upward
2. Suppose a researcher uses a longitudinal design to study the relationship between Facebook use and grades over time. She measures both of these variables in Year 1, and then measures both variables again in Year 2. Which of the following is an example of an auto correlation in the results?
a. The correlation between Facebook use in Year 1 with Facebook use in Year 2.
4. Dr. Banks tests to see how many training sessions it takes for dogs to learn to "Sit and stay." She randomly assigns 60 dogs to two reward conditions: one in which the reward is miniature hot dogs, and one in which the reward is small pieces of steak. Surprisingly, she finds that the dogs in each group learn "Sit and stay" in about an equal amount of sessions. Given the design of her study, what is the most likely explanation for this null effect?
a. The dogs loved both treats (her reward manipulation has a ceiling effect).
If the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of another variable, what is this other variable called? a. a moderator b. a confound c. a quantitative variable d. a categorical variable
a. a moderator Moderating Variables — In association research, when the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of a third variable, the third variable is called a moderator. Gender moderates the relationship between extroversion and group conversations in Table 8.6.
Which of the following is NOT a way that a researcher might indicate a statistically significant result in a journal article? a. a notation of p=.20 b. an asterisk (*) c. a notation of p<.05 d. the word "sig"
a. a notation of p=.20
A researcher wanted to see how watching movies influenced subjects' moods. She measured beta-endorphin levels (a physiological measure of well-being) of subjects following each of 2 movies. Half of the subjects first saw Titanic followed by Schindler's list, while the other half first saw Schindler's list then the titanic. Varying the movie order is an example of a. counterbalancing b. random sampling c. selection bias d. practice effects
a. counterbalancing
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at the first time point and home life satisfaction measured at the second time point. Which of the three criteria for causation does Professor Horvat's study fulfill? a. covariance and temporal precedence b. temporal precedence and internal validity c. covariance and internal validity d. covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity
a. covariance and temporal precedence Longitudinal Studies and the Three Criteria for Causation — Because the path from home satisfaction to job satisfaction is stronger than the path from job satisfaction to home satisfaction, the experimenter is closer to determining which precedes the other.
Professor Schwartz does a study that examines the relationship between time spent at a shopping mall and happiness. She finds that for women, the more time in the mall is associated with higher levels of happiness. She finds that for men, the more time in the mall is associated with lower levels of happiness. What is the moderator in this relationship? a. gender b. time in the mall c. the combination of happiness and mall time d. happiness
a. gender Moderating Variables — When the relationship between two variables (time in the mall and happiness) depends on the level of a third variable (gender), that variable is a moderator of the relationship.
Vida is studying the connection between school grades and time spent using social media. She finds a strong correlation, showing the students with lower grades spend more time using social media. She decides that before she can claim that increased use of social media causes grades to drop she must make sure that the social media came before the low grades. What criterion of causality is she concerned with?
a. internal validity b. temporal precedence c. statistical significance d. covariance
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. According to Cohen's conventions, how strong is this association? a. medium, or moderate b. not significant c. large, or strong d. small, or weak
a. medium, or moderate Review: Describing Associations Between Two Quantitative Variables — Table 8.4 shows that an r of about 0.30 is a medium or moderate effect size.
What other information, in addition to effect size, must you know in order to determine if a correlation is statistically significant? a. sample size b. scale of the scatterplot c. external validity d. direction of the association
a. sample size Effect Size, Sample Size, and Significance- Larger samples are less easily affected by chance so a small correlation can be significant if the sample size is large
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He decides the plot will be clearer if he converts the numerical grades into letter grades and plots a bar graph with letter grades on the x-axis and the mean number extra credit points earned on the y-axis. What type of statistic would he run to determine if there is a relationship between letter grades and extra credit points earned? a. t test b. Cronbach's alpha c. mean d. bivariate correlation
a. t test Analyzing Associations When One Variable is Categorical — Letter grades are a categorical variable so this is an analysis of one categorical variable and one quantitative variable. A t test is a statistic used to describe this type of relationship.
Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: "The study used a 2x4 design" Based on this sentence alone, you would know all of the following pieces of information except: a. The number of participants in the study b.the number of main effects that need to be examined c. the number of interactions that need to be examined d. the number of cells e. the number of independent variables
a. the number of participants in the study
The standard deviation of a sampling distribution is known as a. the standard error b. the variance c. error d. the sampling deviation
a. the standard error
Outliers can do what?
affect direction of a relationship affect the strength of a relationship biggest effect (worse) when sample size is small
techniques used for testing causation (3)
all are measured, NONE MANIPULATED 1)longitudinal designs 2)multiple regression designs 3) "pattern and parsimony" approach
Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a participant variable in this study?
amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week
Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theatre. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type if commercial shown. Which of the following is a participant variable in this study?
amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week
A recent study (Koordeman et al., 2011), conducted in the Netherlands, on the effects of commercials for alcohol or alcohol consumption in the movie theater, found that young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week are influenced by the commercials, whereas young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week were not influenced. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their drinking habits. What is a participant variable in this study?
amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week -The weekly alcohol consumption of the participant was selected, not manipulated.
Significance information is indicated by ____
an asterisk (*), sig, or p < .05
Adding a comparison group would allow one to show that the intervention had :
an effect above and beyond the normal effects of maturation.
concurrent measures design
an experiment using a within groups design in which participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable
repeated measures design
an experiment using a within groups design in which participants respond to a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent study
post test only design
an experiment using an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the dependent variable only once
pretest/post test design
an experiment using an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the key dependent variable twice, once before and once after exposure to the independent variable.
independent-groups design
an experimental design in which different groups of participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable, such that each participants experiences only one level of the independent variable (also called between-subjects design)
within-groups design
an experimental design in which each participant is presented with all levels of the independent variable
matched groups
an experimental design technique in which participants who are similar on some measured variable are grouped into sets; the members of each matched set are then randomly assigned to different experimental conditions (also called matching)
stat validity of multivariate designs
ask about effect size and stat significance, also subgroups, outliers, and curvilinear relationships. if something stat, sig can probably be replicated in the future and you may think it is big but compared to others could be very small, no guidelines for what is a small beta. thats why we compare it to other betas. depends on the researchers perspective. example-interesting that recess is sig. associated with better classroom behavior but the effect of recess is very small so, think providing a longer recess may amount to only a small decrease in classroom behaviors, does you think it is worth it?
external validity and causation
ask whether the causal relationship can generalize to other people, places, and times. ask about random sampling with external validity. ask about random assignment with internal validity.
Significance information may also be indicated by an
asterisk (*), which usually means that an association is significant, or with the word sig, or with a notation such as p < .05 or p < .01
what symbol indicantes statistically significant associations in empirical journal articles?
asterisk, or the word sig, or a notation like p<0.05 or p<0.01
Frances did a study to investigate the effect of concreteness on memory. She created a list of 12 items that are very concrete (such as pencil and table) and a list of 12 items that are very abstract (such as justice and freedom). Each item was viewed for one second, then participants recalled them in order. Ten participants were tested in each condition. The study showed null effects. Which is NOT a possible explanation?
attrition
In a study that only lasts a few minutes, _____ isn't usually an issue. There was no mention of participant loss.
attrition
On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. When Professor Mutola rechecks her data, she finds that the five students with the lowest scores on the first exam have dropped the class. What threat to internal validity is this?
attrition
On the first exam in an introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. When Professor Mutola rechecks her data, she finds that the five students with the lowest scores on the first exam have dropped the class. What threat to internal validity is this?
attrition
The rise in scores on the second test may be due to the loss of these extreme scores, which is ______
attrition
Which threat to internal validity occurs when there is a greater systematic loss of participants in one condition than the other condition?
attrition
occurs when people drop out of the study before it ends, but only a problem when systematic, meaning only a certain type of person drops out (e.g., "maybe a certain kind of people leave the study before the end?"); how to minimize: dropping scores from pretest as well; occurs in a repeated-measures experiment or quasi-experiment
attrition threat (i.e., mortality)
in a longitudinal design, the correlation of one variable with itself, measured at two different times
autocorrelation
Types of correlations (p.238)
autocorrelation: relationship of a variable with itself over time. -cross sectional: relationship between two variables at the same point in time. -cross lag: relationship between X at one time and Y at a later time.
Iva is studying whether students gain weight during their first year of college. She collects weights from all the incoming freshmen in the fall, then collects weights from them again at the end of the spring term. What is the term for the correlation she finds when she compares the fall and spring weights of the students?
autocorrelations
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that job satisfaction at the first time point is correlated with job satisfaction at the second time. What type of correlation is this?
autocorrelations
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. How is the independent variable being manipulated in Tetiana's design? independent groups within-groups concurrently as a participant variable
b
Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Since different groups need different amounts of time, the first 25 participants who arrive are assigned to the 10-minute group, the next 25 are assigned to the 5-minute group, and the final 25 are assigned to the 2-minute group. What confound does this create? demand characteristic selection effect experimenter bias carryover effect
b
Suppose that you sell ice cream from a cart on the street. After you pay the ice cream supplier, the regression line that predicts your ice cream profits from the number of house you work has a slope of 15. But the man who owns the car charges you $5 per hour in rent. How much money will you ear per hour? a. 15 b. 10 c. 5 d. nothing
b 10
The addition of a comparison group can address all of the following threats to internal validity, EXCEPT a) History b) Attrition c) Maturation d) Regression
b) Attrition
True or False: You always need a pretest in an experiment. a) TRUE b) FALSE
b) FALSE
An instructor hypothesizes that doing jumping jacks will improve his students' quiz performance. On Monday, he has his class sit in their chairs for five minutes before completing a multiplechoice quiz on their reading assignment. On Wednesday, he has his class do two minutes of jumping jacks before completing the same quiz that they took on Monday. The students performed better on the quiz on Wednesday. What is a possible threat to internal validity in this study? a) Instrumentation b) Testing c) Maturation d) Attrition
b) Testing
All of the following are true of ceiling and floor effects EXCEPT: a) They can be detected by manipulation checks b) They are only problematic in pretest/posttest designs c) They can be caused by poorly designed DVs d) They can be caused by poorly designed IVs
b) They are only problematic in pretest/posttest designs
Chapter 10: What is the name for a variable that the experimenter holds constant on purpose? a) dependent variable b) control variable c) confound variable d) independent variable
b) control variable
Chapter 12: A _______ design is one in which there are two or more independent variables. a) concurrent measures b) factorial c) repeated measures d) pretest/posttest
b) factorial
Chapter 12: What is it called when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable? a) mediation b) interaction c) main effect d) overall effect
b) interaction
Iva is studying whether students gain weight during their first year of college. She collects weights from all the incoming freshmen in the fall, then collects weights from them again at the end of the spring term. What is the term for the correlation she finds when she compares the fall and spring weights of the students? a. cross-sectional b. autocorrelations c. non-linear d. cross-lag
b. autocorrelations Autocorrelations — This is a correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions or an autocorrelation.
How do multiple-regression designs help address internal validity? a. by establishing temporal precedence b. by ruling out third variable c. by eliminating selection threats d. by introducing a control condition
b. by ruling out third variable Regression Results Indicate If a Third Variable Affects the Relationship — By measuring possible third variables and using multiple-regression analysis, these third variables can be eliminated as explanations for the relationship between the key variables.
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction measured at the second time point. What type of correlation is this? a. curvilinear b. cross-lag c. autocorrelation d. cross-sectional
b. cross-lag Cross-Lag Correlations — When one variable measured at time one correlates with another variable measured at time two, there is a cross-lag correlation.
Counter balancing is a technique to a. lower the weight of subjects b. distribute carry-over effects evenly across the data c. increase the power of an experiment d. reduce the likelihood of reasonable conclusions
b. distribute carry-over effects evenly across the data
Which of the following CANNOT be said of the interaction in a study? a. It can be determined by examining a graph of the results b. it can be determined by investigating marginal means c. It can exist even if the main effects are not significant d. it is almost always more important than a study's main effects. e. there are multiple types of interactions (e.g., crossover interaction).
b. it can be determined by investigating marginal means
Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. The parents' ratings of likelihood of yielding to temptation correlated with the preschool waiting time measurement at r = -0.50. How would this effect size be described according to Cohen's benchmarks? a. weak b. strong c. moderate d. zero
b. strong Review: Describing Associations Between Two Quantitative Variables- Table 8.4 shows that an r of -.05 is a strong effect size.
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. In addition to this correlation coefficient, what other information would Professor Fofana need to determine if this result is statistically significant? a. the letter grades of the students b. the sample size c. the effect size d. the mean of scores
b. the sample size Effect Size, Sample Size, and Significance — The r value is the effect size; in addition to it, to find significance you need the sample size.
Dr. Stevens wants to examine the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and depression. He selects a sample of American athletes who are currently training for the summer Olympic Games as his research subjects. Dr. Stevens finds no relationship between BMI and depression. What is one problem with his research design that could have kept him from finding a relationship between those? a. there is a third variable problem b. there is a restriction of range problem c. there is a problem with outliers in his sample. d. there is a directionality problem
b. there is a restriction of range problem Statistical Validity Question 4: Is There Restriction of Range? Olympic athletes generally have low BMIs, so Dr. Stevens may not be finding a relationship between BMI and depression because there is a restriction of range of the BMI variable.
Dr. Stevens wants to examine the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and depression. He selects a sample of American athletes who are currently training for the summer Olympic Games as his research subjects. Dr. Stevens finds no relationship between BMI and depression. What is one problem with his research design that could have kept him from finding a relationship between those variables? a. There is a third variable problem b. there is a restriction of range problem c. there is a problem with outliers in his sample d. there is a directionality problem
b. there is a restriction of range problem Statistical Validity Question 4: Is There a Restriction of Range?- Olympic athletes generally have low BMIs, so Dr. Stevens may not be finding a relationship between BMI and depression because there is a restriction of range of the BMI variable
The major advantage of repeated measures designs is that a. they allow you to use more subjects b. they allow you to remove individual difference from the error term c. they are easier to analyze d. they have a higher probability of a type 2 error
b. they allow you to remove individual difference from the error term
When is an outlier most likely to be problematic? a. when the sample size is large and the outlier is extreme on one of the variables b. when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both variables c. when the sample size is large and the outlier is extreme on both variables d. when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on one of the variables
b. when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both variables Statistical Validity Question 3: Could Outliers Be Affecting the Association? — Outliers are most problematic when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both variables.
What are the values in a regression table that show the relationship between the predictor variables and the dependent variable?
beta
The absolute value of beta is larger for one variable than for the other, so it has a ______ effect.
bigger effect
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. How does Theo control for selection effects? by using a control group by using matched-groups design by random assignment of participants by using a pretest/posttest design
by random assignment of participants
How do multiple-regression designs help address internal validity?
by ruling out third variables
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. How does Theo control for selection effects?
by using random assignment of participants
In a buisness class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum prices they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. How does Theo control for selection effects?
by using random assignment of particpants
According to Cohen's conventions for effect size, how do you describe an effect size when d = 0.50? not existent weak moderate strong
c
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned that he could have a problem with order effect in his study. How can Eric fix this problem? matched groups random sampling counterbalancing random assignment
c
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. How does Theo control for selection effects? by using a control group by using matched-groups design by using random assignment of participants by using a pretest/posttest design
c
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. She finds that d = 1.53. What effect size is this? weak moderate strong This cannot be determined without knowing the number of participants.
c
Kathryn wants to control for intelligence in her study. She has a list of all of the participants for her study and their IQ scores. She sorts the list of participants according to their IQ scores and then forms groups making sure that the groups are balanced in terms of IQ scores. Finally, she randomly assigns each group to one of the conditions of her study. What kind of design is Kathryn using? independent groups concurrent measures matched-groups within-groups
c
Jared is conducting an experiment with ESP (extrasensory perception) training. He begins with a pretest of his 40 participants and divides them into two groups based on their scores. The participants with the 10 lowest scores are given extensive training on how to detect the signals. The participants with the 30 highest scores are given no training. Both groups are retested and the average score of the participants with the training improved, while the average score of the participants without the training actually fell. What threat to internal validity should Jared consider? a) History b) Maturation c) Regression d) Attrition
c) Regression
Chapter 10: ____________ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked. a) a pilot study b) counterbalancing c) a manipulation check d) a latin square
c) a manipulation check
Chapter 11: Which threat to internal validity occurs when there is a greater systematic loss of participants in one condition than the other condition? a) maturation b) history c) attrition d) regression
c) attrition
In this last experiment (job interview), the reporter wears the same outfit and answers the questions the same way. These are examples of ________ variables in the study. a) confound b) covariate c) control d) mediator
c) control
Chapter 10: Which of these is NOT an advantage of withingroups designs? a) more statistical power b) requirement of fewer participants c) elimination of practice effects d) assurance of equivalence of the groups
c) elimination of practice effects
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. They found â = -0.39 for foreign language anxiety. What does this mean? a. There is no relation between foreign language anxiety and foreign language achievement. b. People who are more anxious about learning and foreign language have higher levels of achievement in foreign language c. People with lower levels of anxiety about learning a foreign language have higher levels of achievement in foreign language. d. There is not enough information given here to answer this.
c. People with lower levels of anxiety about learning a foreign language have higher levels of achievement in foreign language. Beta Basics — A negative beta means that there is a negative relationship between the predictor variable and the dependent variable, so foreign language achievement decreases with increasing levels of foreign language anxiety.
4. Consider this statement: "People who use Facebook got worse grades in college, even when the researchers controlled for the level of college preparation (operationalized by SAT scores) of the students." What does it mean?
c. SAT score can be ruled out as a third variable explanation for the correlation between Facebook use and college grades.
2. Which of these associations will probably be plotted on as a bar graph rather than a scatterplot a. The more conscientious people are, the more likely they are to get regular checkups b. Level of depression is linked to the amount of chocolate people eat c. Students at private colleges get higher GPAs than those at public colleges d. Level of chronic stomach pain in kids is linked to later anxiety as adults
c. Students at private colleges get higher GPAs than those at public colleges
2. Which of these associations will probably be plotted as a bar graph rather than a scatterplot?
c. Students at private colleges get higher GPAs than those at public colleges.
A multiple-regression analysis is run to examine third variables as a follow-up to the study indicating that boys with unusual names are more likely to commit crimes. Unusual names, ethnic backgrounds, and geographical regions are all included as predictor variables. Even after controlling for all of these variables, unusual names still predict criminal activity. Why doesn't this study establish causation? a. The beta values are not shown, so there is't enough information to conclude causation b. Temporal precedence isn't established c. There may be some other third variable. d. No cross-lag correlation was done
c. There may be some other third variable Regression Does Not Establish Causation — Multiple regression controls for any third variable the researcher measures in the study, but it can't control for unmeasured variables
A correlation was computed between amount of exercise people do and people's overall happiness. A significant correlation was found, such that the more people exercise, the happier they are. What is the best conclusion to draw from this finding? a. exercise leads people to be happy b. we have proved that people should exercise more c. a positive relationship exists between exercise and happiness d. a negative relationship exists between exercise and happiness
c. a positive relationship exists between exercise and happiness
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. Which of the following is NOT a predictor variable? a. foreign language anxiety b. perceived scholastic competence c. foreign language achievement d. perceived self-worth
c. foreign language achievement Dependent Variables and Predictor Variables — Foreign language achievement has been chosen as the dependent variable or the criterion variable.
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. What is the criterion variable? a. academic achievement b. perceived self-worth c. foreign language achievement d. foreign language anxiety
c. foreign language achievement Dependent Variables and Predictor Variables — Foreign language achievement is the dependent variable or variable the researchers were most interested in understanding.
Dr. Samuels does a study that finds that children with unusual names are more likely to have delinquency records as adolescents because they got teased more, and the teasing makes them act out. He found that teasing is a ________ in the relationship between having an unusual name and adolescent delinquency. a. moderator b. confounding third variable c. mediator d. criterion variable
c. mediator Mediation — A mediator (teasing) explains why there is a relationship between two other variables (having an unusual name and adolescent delinquency)
Dr. Aarons does a study that finds that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years, but only among men, not among women. In her findings, gender is a _________ in the relationship between having a cognitively demanding job and cognitive benefits later in life. a. confounding third variable b. mediator c. moderator d. criterion variable
c. moderator Mediators vs. Moderators — Moderating variables (gender) provide information about when or under what conditions two other variables (cognitively demanding jobs and cognitive benefits later in life) are related.
What is it called when researchers investigate causality by using a variety of correlational studies that all point in a single, causal direction? a. multiple-regression design b. longitudinal study c. pattern and parsimony d. cross-lag design
c. pattern and parsimony Getting at Causality with Pattern and Parsimony — In cases where researchers cannot establish causality by running an experiment, they can find support for a causal relationship by looking for pattern and parsimony in a variety of correlational studies.
A simple effect is defined as a. part of the interaction b. the effect of one variable taken by itself c.the effect of one variable at a single level of the other variable d. the difference between the for effect an the column effect
c. the effect of one variable at a single level of the other variable
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. The beta for the predictor variable of perceived scholastic competence was positive and statistically significant. Why couldn't you say that perceived scholastic competence improves foreign language achievement? a. More variables should have been included in the multiple-regression analysis b. the p values are not large enough c. the temporal precedence is not established and there may be another variable that accounts for the relationship d. There were some uncontrolled variables
c. the temporal precedence is not established and there may be another variable that accounts for the relationship Regression Does Not Establish Causation — While perceived scholastic competence clearly is related to foreign language achievement, it isn't clear whether the perceived competence preceded foreign language achievement or if there is another variable besides foreign language anxiety, academic achievement, and perceived self-worth involved.
may occur when scores are maxed out on high or low end (e.g., giving a math test for stereotype threat, too easy-everyone does equally well showing a ceiling effect, too hard-no one does well showing a floor effect); problem: group score almost the same on the DV; using a manipulation check can help identify
ceiling and floor effect
Dr. Sanderson is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. She assigns half her participants to play a violent video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play the same game for 25 minutes. Afterward, she has them play a board game and has a well-trained coder determine whether they are very aggressive in their playing style, barely aggressive, or not at all aggressive. She finds that a vast majority of her participants, regardless of group assignment, are rated as very aggressive. This outcome would be known as a/an:
ceiling effect
The students in a 50-student Introductory Psychology class were randomly assigned to one of two review sessions, each being taught with a different technique. The next day, every student got all 10 of the test questions correct. What problem does Professor Zhao have in determining the better teaching technique for review sessions?
ceiling effect
Which of the following does NOT contribute to within-groups variability?
ceiling effect
Which of the following does NOT contribute to within-groups variablility?
ceiling effect
Adding more participants to a study reduces the impact of individual differences within groups and will increase the ______
chance of finding differences between groups
Frances did a study to investigate the effect of concreteness on memory. She created a list of 12 items that are very concrete (such as pencil and table) and a list of 12 items that are very abstract (such as justice and freedom). Each item was viewed for one second, then participants recalled them in order. Ten participants were tested in each condition. The study showed null effects, and almost all of the participants remembered all of the words on both lists. What is a likely solution?
change the design to eliminate ceiling effects
A ________ can be used to control for maturation threats.
comparison group (the changes in the treatment group that differ from those in the comparison group can be ascribed to the treatment.)
how to determine whether a study's results show an interaction
compute two difference. start with one level of the first independent variable-small bottle. difference between the sale and regular price conditions for small bottle is 54. go to second level of first independent variable-large bottle. difference between sale and regular price is 1. come up with 2 differences. one is large and one is virtually zero. means 54 is sig. difference, so can conclude that there is an interaction in this factorial study.
A study in which researchers study the same research question but use different procedures. At the abstract level, the variables in the study are the same, but the procedures for operationalizing the variables are different
conceptual replication
Roediger and McDermott (1995) conducted a study involving a paradigm initially developed by Deese (1959) which produces false recall of a word when a participant is given a list of words to recall which centers on a particular word but does not include it. For example, if participants were given a list that included sandal, towel, sunscreen, and waves, then they would falsely remember the word beach even though it was not on the list. They did two studies based on Deese's original study. In the first study, they used the same word lists that Deese used and in the second experiment they used new sets of stimulus words. What is the term for the second study they ran?
conceptual replication
Participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable
concurrent-measures design
cells
conditions. example-older people driving while using cell phones, older people driving without cell phones, younger people driving while using cell phones and younger people driving without using a cell phone
Dr. Russell did a study that found that praise provided by supervisors is associated with higher levels of work productivity only because more motivated employees are praised more often, and highly motivated people are more productive. In her findings, employee motivation is a ___________ in the relationship between praise from supervisors and work productivity.
confounding third variable
Dr. Russell did a study that found that praise provided by supervisors is associated with higher levels of work productivity only because more motivated employees are praised more often, and highly motivated people are more productive. In her findings, employee motivation is a ___________ in the relationship between praise from supervisors and work productivity. Question 3 options: mediator moderator confounding third variable criterion variable
confounding third variable
Potential threats to internal validity
confounds
Convergent validity is a way to assess ________.
construct validity.
Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. Which variable is a participant variable?
consumer price picture all of them are manipulated <<<
What type of group is a level of the independent variable that is intended to represent a neutral condition? treatment comparison experimental control
control
A variable that could be a nuisance variable is held constant and called a _______.
control variable.
Which of the following is NOT required to establish causality?
convergent validity
in a scatter plot, what can be used to describe the relationship between the variables?
correlation coefficient
how to prevent testing threats?
could abandon pretest and use posttest only. use different ways to measure. comparison group might also help. if they take both tests, but the treatment groups shows an even larger change testing effects can be ruled out as an internal validity threat
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned that he could have a problem with order effect in his study. How can Eric fix this problem
counterbalancing
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned that he could have a problem with order effect in his study. How can Eric fix this problem?
counterbalancing
When researchers use ________, they present the levels of the independent variable to participants in different orders.
counterbalancing
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshman. He is planning to have all of the freshman who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned that he could have a problem with order effect in his study. How can Eric fix this problem?
counterbalancing-presenting the levels of the independent variable to participants in sequences to control for order effects.
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at the first time point and home life satisfaction measured at the second time point. Which of the three criteria for causation does Professor Horvat's study fulfill?
covariance and temporal precedence
Three causal criteria
covariance, temporal precedence, internal validity
same three rules apply for causation in experiments
covariance, temporal precedence, internal validity
When using multiple regression, what is the term for the variable that the researcher is most interested in explaining or predicting?
criterion
the variable in a multiple-regression analysis that the researchers are most interest in understanding or predicting
criterion variable
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction measured at the second time point. What type of correlation is this?
cross-lag
In a longitudinal design, a correlation between an earlier measure of one variable and a later measure of another variable.
cross-lag correlation
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that, at both the first time point and the second time point, there is a strong correlation between work satisfaction and home life satisfaction. What type of correlations are these?
cross-sectional
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that, at both the first time point and the second time point, there is a strong correlation between work satisfaction and home life satisfaction. What type of correlations are these? Question 6 options: autocorrelations cross-sectional cross-lag curvilinear
cross-sectional
In a longitudinal design, a correlation between two variables that are measured at the same time.
cross-sectional correlation
studies each possible combination of the IVs, pairing each level of one IV with each level of the other IVs.
crossed factorial design
A subdiscipline of psychology focusing on how cultural contexts shape the way a person thinks, feels, and behaves
cultural psychology
At low arousal, the correlation is positive, but at high arousal, the correlation is negative, hence the correlation is represented by a _______
curve
The Yerkes-Dodson law (1908), shows that performance increases with arousal up to a point, but beyond that, performance decreases with increasing arousal. What type of correlation is this?
curvilinear
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. What kind of design is this? posttest only pretest/posttest concurrent measures repeated measures
d
How many possible orders for full counterbalancing are there in a study with four conditions? four eight sixteen twenty-four
d
In an experiment, researchers: measure more than two variables. measure two variables. manipulate two variables. manipulate one variable and measure another.
d
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the independent variable in this experiment? depth perception number of trials disparity from perfect alignment eye/eyes used
d
What design is an experiment in which each participant is randomly assigned to one level of the independent variable and then tested on the dependent variable once? within-groups repeated measures pretest/posttest posttest only
d
What is the name for the level of the independent variable that is intended to represent a neutral condition? treatment group manipulation group experimental group control group
d
____________ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked. A pilot study A Latin square Counterbalancing A manipulation check
d
Which of the following is true of testing effects? a) It is an example of an order effect b) It can lead to increased/higher scores OR decreased/lower scores c) It can sensitize people to being tested d) All of the above
d) All of the above
Which of the following study types can result in a null effect? Vocab a) Pretest/Posttest b) Correlational c) Withingroups d) All of the above
d) All of the above
Which threat to internal validity occurs when there is a greater systematic loss of participants in one condition than the other condition? a) History b) Maturation c) Regression d) Attrition
d) Attrition
Order effects can be controlled by using which of the following techniques? a) Random assignment b) Design confounds c) Increasing demand characteristics d) Counterbalancing
d) Counterbalancing
In the case of a factorial design, another term for independent variable is: a) Interaction b) Main effect c) Cell d) Factor
d) Factor
Which of the following experimental designs is vulnerable to MANY internal validity threats? a) Posttest only design b) Pretest only design c) Concurrent measures design d) One-group, pretest/posttest design
d) One-group, pretest/posttest design
Ina 2x2 factorial design, what are all the possible effects to test? a) One main effect and one twoway interaction b) One main effect and two twoway interactions c) Two main effects and one twoway interaction d) Two main effects and two twoway interactions
d) Two main effects and two twoway interactions
Chapter 11: Emma is planning an experiment to examine whether reading to children increases their vocabulary size. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18montholds, read to them three times a week for three months, then measure their vocabulary size again. What threat to internal validity should she be most concerned about? a) demand characteristics b) instrumentation c) order effect d) maturation
d) maturation
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. What kind of design is this? a) posttest only b) pretest/posttest c) concurrent measures d) repeated measures
d) repeated measures
Which of the following phrases would NOT suggest that multiple regression was used? a. "controlled for" b. "correcting for" c. "taking into account" d. "made a difference in"
d. "made a difference in" Regression in Popular Press Articles — The terminology "made a difference in" suggests a causal claim, which isn't established by regression.
A researcher is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. Assuming he wants 25 people in each cell how many participants does the researcher need to recruit? a. 100 b. 125 c. 150 d. 200 e. 250
d. 200
Nesta is making a scatterplot of the digit spans (how many numbers you can remember and repeat back) for his psychology class, with the spans for digits the students hear on one axis and the span for digits the students read on the other. The association is strong, but he notices that one student has a visual digit span that is twice as long as anyone else. What statistical validity question is he raising? a. Is the relationship curvilinear? b. Is there a restriction of range? c. Is the correlation statistically significant? d. Could outliers be affecting the relationship?
d. Could outliers be affecting the relationship? Statistical Validity Question 3: Could Outliers Be Affecting the Association? — One extreme score can have a strong effect on the correlation coefficient, r.
3. A study found that people who like spicy foods are generally risk takers. Which of the following questions interrogates the construct validity of this correlation? a. Is the result statistically significant? b. Did the study use a random sample? c. Were there any outliers in the relationship? d. How well did they measure risk taking and liking spicy foods
d. How well did they measure risk taking and liking spicy foods
3. A study found that people who like spicy foods are generally risk takers. Which of the following questions interrogates the construct validity of this correlation?
d. How well did they measure risk taking and liking spicy foods?
4. Darrin reads a story reporting that students at private colleges get higher GPAs than those at public colleges. He wonders if this means going to a private college causes you to have a higher GPA; if so, he'll go to a private college! Apply the three causal criteria, Darrin known there is covariance here. He also knows there is temporal precedence, because you choose a college first, and then you get your GPA. Which of the following questions would help Darrin ask about the third criterion, internal validity? a. Could there be a restriction of range? b. Is the link between private college and high grades the same for both men and women? c. How did they decide what qualifies a college as "private" or "public" d. Is there some other reason why these two are related? Maybe better students are more likely to go to private colleges, and they are also going to get better grades
d. Is there some other reason why these two are related? Maybe better students are more likely to go to private colleges, and they are also going to get better grades
4. Darrin reads a story reporting that students at private colleges get higher GPAs than those at public colleges. He wonders if this means going to a private college causes you to have a higher GPA; if so, he'll go to a private college! Applying the three causal criteria, Darrin knows there is covariance here. He also knows there is temporal precedence, because you choose a college first, and then you get your GPA. Which of the following questions would help Darrin ask about the third criterion, internal validity?
d. Is there some other reason why these two are related? Maybe better students are more likely to go to private colleges, and they are also going to get better grades?
Which of the following is the essential feature of studies that support association claims? a. They involve a correlation between one measured variable and one manipulated variable b. They involve a correlation between one quantitative variable and one categorical variable. c. They involve a correlation between one measured variable and one manipulated variable d. They involve two measured variables
d. They involve two measured variables Bivariate Correlational Research — It doesn't matter what type of graph you make or what statistic you use. When both variables are measured, the claim being tested is an association claim.
Which of the following is TRUE about the difference between beta and r? a. unlike r, beta reflects the independent contribution of the predictor variable, controlling for the contributions from the other predictor variables. b. Unlike r, the size of beta is not related to the magnitude of the effect c. Unlike r, beta cannot be negative d. Unlike r, beta reflects the independent contribution of the predictor variable, controlling for the contributions from the other predictor variables
d. Unlike r, beta reflects the independent contribution of the predictor variable, controlling for the contributions from the other predictor variables Beta basics — Beta reflects the relationship between one predictor variable and the criterion variable controlling for the other predictor variables.
In a study in which two variables are measured at two different points in time, which of the following is an example of a cross-lag correlation? a. Variable B at Time 1 is associated with variable B at Time 2 b. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 1 c. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable A at Time 2 d. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 2
d. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 2 Cross-Lag Correlations — Cross-lag correlations are used in a longitudinal design to check if a variable measured at one point in time correlates with a second variable measured at a different point in time.
Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. Overall, a positive relation between waiting time as a preschooler and self-control in adolescence emerged. Can a causal relationship be inferred? a. No, because internal validity was not established b. No, because temporal precedence was not established c. No, because covariance was not established. d. Yes; covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity were established.
d. Yes, covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity were established. Internal Validity: Can We Make a Causal Inference from an Association? — There was not a manipulated variable so there may have been other alternative explanations for the results.
Jenna is interested in the association between the height of professional basketball players and their free-throw shooting percentage. She looks at the correlation between NBA players and their free-throw percentage from last season and she finds a statistically significant negative association. Jenna's friend Elizabeth suggests that Jenna should look at scatter plot of the data. Jenna follows Elizabeth's advice and finds that one of the players is much shorter than the rest of the players and that player has a much better free-throw shooting percentage. When Jenna removes this player from her analysis, she finds that there is no longer a statistically significant relationship between height and free-throw shooting. What kind of problem has Elizabeth helped Jenna identify? a. a moderation problem b. a third variable problem c. a restriction of range problem d. a problem with an outlier in the sample
d. a problem Statistical Validity Question 3: Could Outliers Be Affecting the Association? — The player who is short and good at free throws is having a disproportionate influence on the correlation. That player is an outlier.
Dr. Thompson researches gang-related crime in Chicago. She notices that more graffiti appears when there are more ice cream trucks in town. She does a study that measures the frequency of new graffiti being reported and ice cream truck sales for each week over a year. She finds a positive association between ice cream truck sales and graffiti and concludes that the ice cream trucks are encouraging graffiti. Her colleague, Dr. Richardson, points out that both ice cream sales and graffiti might be influenced by rising temperatures during the summer. What kind of problem has Dr. Richardson identified? a. a restriction of range problem b. a problem with outliers in the sample c. a moderation problem d. a third variable problem
d. a third variable problem More on Internal Validity: When Is That Potential Third Variable a Problem? — The changing temperature throughout the year is responsible for both the increase in ice cream truck sales and the increase in graffiti. The third variable of temperature is responsible for the relationship between the two variables that Dr. Thompson studied.
Whether or not we reject the null hypothesis depends on a. the probability of the result given the null hypothesis is true b. how far the data depart from what we would expect if the null hypothesis were true c. the size of some test statistic d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Which of the following things can be done to reduce the effect of individual differences? a. using a matched groups design b. using a within groups design c. using a homogenous sample d. all of the above can be done to reduce the effect of individual differences e. nothing can be done to reduce the effect of individual differences
d. all of the above can be done to reduce the effect of individual differences
The major disadvantage with repeated measures designs is that they a. require to many subjects b. are less powerful than between subjects designs c. have a funny looking summary table d. are subject to the influence of carry-over effects
d. are subject to influence of carry-over effects
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that job satisfaction at the first time point is correlated with job satisfaction at the second time. What type of correlation is this? a. cross-lag b. cross-sectional c. negative d. autocorrelations
d. autocorrelations Autocorrelations — Each of these is a correlation of a variable with the same variable measured at two different times.
The difference between a one-way analysis of variance and a factorial analysis of variance is a. the presence of an interaction b. the presence of more than one main effect c. one-way analyses of variance have an error term, whereas factorial analyses do not d. both a and b
d. both a and b
Which of the following is a reason that multiple regression designs are inferior to experimental designs? a. They can only control for third variables that are measured. b. they cannot establish temporal precedence c. they take longer to conduct d. both a and b are true e. all the above are true
d. both a and b
Which of the following is a within-groups quasi experimental design? a. interrupted time-series design b. nonequivalent control group design c.Nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design d. both a and c e. all of the above
d. both a and c
In what way does high within-groups variance obscure between-groups variance? a. It leads to smaller effect sizes b. It limits the type of statistical analyses that can be conducted c. it cause more overlap between experimental/comparison groups d. both a and c obscure between-groups variance e. both b and c obscure between-groups variance
d. both a and c obscure between-groups variance
Dr. Russell did a study that found that praise provided by supervisors is associated with higher levels of work productivity only because more motivated employees are praised more often, and highly motivated people are more productive. In her findings, employee motivation is a ___________ in the relationship between praise from supervisors and work productivity. a. moderator b. criterion variable c. mediator d. confounding third variable
d. confounding third variable Mediators vs. Third Variables — In a third-variable explanation, the third variable (employee motivation) is external to the two variables in the original bivariate correlation (praise from supervisors and work productivity).
Which of the following is NOT required to establish causality? a. internal validity b. temporal precedence c. covariance d. convergent validity
d. convergent validity internal validity: can we make a causal inference from an association? Convergent validity is a way to assess construct validity
When using multiple regression, what is the term for the variable that the researcher is most interested in explaining or predicting? a. predictor b. independent variable c. response d. criterion
d. criterion Criterion Variables and Predictor Variables — Multiple regression is used to study three or more variables and the variable chosen as one that researchers want to understand is called the criterion variable.
Which type of validity is typically not relevant to association claims? a. construct b. external c. statistical d. internal
d. internal Interrogating Association Claims- Internal validity is typically not relevant to association claims because both variables are being measured, and neither is being manipulated
Which of the following is NOT a question you should ask about the statistical validity of an association claim? a. what is the effect size? b. is the correlation statistically significant? c. are there subgroups? d. is random assignment affecting the findings? e. could outliers be affecting the relationship?
d. is random assignments affecting the findings?
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28 and that p<0.001. What does this mean? a. the result is not statistically significant b. the result probably no association between extra credit and course grades in the full population c. the result probably came from a zero-association population d. it is very unlikely that is association was found in the sample she, in the full population, there is really no association
d. it is very unlikely that is association was found in the sample she, in the full population, there is really no association Effect Size, Sample Size, and Significance — This p value means that it is very unlikely (less than .01 percent) that the values came from a zero-association population.
When a relationship between two variables depends on the level of a third variable, that kind of a third variable is called a: a. mediator b. spurious correlation c. predictor variable d. moderator
d. moderator Mediators vs. Moderators — Moderating variables provide information about when or under what conditions two other variables are related.
we want to predict a person's happiness from the following variables:degree of optimism, success in school, and number of close friends. what type of statistical tests can tell us whether these variables predict a person's happiness? a. factorial anova c. multiple comparison c. correlation d. multiple regression
d. multiple regression
In a factorial analysis of vaiace you cannot have a. both a significant interaction and a significant main effect b. two significant main effects c. a significant main effect and a nonsignificant interactions d. none of the above; and combination is possible
d. none of the above; any combination is possible.
Lucia is interested in studying discrimination in hiring. She designs an experiment in which the participant takes the role of an employer looking at job candidates for a specific position. Each participant is given two very similar resumés—one of a candidate with a female name and one of a candidate with a male name—and is then asked to rate the suitability of each candidate for a job. Lucia finds no difference in participants' ratings of male and female candidates. What threat to internal validity should she be concerned about?
demand characteristics
Effect size
describes the strength of an association
An experimenter's mistake in designing the independent variable; it is a second variable that happens to vary systematically along with the intended independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results
design confound
Autocorrelations
determine the correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions
An interaction means there is a ______.
difference in the differences.
in a bar graph, what can be used to describe the relationship between the variables?
differences between the two averages
conditions
different levels of the independent variable. example-red, blue, greed.
A study in which researchers repeat an original study as closely as they can, to see whether the original effect shows up in the newly collected data
direct replication
Roediger and McDermott (1995) conducted a study involving a paradigm initially developed by Deese (1959) which produces false recall of a word when a participant is given a list of words to recall which centers on a particular word but does not include it. For example, if participants were given a list that included sandal, towel, sunscreen, and waves, then they would falsely remember the word beach even though it was not on the list. They did two studies based on Deese's original study. In the first study, they used the same word lists that Deese used and in the second experiment they used new sets of stimulus words. What is the term for the second study they ran?
direct replication
effect size
direction and strength
R has two qualities:
direction and strength.
In psychology lab, Tatiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tatiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
distance out of alignment of the rods
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated measures design. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? distance out of alignment of the rods how long the participant takes to complete the experiment improvement in performance by the participant eye/eyes used
distance out of alignment of the rods
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
distance out of the alignment of the rods
temporal precedence (experiment)
does causal variable come before the effect variable in time? great ability to establish this with experiments because you manipulate your independent variable first then see what happens to your dependent variable
Regression
does not establish causation because researchers may not be able to establish temporal precedence and researchers cannot control for variables they do not measure (there could be an important third variable -- one they did not consider -- that accounts for the association). However, multiple regression allows researchers to control for potential third variables, but only for variables they choose to measure
experiment
doesnt just mean trying something out. means manipulating at least one variable and measuring the other.
how to control demand characteristics that threaten internal validity?
double blind study
a study that uses a treatment group and a placebo group and in which neither the research assistant nor the participants know who is in which group; helps rule out placebo effects
double-blind placebo control group studies
A study in which neither the people treating the patients nor the patients themselves know whether they are in the real group or the placebo group
double-blind placebo control study
A study in which neither the participants nor the researchers who evaluate them know who is in the treatment group and who is in the comparison group
double-blind study
magnitude of a relationship between two are more variables
effect size
Statistical significance is related to
effect size.
By measuring possible third variables and using multiple-regression analysis, these third variables can be:
eliminated as explanations for the relationship between the key variables
Which of these is NOT an advantage of within-groups designs?
elimination of practice effects
Which of these is not an advantage of within-groups designs? elimination of practice effects assurance of equivalence of the groups requirement of fewer participants more statistical power
elimination of practice effects
advantages of within groups designs
ensures participants of the two treatment groups will be equivalent (same participants). example-mothers and oxytocin levels. levels vary amongst women so smart to test it with the same women and a different activity. "treating each participant as his or her own control"
construct validity of dependent variables
example with temp. ask how they measured this. is it reliable (do people give the same answer every time). is it valid?-are people's estimates of room temp associated with how warm or cold they are actually feeling and not with another variable. face validity-does it seem like a good measurement
example of main effect
example- one cleanser size highlighted in blue and one in yellow. look for main effect of bottle size. compute amount poured from small bottle, averaged across two price conditions and the serving size poured from the large bottle, also averaged across two price conditions.
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept. Which validity is concerned with applying the results to more expensive objects? construct internal statistical external
external
Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's:
external validity
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated measures design. What is the independent variable in this experiment? depth perception number of trials disparity from perfect alignment eye/eyes used
eye/eyes used
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the independent variable in this experiment?
eye/eyes used
two or more independent variables examined in one study (most common type of experiment).
factorial design
When all scores cluster at the low end
floor effect
null effect-insensitive measures
for dependent measures smart to used dependent measures that have detailed, quantitative increments. like if a medication brings a fever down by half a degree but your thermometer only measures in full degrees or if taking a practice test will improve your score by 5 points, but it is only a pass/fail scale
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. What is the criterion variable?
foreign language achievement
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. Which of the following is NOT a predictor variable?
foreign language achievement
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. They found that foreign language anxiety was â =-0.39 and academic achievement was â = 0.29. What does this mean?
foreign language anxiety has a big effect than academic achievement does on foreign language
What types of counterbalancing are there?
full counterbalancing: in which ALL possible condition orders are represented. partial counterbalancing: in which only SOME of the possible condition orders are represented.
Professor Schwartz does a study that examines the relationship between time spent at a shopping mall and happiness. She finds that for women, the more time in the mall is associated with higher levels of happiness. She finds that for men, the more time in the mall is associated with lower levels of happiness. What is the moderator in this relationship?
gender
Dr. Reynolds develops a treatment for social anxiety disorder. After he has shown his treatment to be effective in very controlled laboratory studies, he decides to test it in other settings. He collaborates with clinicians who work in a variety of clinical settings across the country. Dr. Reynolds trains the clinicians on his treatment, but doesn't supervise them closely. He also allows patients with some common comorbidities , such as depression, to participate in the study. This study is in _______.
generalization mode
observer bias (threat to internal validity)
happens when researchers expectation influence their interpretation of the results or influence the outcome of a study. example-doctor with depressed women can expect them to improve whether they do or not. or with the campers, leader can believe that him taking away sugar made them better so he really thinks they are better. can threaten internal (other explanation exists for results) and construct validity (depression rating for women do not represent true levels of depression)
mediators versus moderators
have to ask different questions to get them. mediating variables- asked why the two variables are linked moderating variables-are these two variables linked the same way for everyone or in every situation?
double blind placebo control study
have treatment and comparison group, one group gets real drug and the other get placebo drug. the patients and the people treating them do not know who is getting what. could also have a no treatment group, they don receive treatment or a placebo drug
Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is NOT true of Dr. Kline's study?
he does not have a dependent variable
Multiple-regression analyses
help establish internal validity by statistically controlling for some potential third variables
Longitudinal correlational designs
help satisfy the temporal precedence criterion
what does statistical significance help us do?
helps evaluate the probability that the result of an r value came from a population in which the association is really zero. sometimes the sample shows a correlation, but actually there is no correlation in the population.
A city in California has asked Professor Rodriguez to conduct an experiment on earthquake preparedness. Professor Rodriguez will assess the preparedness of a random sample of residents in the city and the city will mail out their annual brochure on earthquake safety. Then, two weeks later, he will again assess the preparedness of those residents. Right after the brochures are mailed, a large earthquake is reported in Japan. What threat to internal validity does this pose?
history
when external or 'historical' event occurs to EVERYONE in treatment group, *and threat is introduced at same time as treatment* (e.g., "maybe an event happened in the world and that caused the change?"); how to minimize: comparison group helps, but could still occur if event happens only to experimental group.
history threat
Result from a "historical" or external event that affects most members of the treatment groups at the same time as the treatment, making it unclear whether the change in the experimental group is caused by the treatment received or by the historical factor.
history threats
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) In evaluating Dr. Oswald's study, you question the construct validity of the study. Which of the following questions would you be asking?
how reliable is the measure of daily stress?
external validity with multivariate designs
how well can it generalize. random sampling is the best way. example with aggression and violent TV they used a census of small town in New York not a sample for cannot ask if sample was random, but can question if generalizes to urban children. or does it generalize to other kinds of media? for recess example ask if classrooms were sampled randomly and from what kind of population. because they covered so many other things you can have confidence that the sample accurately represented a variety of class types
Manipulation checks help researchers measure:
how well their manipulation worked.
subtraction method: use the differences between means for the conditions (marginal means, e.g., 30 and 0) in a line graph: lines that are not parallel can indicate an interaction in a bar graph: when one set of bars has a greater difference (or displays an opposite pattern) than the other set, this can indicate an interaction is present
identifying interactions
in a table: if there is a large enough difference between column means or row means, you might have a significant main effect. in a graph: for line, sloped or separated lines may indicate a main effect. for bar, differences between bar heights may indicate main effects. *statisitcal test required
identifying main effects
carryover effects, practice effects, or order effects
in a within groups design is a confound, the participants performance at later levels of the independent variable might be caused not by the experimental manipulation but by the sequence in which the conditions were experienced. example- ink experiment. if made participants do the test three times could the better scores be due to practice or worse scores be due to boredom instead of the independent variable.
order effect
in a within-groups design, a threat to internal validity in which exposure to one contain changes participants responses to a later
manipulation check
in an experiment, an extra dependent variable researchers can include to determine how well an experimental manipulation worked
systematic variability
in an experiment, the levels of a variable coinciding in some predictable way with experimental group membership, creating a potential confound
unsystematic variability
in an experiment, when levels of a variable fluctuate independently of experimental group membership, contributing to variability within groups
how to rule out placebo effect?
include a comparison group. double blind placebo control studies
Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study?
independent groups design
positive beta means what?
indicated positive relationship between predictor variable and dependent variable, when other predictor variables are stat controlled for. show direction and strength of relationship.
A negative beta, like a negative r
indicates a negative relationship between two variables (when the other predictors are controlled for)
A positive beta, like a positive r
indicates a positive relationship between that predictor variable and the criterion variable, when the other predictor variables are statistically controlled for
individual differences-within group variability obscured group differences
individual differences can be a problem. example could give the $1 to a grumpy person and can make her happier but her mood could be relatively low still. or someone who is already in a good mood could get $0 and still be happier than the $1 person
In an experiment of improving children's handwriting, two different techniques of improving handwriting and a control condition are used. Using a pretest/posttest design both groups who received the treatment showed more improvement than the control group. However, the two groups didn't show any difference from each other. The researcher believes that there is a difference, but that the 5-point assessment scale of handwriting cannot detect it. What measurement problem is the researcher concerned with?
insensitive measures
In an experiment on improving children's handwriting, two different techniques of improving handwriting and a control condition are used. Using a pretest/posttest design, both groups who received the treatment showed more improvement than the control group. However, the two groups didn't show any difference from each other. The researcher believes that there is a difference, but that the 5-point assessment scale of handwriting cannot detect it. What measurement problem is the researcher concerned with?
insensitive measures
As part of an experiment on the effects of behavior modeling, a set of raters are evaluating the prosocial behavior in a series of videotapes of a class of preschoolers. Initially, the raters were quite strict in their ratings, but after three hours of rating, their criteria had changed. What type of threat to internal validity has occurred?
instrumentation
On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. Professor Mutola looks back over the second exam and begins to wonder if it was just an easier exam. What threat to internal validity is she considering?
instrumentation
On the first exam in an introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. Professor Mutola looks back over the second exam and begins to wonder if it was just an easier exam. What threat to internal validity is she considering?
instrumentation
when the 'measuring instrument' (like a survey) changes over time (e.g., therapist changes how he codes the test halfway through study - standards change); how to minimize: - can use posttest only - make sure measures are equivalent - train coders well - counterbalance measures (version A vs. version B at pretest vs. posttest)
instrumentation threat
What is it called when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable?
interaction
What is it called when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of the other independent variable?
interaction
occurs when the effect of one independent variable differs depending on the level of the second independent variable (can only be detected in factorial/complex experimental designs).
interaction
Whether the effect of the original independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable
interaction effect
in the classical music condition, type of environment had a larger effect than it did in the death metal music condition; the effect of music differs DEPENDING ON the type of environment experienced
interaction example
If the study's results show an interaction, the _______ is the most important effect.
interaction itself
What two types of validity in an experiment can observer bias threaten?
internal and construct validty
The most important validity to interrogate when encountering causal claims
internal validity
A quasi-experimental study that measures participants repeatedly on a dependent variable before, during, and after the "interruption" caused by some event
interrupted time-series design
advantages of cross-lag correlations
investigate how people change over time. (temporal precedence). in the example established that children who prefer more violent TV in the third grade are more aggressive in 13th grades. not that children who are aggressive the 3rd grade prefer more violent TV later on.
covariance (experiments)
is causal variable related to effect variable? are the levels of independent variable associated with distinct levels of the dependent variable? association between variables/results
The principle advantage of a within-groups design
it ensures the participants in the two groups will be equivalent
Which of these statements is TRUE of external validity?
it is based on how the sample is obtained rather than sample size
A very small effect size (say, r = .06) will be statistically significant if
it is identified in a very large sample (say, a sample of 1,000 or more)
When we propose a third variable that could explain a bivariate correlation
it is not necessarily going to present an internal validity problem. Instead, it is a reason to dig deeper and ask more questions.
When we're interrogating a simple association claim
it is not necessary to focus on internal validity as long as it's just that: an association claim
When the word "strong" is applied to effect size
it means that strong effect sizes enable predictions that are more accurate
In order to study a sample of participants from only one ethnic group, researchers must first demonstrate that the problem being studied is especially prevalent in that ethnic group. This is an application of which principle from the Belmont Report?
justice
testing threats to internal validity
kind of order effect. means that scores have changed over time just because participants have taken the test more than once. become more practiced or fatigues.
de Abreu, Gathercole, and Martin (2011) found that the correlation of non-word repetition and digit recall in a memory was r = .59. Based on Cohen's (1992) guidelines, how would you describe this effect size?
large
Which of the following is NOT a problem that may contribute to a null effect in a study?
large sample size
What type of research design involves measuring the same variables, for the same people, across different points in time?
longitudinal
construct validities with causal claims
look at how they measure independent and dependent variables. they operationalize two constructs
The overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable.
main effect
overall effect of a single IV on the DV in complex research designs (if experiment has 2 IVs, 2 possible main effects).
main effect
After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 10, 20, and 20 and in the second row are 20, 10, and 10. Describe her results.
main effect of role, no effect of others present, and an interaction
A variable that is controlled
manipulated variable or independent variable
independent variable
manipulated variable. example-pen color. has different levels. x-axis
Pilot studies help researchers test out a :
manipulation before using it in their study of primary interest.
An extra dependent variable that researchers can insert into an experiment to help them quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked.
manipulation check
____________ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked.
manipulation check
Martin has found a correlation of r = .18 between the two variables of caffeine consumption and frontal lobe activity. This correlation is more likely to be statistically significant if:
martin used a larger number of subjects
An experimental design technique in which participants who are similar on some measured variable are grouped into sets
matched groups
In what type of design does the experimenter sort the participants from lowest to highest of a relevant trait, form groups based on similar scores on that trait, then randomly assign those within each group to the different conditions? independent groups concurrent measures matched-groups within-groups
matched-groups
Kathryn wants to control for intelligence in her study. She has a list of all of the participants for her study and their IQ scores. She sorts the list of participants according to their IQ scores and then forms groups making sure that the groups are balanced in terms of IQ scores. Finally, she randomly assigns each group to one of the conditions of her study. What kind of design is Kathryn using?
matched-groups
Which of the following research designs is used to address possible selection effects?
matched-groups designs
Emma is planning an experiment to examine whether reading to children increases their vocabulary size. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18-month-olds, read to them three times a week for three months, then measure their vocabulary size again. What threat to internal validity should she be most concerned about?
maturation
change in behavior that emerges spontaneously over time (e.g., "maybe their depression symptoms just stared to go away on their own?"); how to minimize: inclusion of control group
maturation threat
Some internal validity threats can be addressed simply by including a comparison group, while other internal validity threats can occur even in studies with a comparison group. Which of the following threats to internal validity would be improved with the inclusion of a comparison group?
maturation threats
Some internal validity threats can be addressed simply by including a comparison groups, while other internal validity threats can occur even in studies with a comparison group. Which of the following threats to internal validity would be improved with the inclusion of a comparison group?
maturation threats
A predictor variable that shows a large b
may not actually denote a stronger relationship to the criterion variable than a predictor variable with a smaller b
attrition threats to internal validity
maybe campers got nicer because the worst one left early. or maybe the three most depressed women left therapy because they could not maintain it. posttest average is lower only because extra high scores were not included. many studies with a pre and post test, this happens when people drop out of the study before it ends. sometimes when the tests happen on different days. threatens internal validity when it is systematic (only a certain kind of participant drops out). not a big deal if it happens evenly over the grou.s
t-test
mean difference/9st. dev/sq. root n) detects the difference. larger the nun the smaller the denominator of t is. smaller denominator is the later t can get and the easier it is to find a significant t. adding more people to a study reduced the impact of individual differences within groups and will increase a study's ability to detect difference between groups
Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition with financial compensation being introduced following the low anxiety-level performance. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about putting technique, thinking of irrelevant cue words, and thinking about a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. What is the dependent variable?
mean distance from hole
marginal means
means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over levels of other independent variable. simple average of the sale and regular price conditions. if uneven, it will be calculation and the larger sample will be counted for more.
A beta that is zero or not significantly different from zero
means that there is no relationship (when the other predictors are controlled for)
dependent variable
measured variable. how they act depends on level in independent. have less control over this one. example-how many anagrams each person solved. y-axis
These take the form of records of behavior or attitudes, such as self-reports, behavioral observations, or physiological measures
measured variables or dependent variable
where can noisy data come from?
measurement error, individual differences, and situation noise
Dr. Samuels does a study that finds that children with unusual names are more likely to have delinquency records as adolescents because they got teased more, and the teasing makes them act out. He found that teasing is a ________ in the relationship between having an unusual name and adolescent delinquency.
mediator
Mediators and Moderators are different in that
mediator variables ask: "Why?" and moderator variables ask "For whom?" or "When?"
Table 8.4 shows that an r of about 0.30 is a _______ effect size.
medium or moderate
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. According to Cohen's conventions, how strong is this association?
medium, or moderate
A design in which one independent variable is manipulated as independent groups and the other is manipulated as within-groups
mixed factorial design
Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What kind of study design is this?
mixed factorial design
According to Cohen's conventions for effect size, how do you describe an effect size when d = 0.50?
moderate
According to Cohen's conventions for effect size, how do you describe an effect size when d = 0.50? not existent weak moderate strong
moderate
Table 10.2 indicates that when d = .050, the effect size is _________.
moderate/medium
Interactions allow researchers to examine _________ variables.
moderating
example of mediators versus moderators
moderation-propose that healthy behaviors are the reason that conscientiousness is related to longevity. moderation-propose that the link between conscientiousness and longevity is strongest among wealthy people (they can afford healthcare) and weakest among poorer people
An independent variable that changes the relationship between another independent variable and a dependent variable. Results in an interaction
moderator
An interaction of two independent variables allows researchers to establish whether or not a variable is a ______.
moderator
Dr. Aarons does a study that finds that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years, but only among men, not among women. In her findings, gender is a _________ in the relationship between having a cognitively demanding job and cognitive benefits later in life.
moderator
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Dr. Oswald finds that the relationship between the number of friends one has and life satisfaction is stronger for men than for women. In this study, sex (male or female) is considered a/an:
moderator
If the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of another variable, what is this other variable called?
moderator
When a relationship between two variables depends on the level of a third variable, that kind of a third variable is called a:
moderator
When a relationship between two variables depends on the level of a third variable, that kind of a third variable is called a: Question 2 options: mediator. moderator. spurious correlation. predictor variable.
moderator
When the relationship between two variables depends on the level of a third variable, that variable is a ______ of the relationship.
moderator
a third variable that, depending on its level, changes the relationship between two other variables
moderator
A weak correlation based on a small sample is
more likely to be the result of chance variation and is more likely to judged "not significant"
A study in which researchers stagger their introduction of an intervention across a variety of contexts, times or situations.
multiple-baseline design
Longitudinal designs, multiple-regression designs, and the pattern and parsimony approach are examples of
multivariate designs, meaning that they involve more than two measured variables
what is necessary for a third variable to be plausible?
must correlate logically to BOTH variables. example with small talk and well being association. maybe you think the third variable is income, and you say that people with higher incomes have a higher well being. you have to be able to say how income is related to small talk as well.
A negative beta means that there is a _______ relationship between the predictor variable and the dependent variable
negative
double blind study
neither the participants or the researchers know who is in the treatment group and who is in the comparison group.
After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 15, 15, and 15 and in the second row are 20, 15, and 10. Describe her results.
no effect of role, main effect of others present, and interaction -Increasing the Number of Levels of an Independent Variable—The marginal means differ for both factors and there are differences in the differences in each column.
After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 10, 15, and 20 and in the second row are 20, 15, and 10. Describe her results.
no effect of role, no effect of others present, and an interaction -The marginal means are the same for both factors and there are differences in the differences in each column.
main different between beta and r
no quick guidelines for beta to indicate effect sizes that are weak, moderate, or strong. because betas change depending on what predictor variable is used or controlled for
do you need to formally interrogate internal validity for association claims?
no, but should consider it when you see any claim like this to avoid the causal temptation
the unsystematic variability among the members of a group in an experiment.
noise
A study that combines both an interrupted time-series design and a nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design
nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design
A study in which participants were not randomly assigned to groups, and were tested both before and after some intervention
nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design
when a study finds that the IV did NOT make a difference in the DV, no covariance (e.g., the treatment "didn't work").
null effect
3. Selection effects
occurs in an experiment when the kinds of participants in one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those in the other. Example: From Chapter 10 : In the autism study, some parents insisted they wanted their children to be in the intensive treatment group rather than the control group. ?Did the researchers use random assignment or matched groups to equalize groups?
partial counterbalancing
only some of the possible condition orders are represented. when too many levels, there get to be too many combinations. usually present the conditions in a randomized order for each subject (usually by a computer)
Occurs when exposure to one level of the independent variable influences responses to the next level of the independent variable
order effects
Internal Validity: Can We Make a Causal Inference from an Association? — There was not a manipulated variable so there may have been ________
other alternative explanations for the results
In a bivariate correlation
outliers are mainly problematic when they involve extreme scores on both of the variables
main effect
overal effect of one independent variable ont he dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable. it is a simple difference. in a factorial design with 2 independent variables, there are two of these. overal effect of one independent variable over time, interaction is more important than this
spurious
overall relationship is attributable only to systematic mean difference on subgroups within the sample. for example graph showing relationships between how many classes missed and GOA shows a positive correlation (more classes missed, the higher the GPA), but that is not right. have to consider the subgroups of different class levels and realize that the association is between less classes missed and a higher GPA.
what does it mean to be statistically significant?
p less than 5% means unlikely to have come from a zero association population. then considered this.
what do statistical significane calculation estimate?
p or sig, the probability estimate
The degree to which a theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon. In the context of investigating a claim, the simplest explanation of a pattern of data; the best explanation that requires making the fewest exceptions or qualifications.
parsimony
In the context of investigating a causal claim
parsimony means the simplest explanation of a pattern of data -- the best explanation that requires making the fewest exceptions or qualifications
Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep without watching TV. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Given that Dr. Acitelli's participants have agreed to participate for three nights each, which type of counterbalancing should she use?
partial counterbalancing
A variable whose levels are selected (measured) and not manipulated
participant variable
variable whose levels are selected, not manipulated (e.g., gender, age, sex, ethnicity, etc.)
participant variable
Between OR Within? How is a between subjects design different from within subjects design?
participants are only given 1 level of an IV (between) participants are given all levels of an IV (within)
posttest - only design / equivalent groups
participants are randomly assigned to independent variable groups and are tested on the dependent variable once. An experiment using an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the dependent variable only once. Also called equivalent groups, posttest-only design.
when double blind study is not possible what are some alternatives?
participants know whether they are in the treatment or comparison group but the observers do not. example-Go Green, students know if they are in treatment group because they are getting stuff saying turn lights off but guy reading gauge does not know who is in what group
Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?
participants mood
Testing threats involve ________ whereas instrumentation threats involve ________.
participants; measurements
What is it called when researchers investigate causality by using a variety of correlational studies that all point in a single, causal direction? Question 4 options: longitudinal study pattern and parsimony multiple-regression design cross-lag design
pattern and parsimony
In cases where researchers cannot establish causality by running an experiment, they can find support for a causal relationship by looking for _________ in a variety of correlational studies.
patterns and parsimony
What is it called when researchers investigate causality by using a variety of correlational studies that all point in a single, causal direction?
patterns and parsimony
Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a:
pilot study
Dr. Bloedorn is a health psychologist who researches nutrition. She is curious as to whether a new drink additive will help people consume fewer calories during a meal. The drink additive is a white, odorless, tasteless powder that a person can add to any drink. She collects a random sample of 63 overweight students on campus and measures the calories they eat during lunch, using a bomb calorimeter. She then gives this additive to the same 63 participants to use at dinner and measures how many calories they eat (again, using the bomb calorimeter). The addition of a group that does not use the drink additive but adds a similar-looking substance that they think is the additive would help Dr. Bloedorn address which of the following threats to internal validity?
placebo effects
Dr. Keller wants to test the effect of a new anti-anxiety medication. He recruits a groups of anxious patients and randomly assigns them to two groups. One group will receive his new medication and the other will receive a sugar pill. What is the second group called?
placebo group
When the control group is exposed to an inert treatment such as a sugar pill, it is called a
placebo group
What design is an experiment in which participants are randomly assigned to independent variable groups then tested on the dependent variable once? within-groups repeated measures pretest/posttest posttest only
posttest only
Participants are randomly assigned to independent variable groups and are tested on the dependent variable once
posttest-only design
The ability for a study to reveal a statistically significant difference between the levels of an independent variable when one truly exists is known as:
power
he ability for a study to reveal a statistically significant difference between the levels of an independent variable when one truly exists is known as:
power
• Understand the idea of order effects (subtypes: practice effects, and carryover effects), counterbalancing, and the relationship between the two.
practice effects: also known as fatigue effects , in which a long sequence might lead participants to get better at the task, or to get tired or bored toward the end. carryover effects: in which some form of contamination carries over from one condition to the next.
A variable in multiple-regression analysis that is used to explain variance in the criterion variable.
predictor variable
Cara is running a study to examine the effect of music on mood. She randomly assigns participants to three conditions — rock, jazz, and country. She has the participants rate their mood with a short questionnaire, then listen to their assigned music for 20 minutes, and then fill out the mood questionnaire again. What kind of design is she using
pretest/posttest
Cara is running a study to examine the effect of music on mood. She randomly assigns participants to three conditions — rock, jazz, and country. She has the participants rate their mood with a short questionnaire, then listen to their assigned music for 20 minutes, and then fill out the mood questionnaire again. What kind of design is she using?
pretest/posttest
Participants are randomly assigned to at least two groups and are tested on the key dependent variable twice-once before and once after exposure to the independent variable
pretest/posttest design
why do ceiling and floor effects happen?
problematic independent variable. money and happiness example. giving people $0, $0.25 to $1 would be a floor effect because all very low. or anxiety study told they were going to experience 50 volt shock, or 10 volt shock or 100 volt shock0ceiling effect. all get anxiety and independent. or to see if men or women were better at math and give them all the same really easy problem and everyone got it right and said that men and women are at the same level of math
does within groups allow researchers to make causal claims?
provide opportunity to establish covariance. example- oxytocin levels covaried with the toddler the woman was with. repeated measures designs establish temporal precedence because experimenter control independent variable and ensures it comes first. but threat to internal validity. sometimes being exposed to one condition changes how people react to the other condition.
Used in an experiment to avoid selection effects
random assignment
Which of the following would NOT necessarily be a clue that the study described in a popular press article was a factorial design?
reference to a peer-reviewed journal
Statistical significance
refers to the conclusion a researcher reaches regarding how likely it is they'd get a correlation of that size just by chance, assuming there is no correlation in the real world
Jared is conducting an experiment with ESP (extrasensory perception) training. He begins with a pretest of his 40 participants and divides them into two groups based on their scores. The participants with the 10 lowest scores are given extensive training on how to detect the signals. The participants with the 30 highest scores are given no training. Both groups are retested and the average score of the participants with the training improved, while the average score of the participants without the training actually fell. What threat to internal validity should Jared consider?
regression
A statistical concept called regression to the mean: When a performance is extreme at Time 1, the next time that performance is measured (Time 2), it is likely to be less extreme-that is, closer to a typical or average performance.
regression threat
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. What kind of design is this?
repeated measures
A type of within-groups design in which participants are measured on a dependent variable more than once-that is, after exposure to each level of the independent variable
repeated-measures design
Pertaining to a study whose results have been obtained again when the study was repeated
replicable
A study in which researchers replicate their ordinal study but add variables to test additional questions
replication-plus-extension
Dr. Joseph thinks that most people are generally trusting of strangers. He did a study at his university in the United States to test this idea, and the results confirmed his hypothesis. Dr. Joseph is discussing the results of this study with a friend who is a psychology researcher in China, Dr. Ming. Dr. Ming thinks that people in Eastern cultures, such as China, are less trusting of strangers in Western cultures, such as the United States. Dr. Joseph and Dr. Ming decide to run a second study where they have a group of participants in China and a group of participants in the United States both complete the task used in Dr. Joseph's study. This second study is a _______.
replication-plus-extension
Statistical significance calculations help
researchers evaluate the probability that the result came from a population in which the association is really zero
The p value helps
researchers evaluate the probability that the sample's association came from a population in which the association is zero.
experiment
researchers manipulated at least one variable and measured another.
To investigate associations
researchers need to measure the first variable and then measure the second variable -- in the same group of people. Then they use graphs and simple statistics to describe the type of relationship between the variables
multiple-baseline design :
researchers stagger their introduc-tion of an intervention across a variety of contexts, times, or situations.
If a there is not a full range of scores on one of the variables, this is known as ________.
restriction of range
a situation involving bivariate correlation, inw which there is not a full range of possible scores on one of the variables in the association, so the relationship from the sample underestimates the true correlation
restriction of range
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the independent variable in this experiment? role of the participant price that the buyer will pay price that the seller will accept name of the participant
role of the participant
mathematical way to describe interaction between of two independent variables
saying there is a difference in differences. example suggesting that the difference between cell phone and control conditions (cell phone minus control) might be difference for older drivers than younger drivers. interaction=a difference in differences=the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of the other independent variable
Which of these does not need to be considered as an alternative explanation of the results in a within-groups design experiment? fatigue selection practice boredom
selection
In a word list-learning experiment, participants are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of time between the study period and the recall is being manipulated: it is 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Since different groups need different amounts of time, the first 25 participants who arrive are assigned to the 10-minute group, the next 25 are assigned to the 5-minute group, and the final 25 are assigned to the 2-minute group. What confound does this create? demand characteristic selection effect experimenter bias carryover effect
selection effect
Occurs in an experiment when the kinds of participants in one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those in the other. These occur when the experimenters let participants choose which group they want to be in. Also, when experimenters assign one type of person to one condition, and another type of person to another condition.
selection effect
Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Since the different groups need different amounts of time, the first 25 participants who arrive are assigned to the 10-minute group, the next 25 are assigned to the 5-minute group, and the final 25 are assigned to the 2-minute group. What confound does this create?
selection effect
Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Since different groups need different amounts of time, the first 25 participants who arrive are assigned to the 10-minute group, the next 25 are assigned to the 5-minute group, and the final 25 are assigned to the 2-minute group. What confound does this create?
selection effect
Which of the following does NOT need to be considered as an alternative explanation of the results in a within-groups design experiment?
selection effects
Dr. Harrison wants to test the effectiveness of the support group he runs for undergraduates who have drinking problems. He recruits a group of students who have been referred to the counseling center. He randomizes them to two groups — a treatment group and a control group. The treatment group attends 10 structured support group sessions at 8:00 a.m. on Fridays that are facilitated by Dr. Harrison. The control group attends 10 unstructured meetings at 3:00 p.m. on Wednesdays that are facilitated by members of the group. Several of the participants in the treatment group stop attending the group after just a couple of sessions. All of the control group members attend their group regularly. At the end of the 10 weeks of groups, Dr. Harrison measures drinking behavior of the people who are still attending the groups. He finds that the drinking behavior of people who attended all 10 of the structured group sessions is less than the drinking behavior of people who attended all 10 of the unstructured group sessions. What kind of threat to internal validity should Dr. Harrison be concerned about?
selection-attrition threat
null effect-ceiling and floor effects
special cases of weak manipulations and insensitive measures. cause independent variable groups to score almost the same on the dependent variable. also scores squeezed together either at the high end (ceiling) or low end (floor).
a bivariate association that is attributable only to systematic mean differences on subgroups within the sample; the original association is not present within the subgroups
spurious association
A study in which a researcher observes behavior for an extended baseline period before beginning a treatment or other intervention; if behavior during the baseline is stable, the researcher is more certain of the treatment's effectiveness
stable-baseline design
describing interactions with words
start with one level of the first independent variable and explain what is happening with the second independent variable at that level, then move to the next level fo the first and do the same thing. example-"when people poured from the small bottle, they ooured more detergent when it was on sale than when it ws regular price. when people poured from the large bottle they poured the same amount of detergent when it was one sale as when it was regular price. as you move from level to level make it clear that the size of the effect of the other independent variable (produce price) is changing.
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept. Which validity is concerned with the significance of the difference in the prices? construct internal statistical external
statistical
A conclusion that a result from a sample (such as an association or a difference between groups) is so extreme that the sample is unlikely to have come from a population in which there is no association or no difference.
statistical significance
Disadvantages of Within-Groups Design — That extraneous differences are held constant is a _______, not a weakness.
strength
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated measures design. She finds that d = 1.53. What effect size is this? weak moderate strong This cannot be determined without knowing the number of participants.
strong
Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. The parents' ratings of likelihood of yielding to temptation correlated with the preschool waiting time measurement at r = -0.50. How would this effect size be described according to Cohen's benchmarks?
strong
an r of -.05 is a ______ effect size.
strong
subgroups can still show the same result?
subgroups of example male and females in something. females can show a higher level in extraversion and a correlation between more likely upbeat, popular music and men can show the same correlation but on a lower scale. association level is the same, but on different amounts of the subgroups.
• Understand what random assignment is supposed to do and why we use it. Understand the relationship between internal validity and random assignment. (Not to be confused with random selection)
supposed to do:ensures that every participant in an experiment has an equal chance to be in each group. why we use it: it's a way of desystematizing the types of participants who end up in each level of the independent variable.
Attrition is not a threat if it occurs uniformly across both groups, but if it is _________, it becomes a threat.
systematic
It is more common to test whether the difference between means (group averages) is statistically significant, usually by a statistic known as the
t test
Letter grades are a categorical variable so this is an analysis of one categorical variable and one quantitative variable. A _____ is a statistic used to describe this type of relationship.
t test
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He decides the plot will be clearer if he converts the numerical grades into letter grades and plots a bar graph with letter grades on the x-axis and the mean number extra credit points earned on the y-axis. What type of statistic would he run to determine if there is a relationship between letter grades and extra credit points earned?
t test
measured variables
take the form of records of behaviors or attitudes, such as self-reports, behavioral observations, or physiological measures. (Dependent Variable)
Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. What is the dependent variable?
tastiness and expensiveness
Which of the following is NOT a research claim?
teens spend too much time texting and driving
problem with outliers in association claim?
teeter-totter example. sit close to the middle not a lot of impact, but sitting on the edge greatly changes things.
Vida is studying the connection between school grades and time spent using social media. She finds a strong correlation, showing the students with lower grades spend more time using social media. She decides that before she can claim that increased use of social media causes grades to drop she must make sure that the social media came before the low grades. What criterion of causality is she concerned with?
temporal precedence
what do cross-lag correlations help establish?
temporal precedence. example-would examine if TV violence in the third grade is associated with aggression later on. or if aggression in the third grade is correlated with preference for TV violence later one.
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated measures design. She plans to have 60 participants and to use full counterbalancing. How many participants will be in each group? six ten twenty thirty
ten
causal temptation
tendency to make causal inference from any association claim
The process of using a factorial design to test limits
testing for moderators
A specific kind of order effect, refers to a change in the participants as a result of taking a test (dependent measure) more than once. People may have become more practiced at taking the test, leading to improved scores, or they may become fatigued or bored, which could lead to worse scores over time.
testing threat
An instructor hypothesizes that doing jumping jacks will improve his students' quiz performance. On Monday, he has his class sit in their chairs for five minutes before completing a multiple-choice quiz on their reading assignment. On Wednesday, he has his class do two minutes of jumping jacks before completing the same quiz that they took on Monday. The students performed better on the quiz on Wednesday. What is a possible threat to internal validity in this study?
testing threat
cross factorial design
tests whether the effect of driving while talking on a cell phone depended on the driver's age. manipulated two independent variables (cell phone use and driver's age), creating a condition representing each possible combination of the two. . essentially overlaid one independent variable on top of another. creating four conditions.
What does use of a Latin square assure with regard to conditions in a within-groups experiment? that each participant will have a unique order of the conditions that the order of the conditions will be randomized for each group that each condition appears in each position within the order at least once that all possible orders of conditions will be used
that each condition appears in each position within the order at least once
explanation of internal validity (causality)
the association between small talk and well being could be because of something else, or a third variable. could be stress for example. but third variable must meet certain requirements
Parsimony
the degree to which a good scientific theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon
insensitive measures: the scale does not have the precision to detect ______
the differences between two treatments
In a factorial design study, which effect is usually considered the most important effect?
the interaction
Dr. Kang, a cognitive psychologist, conducts an experiment examining the effect of emotion on memory. He provides lists of 15 words to two groups of participants at his university. He puts the names of all the participants in a hat. The first 20 names he assigns to Group A, and the last 20 he assigns to Group B. Group A is given a list of words that are very emotional in content (e.g., passion, murder). Group B is given a list of words that are neutral in content (e.g., houseplant, desk). He then measures how many words each group is able to remember after being distracted for 5 minutes by watching a video about the history of the university. He finds that Group A remembers 15% more words than Group B. Refer to Research Study 3.4 to answer the following seven questions. Dr. Kang's decision to assign participants randomly to Group A and Group B increases which of the following?
the internal validity of the study
Marginal means are a way of looking at:
the main effect of one variable.
In a study of the span of apprehension, or how many objects you can assess (report seeing) after a brief exposure, the length of exposure is held constant and the number of objects is varied, from one to twelve. After a large number of trials, the percentage correct for each number of objects is found. What is the independent variable? the percentage correct the number of objects the length of exposure the number of trials
the number of objects
Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. What is the dependent variable?
the number of pictures accurately identified
*Beta* reflects the relationship between one predictor variable and the criterion variable controlling for:
the other predictor variables
Beta reflects the relationship between one predictor variable and the criterion variable controlling for:
the other predictor variables
treatment group
the participants in an experiment who are exposed to the level of the independent variable that involves a medication, therapy or intervention
In a study of the span of apprehension, or how many objects you can assess (report seeing) after a brief exposure, the length of exposure is held constant and the number of objects is varied, from one to twelve. After a large number of trials, the percentage correct for each number of objects is found. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? the percentage correct the number of objects the length of exposure the number of trials
the percentage correct
What does a moderator effect say about external validity?
the relationship you found does NOT generalize to ALL people in the population the relationship is stronger/weaker for certain groups of people
If the probability (p) of getting some correlation just by chance is relatively high (i.e., higher than p = 0.5),
the result is usually considered to be "nonsignificant" or "not statistically significant". It means that we cannot rule out the possibility that the result came from a population in which the association is zero
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. In addition to this correlation coefficient, what other information would Professor Fofana need to determine if this result is statistically significant?
the sample size
Anton and his friends are discussing a study he read about in his developmental psychology class. In the study, the researcher made the claim that a majority of middle school students who are bullied have low self-esteem. Clarissa questions the study, saying, "I am not sure that I am convinced—I am not sure you can really measure being bullied." Quinn also questions the study, saying, "Which middle school students did they study? I am curious if they included both private and public school students." Manish also is curious about the study, asking, "I wonder how strong the relationship is between bullying and self-esteem. Could you predict one from the other?" Refer to Research Study 3.3 to answer the following five questions. Clarissa's concern is addressing which of the following?
the study's construct validity
A multiple-regression analysis is run to examine third variables as a follow-up to the study indicating that boys with unusual names are more likely to commit crimes. Unusual names, ethnic backgrounds, and geographical regions are all included as predictor variables. Even after controlling for all of these variables, unusual names still predict criminal activity. Why doesn't this study establish causation?
there may be some other third variable
All of the following are true of ceiling and floor effects EXCEPT:
they are only problematic in pretest/postest designs
Which of the following is true of moderators?
they can inform external validity
When researchers use a small- N design , instead of gathering a little informa-tion from a larger sample:
they obtain a lot of information from just a few cases. They may even restrict their study to only one animal or one person, using a single- N design . Large -N designs and small -N designs differ in two key ways, sum-marized in
a situation in which a plausible alternative explanation exists for the association between two variables
third-variable problem
In a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design, what are all the possible effects to test?
three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction
Which of the following is NOT a reason a researcher might choose to conduct a double-blind placebo control group study?
to prevent attrition
What are the two main reasons to conduct a factorial study?
to test limits and to test theories
What are the two main reasons to use factorial designs?
to test limits and to test theories
Dr. Deveraux has conducted a study that has resulted in a null effect. Nonetheless, she suspects that there truly is a causal relationship between her independent and dependent variables. Which of the following is UNLIKELY to be to blame?
too many participants
Which of the following is NOT an example of a participant variable?
treatment group
Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. What are all the differences that must be examined?
two main effects and one interaction (there are two independent variables, so there are two main effects and one interaction possible, even though one variable has three levels)
in an analysis with 2 independent variables, there are 3 results to inspect
two main effects and one interaction. main effects: is there any overall difference? and interactions: is there a difference in differences?
Susan ran a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-60 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Susan found that there was a main effect for age such that younger people reported being more anxious than older people. She found a main effect for audience size such that people were more anxious in the room with 50 people than they were in the room by themselves. She did not find an interaction in the results. If Susan were to graph her results, what would they look like?
two parallel diagonal lines
Susan ran a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Susan found that there was a main effect for age such that younger people reported being more anxious than older people. She found a main effect for audience size such that people were more anxious in the room with 50 people than they were in the room by themselves. She did not find an interaction in the results. If Susan were to graph her results, what would they look like?
two parallel diagonal lines
bivariate correlation study
two variables
Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a factor in this study?
type of commercial shown
Phuong is conducting an experiment on proofreading. All participants are asked to read a passage with several typos and correct the errors. However, one group proofreads by reading silently, a second group proofreads by reading aloud, and a third group proofreads by reading the passage silently backward. The researcher calculates the average number of errors found in each group and finds that both the reading silently and reading aloud groups found more errors than the reading silently backward group. What are the variables in this study?
type of proofreading and number of errors found EEDBACK: Variables — There are two variables in this study. The three types of proofreading (silent, aloud, and backward) are all levels of one variable — type of proofreading.
concurrent measures design
type of within groups design. participant exposed to al levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time and a single attitudinal o behavioral preference is the dependent measure. example-milk moms or cozy moms with monkeys. type of mother is independent variable (manipulated within groups) and each baby monkey's clinging behavior is the dependent variable
repeated measures design
type of within groups design. participants are measured on a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent variable. example-mother's oxytocin level measured when loosely interact with their toddler. then oxytocin levels measured with closely playing with someone else's toddler. independent variable was interaction partner and its two levels. dependent variable were oxytocin levels. oxytocin levels depended on the interaction partner
counterbalancing
used to avoid order effects in a within groups design like practice, fatigue, aftertaste or boredom. they present the levels of the independent variable to the participants in different orders, so any order effects should cancel each other out when all the data is collected. example-some women interacted with their own toddler first and others did not
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? role of the participant value selected for the mug type of mug name of the participant
value selected for the mug
moderator
variable that changes the relationship between two other variable. -in factorial language moderator is an independent variable that changes the relationship between another independent variable and a dependent variable. (results in an interaction) i.e. driver age did not moderate impact of cell phone use on brake time
participant variable
variable whose levels are selected (that is, measured) not manipulated. like age, sex, ethnicity, and culture are not truly independent. often call them independent for the sake of simplicity. participants either talk on the cell phone or not-manipulated, but their age was not-did not assign people to be older or younger, they just were
nested factorial design
variation of factorial design. one independent variable is primary and the other independent variable is nested under it. example-researcher might study two school districts and then study three schools within each district. the district is the first independent variable and the three individual schools are the second, nested one. levels of nested variable are not exactly the same within each school district, that makes it nested
does each IV have significant effect on DV?
what do we ask in factorial experimental designs?
what does statistical significance estimate?
what kinds of r results you would typically get from a zero correlation population if you conducted the same study many time with the same sample size. how often you would get a certain r amount just by change, even if no real association in the population.
too much variability (noise) within the groups - 'error variance'; difference between groups is the same, but higher variability within - more overlap (smaller effect size and less likely to be significant)
what ways does it obscure between-group differences?
how to prevent attrition threats?
when a pariticpant drops out before post, drop their pretest scores. also check scores, if extreme then their attrition is more of a threat to internal validity
when do outliers matter the most?
when a sample is small
null effect
when a study finds that the independent variable did not make a different in the dependent variable. no significant covariance between the two variables. independent variable manipulated by the experimenters did not result in a change in the dependent variable.
demand characteristics
when an experiment contains cues that lead participants to guess its hypotheses. example-temp. guessing one if done twice people might figure out what the researchers are trying to test
Errors of prediction get larger
when associations get weaker
cross over interaction
when lines cross each other in demonstrating interaction (hot and cold foods/ ice cream pancakes)
interaction, because it's the full story; "X" makes a difference but especially at "Y"
when main effects and interactions are both present, which should you focus on?
When interrogating an association claim, it is important to ask
whether a sample has any outliers.
Direction refers to
whether the association is positive, negative, or zero
A mediator explains:
why there is a relationship between two other variables.
What is an interaction effect?
with a factorial design we can formally test "it depends" the effect of one IV depends on the other IV you have an effect only under certain conditions (or for certain people) a difference in differences
power
within groups design advantage, able to notice difference between conditions. ability of a sample to show a stat significant result when something is truly going on in the population. example-if too much unsystematic variability may be obscuring the true different. like being at a noisy party your ability to detect somebody's words is hampered when many other conversations are going on around you. also need less participants.
A design in which there is one group of participants and they all participate in all combinations, or cells of a design
within-group factorial design
In psychology lab, Tatiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tatiana is using a repeated-measures design. How is the independent variable being manipulated in Tatiana's design?
within-groups
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated measures design. How is the independent variable being manipulated in Tetiana's design? independent groups within-groups concurrently as a participant variable
within-groups
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. How is the independent variable being manipulated in Tetiana's design?
within-groups
covariance, independent variables can show "compared to what"
you might think that your teacher's red pen is making you anxious about a test and therefore reflects in your score (personal experience) but you do not know that unless you compare it to when you took a test with a different color pen.
Which of the following is NOT a reason that a researcher might choose a pretest/posttest design?
NOT to make a strong causal clai
Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?
NOT type of card drawn
The relationship between recess and behavior problems:
Negative (recess mins. go up, behavior problems go down) even when lunch eligibility is controlled for.
Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following?
Selection Effect
Which of the following does NOT need to be considered as an alternative explanation of the results in a within-groups design experiment?
Selection Effects
Which of the following does NOT need to be considered as an alternative explanation of the results in a within-groups design experiment?
Selection Effects -Selection effects only apply to independent-groups designs
Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Since different groups need different amounts of time, the first 25 participants who arrive are assigned to the 10-minute group, the next 25 are assigned to the 5-minute group, and the final 25 are assigned to the 2-minute group. What confound does this create?
Selection effect
Which of the following does NOT need to be considered as an alternative explanation of the results in a within-groups design experiment?
Selection effects
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many main effects will Dr. Gavin need to examine? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 6
D
Regression in Popular Press Articles
"Controlled for" "Taking into account" "Correcting for"
Which popular press headline might suggest that a multiple regression has been used?
"Vacations are important for life satisfaction, even after correcting for length of vacation."
Which popular press headline might suggest that a multiple regression has been used?
"Vacations are important for life satisfaction, even after correcting for length of vacation."
Floor effect
- An effect in which all the scores cluster at the end. - This can be the result of a problematic independent variable or a poorly designed dependent variable.
Observer bias threatens internal validity because ______ and threatens construct validity because _______.
-an alternative explanation exists -the ratings are inaccurate
Independent Groups Factorial Designs
-both independent variables are manipulated as independent groups - in a 2x2 there are four independent groups
Which alpha level, effect size, and N will yield the highest statistical power? .05, d=.80, N=150 .05, d=.50, N=100 .01, d=.50, N=150 .01, d=.50, N=150
.05, d=.80, N=150
2 reasons why null effect might happen
1) simply that the independent variable really does not affect the dependent variable. 2)study not designed well enough. independent variable actually does cause a chance in the dependent variable but something in the study prevented the researchers from detecting the true difference-weak manipulations, insensitive measures, and reverse confounds.
• Understand that only a true experiment can fulfill the three causal rules and know why this is so
1. Covariance of cause and effect. 2. Temporal precedence . 3. Internal validity .
• Be able to recognize, describe, and explain the following threats to internal validity (Chapters 9 & 10)
1. Design confounds. 2. Order effects. 3. Selection effects. 4. Maturation. 5. History. 6. Attrition. 7. Regression to the mean. 8. Instrumentation. 9. Testing. 10. Observer bias. 11. Experimental demand. 12. Placebo effects.
Using a matched-group design is especially important in which of the following cases? a. When you have only a few people in your study b. When you have at least three levels/conditions of the independent variable c. When you do not have a control group d. Both b and c e. All of the above
A
A design in which there are two levels of the first independent variable, two levels of the second, and two levels of the third
2 x 2 x2 factorial design. Eight cells in this design
cross-sectional correlations
2 of the correlations that longitudinal designs produce. they test to see whether two variables measured at the same point in time are correlation. example- the correlation between a preference for TV violent in third grade and aggression in the third grade. also the correlation at the second time they were measured.
Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What is the factorial notation for this design?
2 x 2
A design where there are two independent variables and each one has two levels.
2 x 2 factorial design. Four cells in this design
How many possible orders for full counterbalancing are there in a study with four conditions?
24
# of Main Effects = ____; # of marginal means you need to compare to find main effects =___.
2;2.
Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep without watching TV. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Refer to Research Study 10.2 to answer the following four questions. Given that there are three conditions/levels of the independent variable, how many orders of the conditions are possible in Dr. Acitelli's study?
6
Given that there are three conditions/levels of the independent variable, how many orders of the conditions are possible in Dr. Acitelli's study?
6
Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's: a. External validity b. Statistical validity c. Internal validity d. Construct validity e. None of the above
A
Dr. Rhodes notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable? a. Variable A cancels out Variable B. b. The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B. c. The effect of Variable A is confused by Variable B. d. Variable A mainly affects Variable B. e. The effect of Variable A is mediated by Variable B.
A
Refer to Research Study 10.1 above to answer the following question. Imagine that in Dr. Schulenberg's study, he notes that all of the students do extremely well on the midterm exam. When he looks at the results of the final exam, he notices that all the students' exam scores went down. Given this information, which of the following threats might be present in his study? a. Regression b. Attrition c. Maturation d. Observer bias e. Placebo effect
A
Spurious association
A bivariate association that is attributable only to systematic mean differences on subgroups within the sample; the original association is not present within the subgroups
What is a bivariate correlation and what type of claim is usually made from them
A bivariate correlation is an association between two variables. Associational claims are made from bivariate correlations.
Maturation threat
A change in behavior that emerges more or less spontaneously over time
One-group, pretest/posttest design
A design in which the researcher recruits one group of participants, measures them on a pre-test, exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change, and then measures them on a posttest.
With a selection effect
A confound exists because the different independent variable groups have different types of participants
placebo group
A control group that is exposed to an inert treatment (e.g. a sugar pill).
____________ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked.
A manipulation Check -Manipulation checks help researchers measure how well their manipulation worked
____________ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked
A manipulation check
Manipulation effect
A separate dependent variable that experimenters include in a study, just to make sure that the manipulation worked.
Pilot Study
A study completed before (or sometimes after) the study of primary interest, usually to test the effectiveness or characteristics of the manipulations.
Attrition threat
A threat that becomes problematic for internal validity when it is systematic; that is, when only a certain kind of participant drops out.
Instrumentation threat (also called instrument decay)
A threat that occurs when a measuring instrument changes over time, or when a researcher uses different forms for the pretest and posttest that are not sufficiently equivalent.
Design Confound
A threat to internal validity in an experiment in which a second variable happens to vary systematically along with the independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results.
Demand Characteristic
A threat to internal validity that occurs when some cue leads participants to guess a study's hypotheses or goals. AKA: experimental demand
Practice Effect
A type of order effect in which people's performance improves over time because they become practiced at the dependent measure (not because of the manipulation or treatment).
Carryover Effect
A type of order effect, in which some form of contamination carries over from one condition to the next
measured variable
A variable in an experiment whose levels (values) are observed and recorded
The mathematical way to describe an interaction is: a. a difference in differences b. a caveat c. A qualified main effect d. a patterned pattern e. all of the above
A. a difference in differences
2 main effects in interpreting factorial results
may or may not be stat significant, and main effect=overall effect
Summarize the three advantages and the three potential disadvantages of within - groups designs
Advantages: assurance of equivalence of the groups requirement of fewer participants more statistical power Disadvantages: Participants cannot be returned to their original state after each condition. Demand characteristics may result from hypothesis guessing with repeated testing. Order effects can threaten internal validity.
main effect of role, no effect of others present, and an interaction
After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 10, 20, and 20 and in the second row are 20, 10, and 10. Describe her results.
Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Which of the following scenarios would present a design confound in this experiment?
All participants in the 2-minute condition are tested at 8:00 a.m.; those in the 5-minute condition are tested at noon; and those in the 10-minute condition are tested at 4:00 p.m.
In a word list-learning experiment, participants are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of time between the study period and the recall is being manipulated: it is 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Which of the following is a confounding variable? All participants in the 2-minute condition are tested at 8:00a.m., those in the 5-minute condition are tested at noon, and those in the 10-minute condition are tested at 4:00 p.m. The same list is used for each condition and is randomized for each participant. The three groups are run simultaneously in three different rooms, and the room for each condition is randomly chosen before each group arrives. Three different experimenters administer the task and rotate which condition they are administering.
All participants in the 2-minute condition are tested at 8:00a.m., those in the 5-minute condition are tested at noon, and those in the 10-minute condition are tested at 4:00 p.m.
Confounds
Alternative explanations for some observed difference in a study; a threat to internal validity. - Can apply to null effects when a study is designed in such a way that a design confound actually counteracts some true effect of an independent variable.
With a design confound
Alternative explanations occur because the experiment was poorly designed; another variable happened to vary systematically along with the intended independent variable
dependent variable
An an experiment, the variable that is measured. In a multiple-regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable, the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting
Concurrent-Measure
An experiment using a with-in groups design in which participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable.
concurrent-measures design
An experiment using a within-groups design in which participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable.
Repeated-Measures Design
An experiment using a within-groups design in which participants respond to a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent variable.
5. History
An experimental group changes over time because of an external factor or event that affects all or most members of the group. Examples: Dormitory residents use less air conditioning in November than September because the weather is cooler. ?: Did the researchers include a comparison group that had an equal exposure to the external event but did not receive the treatment?
In regards to regression:
An unusually good performance or outcome is likely to regress downward (towards its mean) the next time, and an unusually bad performance or outcome is likely to regress upward (towards its mean) the next time.
Studies that are designed with a lot of power
Are more likely to detect true patterns -- even small ones
Cross-lag correlations are NOT helpful for answering/addressing which rule of causation?
Are there third variables that could explain the relationship?
In considering the three causal rules, which of the following rules/questions will Dr. Farah's study NOT be able to address?
Are there third variables that could explain the relationship?
instrumentation
As part of an experiment on the effects of behavior modeling, a set of raters are evaluating the prosocial behavior in a series of videotapes of a class of preschoolers. Initially, the raters were quite strict in their ratings, but after three hours of rating, their criteria had changed. What type of threat to internal validity has occurred?
A threat to internal validity occurs only if a potential design confound varies ____ With the independent variable a. haphazardly b. systematically c. selectively d. spontaneously e. cyclically
B
All of the following are advantages of within-groups designs EXCEPT: a. Participants in the treatment/control groups will be equivalent b. It is less time-consuming for the participants c. It gives researchers more power to find differences between conditions d. They require fewer participants e. All of the above are advantages of within-groups designs
B
All of the following are true of ceiling and floor effects EXCEPT: a. They can be detected by manipulation checks b. They are only problematic in pretest/posttest designs c. They can be caused by poorly designed dependent variables d. They can be caused by poorly designed independent variables e. All of the above are true
B
How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary's study? a. Two b. Three c. Five d. Nine e. Twenty-five
B
Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: "The study used a 2 x 2 x 4 design." Where are you likely to have encountered this sentence? a. The introduction b. The Method section c. The Results section d. The Discussion section e. The references
B
Refer to Research Study 11.2 above to answer the following question. In the study described above, Dr. Elder will need to examine how many two-way interactions? a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3 e. 4
B
Which of the following CANNOT be said of the interaction in a study? a. It can be determined by examining a graph of the results. b. It can be determined by investigating marginal means. c. It can exist even if the main effects are not significant. d. It is almost always more important than a study's main effects. e. There are multiple types of interactions (e.g., crossover interaction).
B
Why are curvilinear relationships hard to detect with correlation coefficients (r)?
Because r always looks for the best straight line to fit the data
order effects
Being exposed to one condition changes how participants react to the other condition Happen when exposure to one level of the independent variable influences responses to the next level of the independent variable.`
All of the following are true of betas and correlation coefficients EXCEPT:
Betas describe the relationship between two variables exactly as correlations coefficients do.
An independent-groups design is also known as a ________.
Between-subjects design
two types of variables in association claims
quantitative or categorical
Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or with photographs. A group of 45 first graders are given two copies of a book (Little Red Riding Hood). Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs? a. Longitudinal design b. Repeated-measures design c. Concurrent-measures design d. Posttest-only design e. None of the above
C
Dr. Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 x 3 x 4 mixed factorial design. Which of the following things will change? a. The number of main effects that need to be examined b. The number of interactions that need to be examined c. The number of participants needed d. The number of cells e. All of the above will change
C
To be a history threat, the external event must occur: a. Constantly during the experiment b. At the beginning of the experiment c. Systematically, affecting most members of the group d. Intentionally, affecting most members of the group e. Because of a participant's behavior
C
What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study? a. Matched-group design b. Within-groups design c. Independent-groups design d. Pretest/posttest design e. Concurrent measures design
C
Which of the following cannot be found in a one-group, pretest/posttest design? a. A random sample b. A valid measure c. A comparison group d. A manipulation e. None of the above can be found in this type of design
C
Which of the following phrases might a person encounter in a popular press article that indicates an interaction? a. "Statistically significant" b. "Mixed factorial design" c. "It depends" d. "Mediator variables" e. All of the above might be encountered
C
longitudinal design
Can provide evidence for temporal precedence by measuring the same variables in the same people at several points in time. Help satisfy the temporal precedence criterion.
Quasi-experimental design
Characteristics of quasi-experimental design? -no random assignment to treatment conditions -more threats to internal validity e.g. interrupted time series design is a within-subject quasi-experimental design
Dr. Ramon makes the following claim: "Watching television leads people to spend less time communicating with their spouses, study says." Dr. LaSalle makes the claim: "Research shows that making more money correlates with spending less time talking with your spouse." Refer to Research Study 3.2 to answer the following three questions. Which type of claim is Dr. Ramon making?
Causal Claim
Same Example as before^^ Which conclusion below is supported by these results?
Changes in income precede changes in depression
what are two simple forms of within - groups designs?
Concurrent measures repeated measures
Regression, attrition, and placebo effects are all threats to internal validity that can be addressed by adding a ________ _______.
Comparison Group
What is the name for the level of the independent variable that is intended to represent a neutral condition?
Control Group -The group that represents "no treatment" or the neutral condition is the control group
What is the name for the level of the independent variable that is intended to represent a neutral condition?
Control group
Correlation 4 is an example of which of the following types of correlations?
Cross-lag correlation
According to the text, when researchers conduct longitudinal research, the type of correlation they are most interested in is which of the following
Cross-lag correlation
Which of the correlations is an autocorrelation?
Correlation 2
Which of the following correlations is a cross-sectional correlation?
Correlation 6
Nesta is making a scatterplot of the digit spans (how many numbers you can remember and repeat back) for his psychology class, with the spans for digits the students hear on one axis and the span for digits the students read on the other. The association is strong, but he notices that one student has a visual digit span that is twice as long as anyone else. What statistical validity question is he raising?
Could outliers be affecting the relationship?
According to the text, when researchers conduct longitudinal research, the type of correlation they are most interested in is which of the following?
Cross-lag correlation
In a study in which two variables are measured at two different points in time, what type of correlation shows whether an earlier measure of one variable is associated with the later measure of the other variable?
Cross-lag correlation (Used in longitudinal studies to check if a variable measured at one point in time correlates with a second variable measured at a different time.)
What three kinds of correlations are obtained from a longitudinal design?
Cross-lag correlations autocorrelations cross-sectional correlations
Which of the following is a correlation that could be examined in both longitudinal designs and simple bivariate designs?
Cross-sectional correlation
A decrease in participants' scores on a measure from pretest to posttest could suggest which of the following threats to internal validity? a. Regression b. Maturation c. Testing d. Both a and c e. All of the above
D
An author might use all of the following methods to indicate statistical significance EXCEPT: a. Using the word significant b. Including an asterisk in a table c. Using the notation p < 0.05 d. All of the above are used to indicate statistical significance e. None of the above are used to indicate statistical significance
D
Dr. LaGuardia is curious as to whether children in a daycare center will share more after watching an education video on sharing. Immediately before and after the video, he has several undergraduate research assistants code the sharing behavior of a group of 33 four-year-olds. Which of the following would you recommend to her to decrease the threat of instrumentation? a. Establishing the reliability and validity of her coders at pretest b. Establishing the reliability and validity of her coders at posttest c. Using clear coding manuals d. All of the above should be recommended e. None of the above should be recommended
D
Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to include this step was done to address the study's: a. External validity b. Statistical validity c. Internal validity d. Construct validity e. None of the above
D
For which of the following reasons might a researcher choose a pretest/posttest design? a. To ensure that random assignment made the treatment/comparison groups equal b. To determine how groups change over the course of the experiment c. To avoid selection threats d. Both a and b e. All of the above
D
In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following types of groups exists? a. Control group b. Treatment group c. Placebo group d. Both a and b e. All of the above
D
In what way does high within-groups variance obscure between-groups variance? a. It leads to smaller effect sizes. b. It limits the type of statistical analyses that can be conducted. c. It causes more overlap between experimental/comparison groups. d. Both a and c obscure between-group variance. e. Both b and c obscure between-group variance.
D
Observer bias can threaten which of the following big validities? a. Internal validity b. External validity c. Construct validity d. Both a and c e. Both a and b
D
Order effects can be controlled by using which of the following techniques? a. Random assignment b. Design confounds c. Increasing demand characteristics d. Counterbalancing e. None of the above
D
Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. Running this preliminary study helps establish which of the following? a. External validity b. Statistical validity c. Internal validity d. Construct validity e. None of the above
D
Which of the following is true of selection effects? a. They are a type of confound. b. They can occur when experimenters allow participants to choose their own treatment group. c. They can occur when researchers assign one type of person to one treatment group and another type of person to another treatment group. d. All of the above are true of selection effects. e. None of the above are true of selection effects.
D
Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep without watching TV. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Refer to Research Study 10.2 to answer the following four questions. Dr. Acitelli was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease which of the following?
Demand characterisitcs
Independent - Groups Design
Different groups of participants are placed into different levels of the independent variable. An experimental design in which different groups of participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable, such that each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable AKA between-subjects design or between-groups design 2 Basic forms of independent-groups designs are the posttest-only design and the pretest/posttest design.
Which of the following studies is an example of a longitudinal design?
Dr. Benson's study in which she measured people's spatial manipulation ability in August and measured their ability again in May after they had taken two semesters of art classes.
A colleague of Dr. Farah's questions the internal validity of her causal claim. He is curious as to whether the relationship between homework and academic achievement could be explained by interest in one's classes. Specifically, he thinks that students who are interested in their classes will both do more homework and have higher GPAs. Which of the following is a solution to this possible threat to internal validity?
Dr. Farah should also measure students' interest in their class
A colleague of Dr. Farah's questions the internal validity of her causal claim. He is curious as to whether the relationship between homework and academic achievement could be explained by interest in one's classes. Specifically, he thinks that students who are interested in their classes will both do more homework and have higher GPAs. Which of the following is a solution to this possible threat to internal validity?
Dr. Farah should also measure students' interest in their class.
Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity? a. Counterbalancing b. A placebo group c. A demand characteristic d. Random sampling e. A manipulation check
E
Dr. Morimoto is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. He assigns half his participants to play a video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play for 7 minutes. He finds that there is no relationship between playing the game longer and being more aggressive. What might be to blame for this null effect? a. A weak manipulation b. An insensitive measure c. A reverse confound d. Too much within-group variance e. Ceiling effect
E
Refer to Research Study 11.1 above to answer the following question. How many participant variables exist in Dr. Elder's study? a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 4 e. 6
E
Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an example of which of the following threats to internal validity? a. Regression b. Attrition c. Observer bias d. Placebo effects e. None of the above
E
The number of main effects that need to be examined is __________ the number of independent variables. a. More important than b. Equal to c. Similar to d. Unrelated to e. Independent of
E
Which of the following threats to internal validity can occur in any study? a. Observer bias b. Demand characteristics c. Placebo effects d. Both a and b e. All of the above
E
) Which of the following are reasons why we might use a repeated measures design? A) It requires too many subjects. B) It is more likely to reject a null hypothesis than the design with different subjects in the groups. C) Information the subjects pick up in early trials may influence their performance on later trials in ways that we don't find helpful. D) It is a more powerful design than an independent groups design E) Both B and D
E) Both B and D
The primary purpose of the methods section is to A) provide sufficient information to allow a replication of the study B) describe the statistical methods use to analyze the data C) relate the purpose of the present study to prior research D) provide a methodological critique of the study E) all are true except C
E) all are true except C
The terms "standard error of the mean, "standard error of the difference between two mean", and "standard error of the difference" are alike in that A) they are measures of sampling error B) they are standard deviations of hypothetical sampling distributions C) their values increase as sample size decrease D) their values are denominators in their respective t-tests E) all of the above are true.
E) all of the above are true.
Which of the following does not belong in the discussion section of a report? A) descriptive statistics B) literature review C) description of participants D) discussion of materials used E) all of the above do not belong
E) all of the above do not belong
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) The "not sig." in Dr. Oswald's findings indicates all of the following EXCEPT:
Effect size could not be calculated
Describe which patterns of temporal precedence are indicated by different cross-lag correlational results
Either variable 1 at time 1 is correlated to variable 2 at time 2, or variable 2 at time 1 is correlated to variable 1 at time 2, or there might be correlations between both variables at both times when cross lagged with each other (i.e., all of the above mentioned).
maturation
Emma is planning an experiment on the effects of being read to on vocabulary size in toddlers. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18-month-olds, read to them three times a week for a month, then measure the vocabulary size again. What threat to internal validity should she be concerned about?
Can't think of (and measure)
Every third variable
Lack of which type of validity does not disqualify a studies findings if the study fulfills all other validities?
External Validity:
Random selection enhances ________ and random assignment enhances ________.
External validity, internal validity
Random selection enhances ________ and random assignment enhances ________.
External validity; internal validity
Which of these is NOT a potential drawback of a within-groups design?
Extraneous difference are held constant across conditions
Which of these is NOT a potential drawback of a within-groups design?
Extraneous differences are held constant across conditions.
Which of these is not a drawback of a within-groups design? Extraneous differences are held constant across conditions. Participants cannot be returned to their original state after each condition. Demand characteristics may result from hypothesis guessing with repeated testing. Order effects can threaten internal validity.
Extraneous differences are held constant across conditions.
Reading the news on the Internet, Johan comes across the headline, "When Stress is Increased, Men Rush Ahead, Women More Cautious." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Lighthall et al., 2011.) In this study, men and women were asked to perform a decision task as many times as possible in a set period, in either a stressed or unstressed condition. In the unstressed condition, men and women performed similarly. However, in the stressed condition, the number of decision tasks performed by men increased while the number performed by women decreased. Which of the following is a constant in this study?
FEEDBACK: Constant — The time period is set. All the other choices vary in the study.
Professor Nakum designs a memory experiment to test the effect of word familiarity on memory. Three lists of words are created: common words, uncommon words, and made-up words. Participants are randomly assigned to study one of the lists of 30 words for 5 minutes, do math problems for 5 minutes, then write all the words they recall from the list. Their score is the number of words correctly recalled. The use of random assignment of participants increases which of the following?
FEEDBACK: Experiments Can Test Causal Claims — Random assignment controlled for possible alternative explanations. NOT external validity of the study
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
FEEDBACK: Independent and Dependent Variables — The value of the mug is the measured variable.
Which of the following claims is an association claim?
FEEDBACK: Table 3.3, Causal Claims — "Affects", "changes," and "makes" are causal claim verbs. NOT: A thoughtful gift makes the giver feel closer to the recipient
There is a negative association between exercise and obesity. Which of the following would a researcher need to demonstrate in order to make the claim that a lack of exercise causes obesity?
FEEDBACK: Three Rules for Causation — This is the temporal precedence rule for causation. It is possible that because of the difficulty in exercising, obese people stop exercising after becoming obese.
Stronger effect sizes allow for all of the following EXCEPT:
Greater construct validity
Which of the following results is most likely to reveal a significant t-test? Group 1: M=10; SD=3; Group 2 M=4; SD=3 Group 1: M=8; SD=3; Group 2 M=10, SD=3 Group 1: M=10, SD=3; Group 2 M=6, SD=3 Group 1: M=10, SD=4.5; Group 2: M=8, SD=4.5
Group 1: M=10; SD=3; Group 2 M=4; SD=3
6
Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition with financial compensation being introduced following the low anxiety-level performance. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about putting technique, thinking of irrelevant cue words, and thinking about a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. How many cells was each golfer in?
Multiple regression
How can we rule out a third variable in a correlational design study? -measure that 3rd variable and include it in your multiple regression analysis as a control (if relationship is still significant after controlling for CV, then you can be confident that it was not the third variable causing the relationship)
3 independent variables, 24 cells
How many independent variables and how many cells are there in a 2 × 3 × 4 study?
Define IV, DV, and Control Variable using your own words.
IV: manipulated variable DV: measured variable CV: variable held constant to rule out third variables and establish internal validity.
What is a responsible way for journalists to cover single studies on a specific topic?
Ideally, journalists should report on the entire body of evidence, as well as the theoretical background, for a particular claim
In understanding "controlling for" a third variable, which of the following is a similar concept?
Identifying subgroups
How to prevent testing threats
In order to avoid testing threats, researchers may abandon a pretest altogether and may use a posttest-only design. If they do use a pretest, researchers might opt to use an alternative form of the test for the two measurements. A comparison group may also help.
Why do many researchers find pattern and parsimony an effective way to support a causal claim?
In psychology, researchers commonly use a variety of methods and many studies to explore the strength and limits of a particular research question. Often using a broader, simple explanation for how variables relate can keep confounds/third variables limited that occur when one gets more specific with a question.
What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study?
Independent-groups design
The following graph shows this kind of effect
Interaction effect
All of the following are advantages of within-groups designs EXCEPT:
It is less time-consuming for the participants
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28 and that p<0.001. What does this mean?
It is very unlikely that this association was found in the sample when, in the full population, there is really no association
A colleague of Dr. Farah's asks her why she did not simply conduct an experiment. Which of the following is a probable reason for Dr. Farah's choice not to conduct an experiment?
It would be unethical to manipulate whether students are told to do homework for a semester.
regression
Jared is conducting an experiment with ESP (extrasensory perception) training. He begins with a pretest of his 40 participants and divides them into two groups based on their scores. The participants with the 10 lowest scores are given extensive training on how to detect the signals. The participants with the 30 highest scores are given no training. Both groups are retested and the average score of the participants with the training improved, while the average score of the participants without the training actually fell. What threat to internal validity should Jared consider?
Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. What type of study design is Dr. Farah using?
Longitudinal design
Longitudinal Designs Summary
Longitudinal designs can rule out some explanations because of temporal precedence. Longitudinal designs do not establish causality because they do not rule out alternative explanations (internal validity)
maturation threats
Many threats to internal validity are corrected for by adding a comparison group. Which of these is not one of the main threats to internal validity that occur even in designs with a clear comparison group?
Which of the following is NOT a predictor variable in Dr. Sparrow's study?
Marital satisfaction
Which of the following research designs is used to address possible selection effects?
Matched-groups designs
Which of the following is a necessary component of a longitudinal design?
Measuring the same variables at two points in time
The effectiveness of fines on water conservation was tested at 3 different cities suffering from a drought. Two cities instituted fines at different times and a third city did not institute fines. Water consumption data for the three years before the onset of the fines was used as baseline and subsequent consumption data was gathered through the end of the drought. Effectiveness of fines was assessed by examining consumption the following month. With regard to the monitoring of water consumption, what type of design was this?
Multiple baseline
Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. Overall, a positive relation between waiting time as a preschooler and self-control in adolescence emerged. Can a causal relationship be inferred?
No, because internal validity was not established
selection effect
Occurs when the kinds of participants in one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those in the other. Can occur when experimenters let participants chose which group they want to be in. EX: letting parents chose which group they would like their autistic children to be in, the intensive treatment group, or the usual treatment group.
testing
On the first midterm exam in an introductory psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cellphones from her class between the first midterm and the second midterm. When she compares the scores on the two exams for the people who had been using computers and cellphones, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. Professor Mitchell points out that in her classes, students always do better on the second exam because they are more used to taking her tests. What threat to validity is she suggesting?
Partial counterbalancing
Only some of the possible condition orders are represented. One way to partially counterbalance is to present the conditions in a randomized order for each subject.
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. They found â = -0.39 for foreign language anxiety. What does this mean?
People with lower levels of anxiety about learning a foreign language have higher levels of achievement in foreign language
pilot study
Pilot study A small scale study carried out before main research - allows researcher to test a few pps and see whether adjustments need to be made, saving time & money
What design is an experiment in which each participant is randomly assigned to one level of the independent variable and then tested on the dependent variable once?
Posttest only -The participants are randomly assigned to the groups and only a posttest is administered
The ability for a study to reveal a statistically significant difference between the levels of an independent variable when one truly exists is known as:
Power
Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs?
Practice effects
Martins et al. (2010) studied factors relating to the retrieval of names of famous people based on pictures. Famous faces tests are used in studies of memory. They were interested in understanding the factors that influence successful recall. Five groups of stimuli were formed based on reason for celebrity and time of peak fame. Multiple regressions for age, gender, and education were performed for each of the groups. What is the criterion variable?
Recall of names
How to prevent attrition threats
Remove the dropped participants' scores from the pretest average, also, check the pretest scores of the dropouts. If they have extreme scores on the pretest, their attrition is a threat to internal validity.
What are the three main disadvantages of within - groups designs?
Repeated Measures designs have the potential for order effects, which can threaten internal validity. (Can be controlled for using counterbalancing) Might not be possible/practical. (such as teaching children to ride a bike. You teach them with method A, you cannot go back to the baseline and teach them with method B. People might change the way they act if they see all levels of the independent variable. (Demand characteristics)
When conducting animal research, which guideline states that alternatives to animal research should be considered?
Replacement
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the independent variable in this experiment?
Role of the participant -Theo assigns the participants to their roles, so that is the manipulated variable
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) In determining whether the relationship between two of her variables was statistically significant, which of the following must be considered?
Sample size and effect size
Statistical significance depends on which of the following?
Sample size and effect size
Emma is planning an experiment whether reading to children increases their vocabulary size. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18-month-olds, read to them three times a week for three months, then measure their vocabulary size again. How could Emma change the design to remove a major threat to internal validity?
She could add a comparison group
Dr. Robinson designs an intervention that is meant to reduce college students' risky sexual decisions. She hypothesizes that shaming college students about their risky sexual decisions will improve their decision making. She recruits participants and randomizes them to two conditions-the intervention group and the control group. The sexual behavior of all participants is measured in a interview with Dr. Robinson. After the pretesting, participants who are randomized to the intervention group are scheduled for an individual shaming session with Dr. Robinson. The control group does not participate in the shaming session. One week after the intervention, both groups are interviews with Dr. Robinson about their sexual behavior over the past week. She finds that the intervention group reported less risky sexual decisions during the posttest interview. How could Dr. Robinson improve the internal validity of her study?
She could make it a masked design
Dr. Uchida is a clinical psychologist who is curious about how people deal with natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, tornados, earthquakes). His previous research suggests that there is a relationship between how much people feel their emotional well-being was affected by the natural disaster and their likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, he is curious as to whether the effect of emotional well-being goes through another variable, that of social support. He conducts a study in which he asks 174 men and women affected by the 2011 tsunami in Japan to report on how their well-being was affected by the tsunami, the social support felt after the storm, and the number of PTSD symptoms. Dr. Uchida finds support for his proposed relationship. However, in examining his data more closely, he finds that the relationship between emotional well-being and PTSD symptoms is stronger for men than for women. Which of the following is the mediating variable in Dr. Uchida's hypothesis?
Social Support
A researcher has examined a variety of correlational studies that point to a causal relationship between two variables. All of the studies have found a positive relationship between the two variables, but for ethical reasons, no experiments have been conducted. Using an approach of pattern and parsimony, the researcher may begin to make a causal claim by doing which of the following?
Specifying a mechanism or explanation for the causal relationship
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Dr. Oswald realizes that the women in her study have more friends than the men in her study. This might result in which of the following?
Spurious associations due to subgroups
Multiple Regression
Statistical procedure that allows 2 or more independent variables and 1 dependent variable. IV is often called a predictor in multiple regression. DV is often called a criterion.
Statistical significance
Statistical significance p-value is the probability that the effect is due to chance, if the null is true by convention we use p<.05 (sometimes indicated in tables by an asterisk *) large sample size more likely to reach significance
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. She finds that d = 1.53. What effect size is this?
Strong -her findings give a d well above 0.80, so the effect size is strong
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. What does this correlation tell him about which students take advantage of the extra credit option?
Students with higher grades are more likely than students with lower grades to do extra credit work
Using reliable, precise measurements
Such as tools with excellent reliability (internal, interrater, and test-retest) can reduce errors in measurement - Measurements with good construct validity can reduce the amount of errors in measurement. - More precise and accurate measurements will have less measurement error.
A threat to internal validity occurs only if a potential design confound varies ________ with the independent variable.
Systematically
12 Professor Horvat studies the relationships between job and home satisfaction. She designs a study to test the same group of workers on various factors of work satisfaction and home satisfaction. She administers the test two times, one year apart. She finds that home satisfaction measured at the first time correlates strongly with job satisfaction at the second time, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at time one and home satisfaction measured a year later. For which of the rules of causation do these two correlations provide evidence?
Temporal Precedence
items recalled
The Ranschburg effect in short term-memory involves repeated items: if they are close together in a list, recall is facilitated; if they are far apart, recall is impaired. Francis designs an experiment on this effect using three conditions for a 12 animal names list: no repetition, repetition of the third animal as the fifth item, and repetition of the second animal as the tenth item. Each item is viewed for one-second, then participants recall them in order. Ten participants are tested in each condition. What is the dependent variable?
change the design to be within-groups
The Ranschburg effect in short-term memory involves repeated items: if they are close together in a list, recall is facilitated; if they are far apart, recall is impaired. Francis designs an experiment on this effect using three conditions for a 12 animal names list: no repetition, repetition of the third animal as the fifth item, and repetition of the second animal as the tenth item. Each item is viewed for one-second, then participants recall them in order. Ten participants are tested in each condition. The study showed null effects, and large individual differences in the groups. What is a likely solution?
parsimony
The degree to which a good scientific theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon
What is the name for the measured variable in an experiment?
The dependent variable
Dr. Rhodes notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable?
The effect of Variable A is mediated by Variable B
Dr. Hadden wants to conduct a study that will allow him to make claims that apply to all college students. Which of the following validities is he prioritizing?
The external Validity of the study
If an association study did not select people for the study by using random sampling, which of the following statements is true?
The findings should be replicated in another population.
The greater the overlap, the smaller the effect size, and the less likely the two group means will be statistically significant means:
The less likely the study will detect covariance
The more precisely and carefully a dependent variable is measured
The less variability there will be within each group
Power
The likelihood that a study will return a statistically significant result when the independent variable really has an effect; an aspect of statistical validity.
Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique or irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. The main effect for anxiety was not significant. What does this mean about the marginal means?
The marginal means for the two anxiety conditions are not significantly different. -Marginal means are used to inspect the main effects, and in the case of a not significant main effect of anxiety, they are very close to each other.
• Be able to explain the relationship between these causal rules and multivariate, longitudinal, and experimental designs
The negative association between deep talk and well-being could be attributable to some third variable that is connected to both deep talk and well-being. For instance, a busy, stressful life might lead people to both report lower well-being and have less time for substantive conversa-tions. Or perhaps in this college sample, having a strong college-preparatory background is associated with both deep conversations and having higher levels of well- being in college (because those students are more prepared). But be careful—not any third variable will do. The third variable, to be plausible, must correlate logically with both of the measured variables in the original as-sociation. (For example, we might propose that income is an alternative expla-nation, arguing that people with higher incomes will have higher well-being. For income to work as a plausible third variable, though, we would have to explain how higher income is related to more deep talk, too.)
What is the primary difference between pretest/posttest designs and within-groups designs?
The number of levels of the independent variable participants are exposed to
Dr. Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 x 3 x 4 mixed factorial design. Which of the following things will NOT have to change?
The number of researchers needed
Treatment group(s)
The participants in an experiment who are exposed to the level of the independent variable that involves a medication, therapy, or intervention.
Causal temptation
The powerful automatic tendency to make a causal inference from any association claim we read
Interaction cont.
the difference of the simple differences -interaction is almost always more important
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Comparing all three correlations, Dr. Oswald will be most able to accurately predict life satisfaction from the experience of daily stress because:
The relationship has the largest effect size
ceiling effect
The students in 50-student introductory psychology class were randomly assigned to one of two review sessions, each being taught with a different technique. The next day, every student got all 10 of the test questions correct. What problem does Professor Zhao have in determining the better teaching technique for review sessions?
Random Assignment
The use of a random method (e.g., flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups.
Criterion Variable (dependent variable)
The variable in a multiple - regression analysis that the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting. . In an experiment, the variable that is measured (dependent variable) This variable is almost always specified in either the top row or in the title of a regression table.
8. The pattern and parsimony approach to causation is a good example of which cycle in research? TRUE or FALSE Journal-journalism cycle Basic-applied cycle Theory-data cycle Peer-review cycle
Theory-data cycle
The pattern and parsimony approach to causation is a good example of which cycle in research?
Theory-data cycle
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at the first time point and home life satisfaction measured at the second time point. Why can't Dr. Horvat conclude that home life satisfaction causes job satisfaction?
There are potential third variables that might explain the relationship.
Dr. Stevens wants to examine the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and depression. He selects a sample of American athletes who are currently training for the summer Olympic Games as his research subjects. Dr. Stevens finds no relationship between BMI and depression. What is one problem with his research design that could have kept him from finding a relationship between those variables?
There is a restriction of range problem
Neely is examining the graph of an interaction and sees that one line is flat and one line rises sharply to the right. Which of the following should Neely conclude?
There is a spreading interaction
With an order effect (in a within-groups design)
There is an alternative explanation because the outcome might be caused by the independent variable or caused by the order in which the levels of the variable are presented. Whether or not the independent variable is effective is unknown.
• Internal validity via randomization or counterbalancing
There must be no plausible alternative explanations for the relationship between the two variables.
Which of the following is NOT true of selection effects?
They are unimportant for interrogating internal validity
Which of the following is NOT true of third variables and mediating variables?
Third variables can be detected using multiple regression techniques, but mediating variables cannot.
Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Dr. Oswald finds that the relationship between the number of friends one has and life satisfaction is stronger for men than for women. Why might Dr. Oswald have looked for this difference?
To examine her study's external validity
Why do researchers conduct studies with factorial designs?
To test whether an independent variable affects different kinds of people, or people in different situations, in the same way
Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: "Female Engineering Majors' Effort on Math Problems Depends on Sex of Role Model." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Stout, Dasgupta, Hunsinger, and McManus, 2011.) In the study, female students were asked by either a male math major or a female math major to complete a math test. Female students tried to solve more of the math problems when asked by a female math major than they did when asked by a male math major. Refer to Research Study 3.1 to answer the following five questions. How many variables are mentioned in this study/headline?
Two
Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis is called a BLANK error, whereas incorrectly failing to reject the null hypothesis is called a BLANK error.
Type 1; Type 2
Which of the following is TRUE about the difference between *beta and r*?
Unlike r, beta reflects the independent contribution of the predictor variable, controlling for the contributions from the other predictor variables.
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
Value selected for the mug -The value of the mug is the measured variable
In a study in which two variables are measured at two different points in time, which of the following is an example of a cross-lag correlation? Question 1 options: Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable A at Time 2. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 1. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 2. Variable B at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 2.
Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 2.
Participant Variable
Variable whose level are selected (measured) and not manipulated i.e. age, sex, ethnicity, and culture - not truly independent variables
Factorial designs
We are always interested in the main effect for each IV and the interaction effects among pairs of our IVs. If we have 4 IVs, how many main effects do we look at? -main effect of A -main effect of B -main effect of C -main effect of D
Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique, irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. What are all the differences that must be examined?
What are all the differences that must be examined? -two main effects and one interaction There are two independent variables, so there are two main effects and one interaction possible, even though one variable has three levels. How many cells was each golfer in? -6
Dr. Kline is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kline is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then he will wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kline plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Refer to Research Study 4.1 to answer the following thirteen questions. To address the Belmont principle of beneficence, Dr. Kline would need to ask which of the following questions?
What can I do to decrease the potential harm experienced by my participants?
Curvilinear association
When the relationship between two variables is not a straight line. For example, the relationship might be positive up to a point, and then become negative
What is a three-way interaction?
When you have 3 IVs (e.g., 2x3x2) When the interaction between 2 of the IVs depends on the level of the 3rd IV (in other words, when the 2 interactions are different
This is the result of multiple regression analysis. How do you interpret these results in words?
X2 is a significant predictor of Y1, p<.05. As X2 increases, Y1 increases, even after controlling for X1.
Increasing number of independent variables
__ x __ x __ ^ level of each dependent variable - with each additionial variable need to test main effect ( 2x2x2) need to test for three main effects
Which of these is NOT a potential drawback of a within-groups design? Extraneous differences are held constant across conditions. Participants cannot be returned to their original state after each condition. Demand characteristics may result from hypothesis guessing with repeated testing. Order effects can threaten internal validity.
a
When conducting an experiment, what is provided by the independent variable?
a comparison group
t has been reported that half of Americans show road rage. For this claim to have strong external validity, which of the following would have been the best sample for the researcher to have used?
a cross-section of American drivers representing men and women; people from the city, suburbs, and farms; of all ages
Factorial Designs
a design in which there are two or more independent variables (aka factors).
holding a potential third variable at a constant level while investigating the association between two other variables
control for
full counterbalancing
a meth0d of counterbalancing in which all possible condition orders are represented
partial counterbalancing
a method of counterbalancing in which some, but not all, of the possible condition orders are represented.
__________ is a simple study that uses a separate group of participants that is generally completed before conducting the study of primary interest in order to confirm the effectiveness of a manipulation.
a pilot study
Which of the following is an example of a field setting?
a preschool playground with video cameras
Statistical significance provide
a probability estimate (p, sometimes abbreviated as sig for significance)
The group that represents "no treatment" or the neutral condition is the ______..
control group
Pilot Study
a simple study, using a separate group of participants, that is completed before (or sometimes after) conducting the stufy of primary interest. Researchers might use pilot study data to confirm the effectiveness of their manipulations.
If a person describes the results of a study to you by saying that there is a zero difference in one condition but a large difference in another condition, they are most likely describing which of the following?
a spreading interaction
pilot study
a study completed before the study of primary interest, usually to test the effectiveness or characteristics of the manipulations
When a third variable explains the relationship between two other variables, that kind of a third variable is called a: a. mediator b. spurious correlation c. predictor variable d. moderator
a. mediator Mediators vs. Moderators — Mediators address the question of why two other variables are related.
Random assignment avoids selection effects since each participant has:
an equal chance of being assigned to either condition.
internal validity (experiment)
are there alternative explanations for the results? example-did the experimenters treat the participants the same way when they came in for the ink color experiment. prevented this from being damaged but not telling the experimenters what color ink was on each test.
null effect-weak manipulations
ask about construct validity. example-when testing if money made people happy maybe gave one person nothing, one $0.25, and one $1. not enough to make a difference. or GRE test only trained for one day. need to manipulate better
manipulation checks help detect weak manipulations, ceilings, and floors-null effect
ask how the variables were operationalized. was the manipulation strong enough to cause a difference. for anxiety shock example ask people how anxious they are on scale 1-10 before to make sure they are all on even slate before
Internal validity is typically not relevant to ________ because both variables are being measured, and neither is being manipulated.
association claims
4. Max randomly assigned people to shake hands either with the "warm hands" experimenter or the "cold hands" experimenter. Why did he randomly assign participants?
b. Because he wanted to avoid selection effects.
Max ran an experiment in which he asked people to shake hands with an experimenter (played by a female friend) and rate the experimenter's friendliness, using a self-report measure. The experimenter was always the same person, using the same standard greeting for all participants. People were randomly assigned to either shake hands with her after she had cooled her hands under cold water, or to shake hands with her after she had warmed up her hands under warm water. Max's results found that people rated the experimenter as more friendly when her hands were warm than when they were cold. 1. Why does Max's experiment satisfy the causal criterion of temporal precedence?
b. Because the participants shook the experi-menter's hand before rating her friendliness.
6. A news outlet reported on a study of people with dementia. The study found that among patients with dementia, bilingual people had been diagnosed 3-4 years later than those who were monolingual. What are the variables in this bivariate association?
b. Being bilingual or not, and age at dementia diagnosis
5. Which of the following questions would be interrogating the construct validity of Max's experiment?
b. How well did Max's "experimenter friendliness" rating capture participants'
A psychologist is working with the parents of four children, all of whom exhibit violent behavior toward one another. The parents were instructed to record the number of violent behaviors each child exhibits in the pre-dinner hour for 1 week. The parents then begin a using positive reinforcement tech-nique to shape the behavior of the youngest child, while continuing to record the behavior of all children. The recording continues and the technique is used on one additional child each week. By the end of 6 weeks, there is a significant decrease in violent behaviors for each of the children. What type of design did the psychologist use?
b. Multiple-baseline design
7. The journalist reported that the relationship between bilingualism and age at diagnosis did not change, even when the researchers controlled for level of education. What does this suggest?
b. That the relationship between bilingual-ism and dementia onset is not attributable to the third variable: level of education.
Longitudinal designs
can provide evidence for temporal precedence by measuring the same variables in the same people at several points in time. This design is adapted to test causal claims.
After running a t-test on the mean numbers of jelly beans that men and women eat over the course of the year, I conclude that men eat significantly more jelly beans than women. If men and women actually eat the same number of jelly beans, my conclusion is a. a valid conclusion b. a type I error c. a type II error d. an example of power
b. a type I error
Dr. Stevens did a study that found that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years because people who are highly educated take cognitively demanding jobs, and people who are highly educated have better cognitive skills. She found that the amount of education is a ________ in the relationship between having demanding job and cognitive benefits in later years. a. moderator b. confounding third variable c. criterion variable d. mediator
b. confounding third variable Mediators vs. Third Variables — In a third-variable explanation, the third variable (amount of education) explains the relationship between the two variables in the original bivariate correlation (having a demanding job and cognitive benefits in later years).
1. Suppose you hear that conscientious people are more likely to get regular health checkups. Which of the following correlations between conscientiousness and getting checkups would probably support this claim?
b. r= 0.45
A researcher notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent variable A. and independent variable B in predicting the dependent variable? a. Variable A cancels out Variable B. b. The effect of variable A depends on variable B. c. The effect of variable a is confused by variable b. d. Variable A mainly affects variable B e. the effect of variable A is mediated by variable b.
b.the effect of variable a depends on variable b
why is it called directionality problem
because we do not know which variable came first
Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned that he could have a problem with order effect in his study. How can Eric fix this problem? a) Matched groups b) Random sampling c) Counterbalancing d) Random assignment
c) Counterbalancing
If results show that action video game training does not influence numerical processing in children, what would we call this? a) Failed experiment b) Alternative hypothesis c) Null result d) Posthoc hypothesis
c) Null result
Chapter 12: In a factorial design study, which effect is usually considered the most important effect? a) the main effect of the second independent variable b) the overall effect c) the interaction d) the main effect of the first independent variable
c) the interaction
Chapter 12: Which of the following is NOT an example of a participant variable? a) years of education b) age c) treatment group d) sex
c) treatment group
3. In the longitudinal study described in question 2, which pattern of cross-lag correlations would indicate that Facebook use leads to lower grades (rather than the reverse)?
c. Grades at Year 1 shows a strong correlation with Facebook use at Year 2, and Facebook use at Year 1 shows a strong correlation with grades at Year 2.
There is a strong positive association between years of education and income. The mean income for American adults in 2005 was $32,000 and the average number of years of education was 12. Mr. Lopez has 16 years of education. What would you predict about his income? a. There isn't enough information to make a prediction b. The best estimate would be the mean income of $32,000 c. His income is probably higher than $32,000 d. his income is probably lower then $32,000
c. His income is probably higher than $32,000 Larger Effect Sizes Give More Accurate Predications- Since Mr. Lopes has more schooling than average, based on the positive association you would expect his income to be higher than average
7. Which of these is not a method for maximiz-ing the external validity of the conclusions of a small- N study?
c. Randomly assign people to the treatment and control conditions
2. Which of these is not a reason for a researcher to select a quasi-experimental design?
c. To ensure internal validity.
We would like to a. max the power of a test b. min the probability of a type I error c. do both a and b d. max the probability of a type II error
c. do both a and b
Sampling distributions help us test hypotheses about means by a. telling us exactly what the population mean is b. telling us how variable the population is c. telling us what kinds of means to expect if the null hypothesis is true d. telling us what kinds of means to expect the null hypothesis is false
c. telling us what kinds of means to expect if the null hypothesis is true
A researcher decides that instead of conducting a 2x4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 x 4 mixed-model factorial design. Which of the following things will change? a. the number of main effects that need to be examined b. the number of interactions that need to be examined c. the number of participants needed d. the number of cells e. all of the above will change
c. the number of participants needed
If we were to repeat an experiment a large number of times and calculate statistic such as the mean for each experiment, the distribution of these statistics would be called a. the distributional distribution b. the error distribution c. the sampling distribution d. the test outcome
c. the sampling distribution
Moderating variables
can make the relationship between the two other variables less intense
Occurs when some form of contamination carries over from one condition to the next
carryover effects
The terminology "made a difference in" suggests a _____, which isn't established by regression.
causal claim
When all scores are squeezed together at the high end
ceiling effect
instrumentation: the raters, who are the measuring instrument, are______
changing over time
With an association claim, the two most important validities to interrogate are
construct validity and statistical validity
multivariate designs and 4 validities
construct, external, and stat (already covered internal)
What is a variable that the experimenter holds constant on purpose? dependent independent control confound
control
When authors of a research article are describing just the results of a factorial study, which of these terms would you NOT expect to see?
correlation
A researcher is conducting a 2x4 independent groups factorial design. How many cells are in the design? a. 2 b. 3 c. 6 d. 8 e. 10
d. 8
6. When a study has a large number of partici-pants and a small amount of unsystematic variability (low measurement error, low levels of situation noise), then it has a lot of:
d. Power
2. In Max's experiment described above, what was a control variable?
d. The standard greeting the experimenter used while shaking hands.
Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at the first time point and home life satisfaction measured at the second time point. Why can't Dr. Horvat conclude that home life satisfaction causes job satisfaction? a. Home satisfaction is not related to life satisfaction b. Home satisfaction did not occur before life satisfaction c. Home satisfaction and life satisfaction are too highly correlated with each other d. There are potential third variable that might explain the relationship
d. There are potential third variable that might explain the relationship Longitudinal Studies and the Three Criteria for Causation — Longitudinal studies conducted in this way do not help to rule out possible third variables.
Observer bias can threaten which of the following big validities? a. Internal validity b. external validity c. construct validity d. both a and c c. both a and b
d. both a and c
The Yerkes-Dodson law (1908), shows that performance increases with arousal up to a point, but beyond that, performance decreases with increasing arousal. What type of correlation is this? a. positive b. zero c. negative d. curvilinear
d. curvilinear Statistical Validity Question 5: Is the Association Curvilinear? — At low arousal, the correlation is positive, but at high arousal, the correlation is negative, hence the correlation is represented by a curve.
A research was interested in seeing if males or females in large lecture classes fell asleep more during in-class videos. The alternative hypothesis of this study is a. males will fall asleep more than females b.females will fall asleep more than males c. males and females fall asleep at the same rate d. either a or b
d. either a or b
To look at the relationship between reaction time and level of expertise in tennis, experts and non-experts are compared. Which of the following would be the most appropriate, easiest way to evaluate the relationship between these variables? a. Cronbach's alpha and a bar graph b. correlation coefficient and a bar graph c. correlation coefficient and scatterplot d. t test and a bar graph
d. t test and a bar graph Analyzing Associations When One Variable is Categorical-- Reaction time is a categorical variable so a t test and a bar graph can be used to evaluate this relationship
Which of the following things CANNOT be done to reduce the effect of individual differences?
decrease power
Dr. Acitelli was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease which of the following?
demand characterisitcs
This is a problem when participants guess what the study is supposed to be about and change their behavior in the expected direction.
demand characteristics
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
distance out of alignment of the rods
p-value
estimates the probability that the sample's association came from a population where the association is zero.
Outliers can be problematic for an association claim, because
even they are only one or two data points, they may exert disproportionate influence
In a bar graph
examine the difference between the group averages to see whether there is an association
explanation of temporal precedence (causality)
example with small talk and well being. both measured in the same short period of time so dont know if an increase in small talk came first followed by decrease in well being or the other way around or what.
A _______ design is one in which there are two or more independent variables.
factorial
Independent variables can also be called_______.
factors
A single outlier can
have a strong effect on the correlation coefficient r
moderator in factorial design
here it is an independent variable that changes the relationship between another independent variable and a dependent variable.
Strength refers to
how closely related the two variables are -- how close r is to 1 or to -1
construct validity with multivariate designs
how well each variable was measured.
Construct Validity: How Well Was Each Variable Measured? — Table 8.5 lists the validity questions, including convergent validity, or________.
how well the results f two tests correlate with each other
counterbalancing
in a repeated measures experiment, presenting the levels of the independent variable to participants in different sequences to control fro order effects
In longitudinal designs, the same variables are studied:
in the same people across time.
Selection effects can lead to a confounded experiment, but would not ____.
increase variability within groups.
Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. What type of design is this?
independent-groups factorial design
Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theatre. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type if commercial shown. What type of design is this?
independent-groups factorial design
importance of construct validity in association claim
interrogate it of each measure in the bivariate correlation study, aka each variable
A larger effect
is often considered more important than a small one
The coefficient b (also known as an unstandardized coefficient)
is similar to beta in that the sign of b--positive or negative--still denotes a positive or negative association (when other predictors are controlled for). However, unlike to betas, when cannot compare to b values within the same table to each other. This is because b values are computed from the original measurements of the predictor variables (such as dollar, centimeters, percentages, or inches), whereas betas are computer from predictor variables that have been changed to standardized units
According to the table, an r of approximately 0.50 is considered to have a ______ effect size.
large or strong
A study in which participants are grouped and the participants in each group and combined and studied together
large-N design
control group
level of an independent variable that is intended to represent no treatment or a neutral condition. example of control variable-all participants given same anagram test
What type of research design involves measuring the same variables for the same people across different points in time?
longitudinal
___________ are the means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over levels of the other independent variable.
marginal means
When participants know which group they are in, but the observers do not.
masked design
an arithmetic average; a measure of central tendency computed from the sum of all scores in a set of data, divided by the total number of scores
mean
Marginal Means
means for each level of an independent variable - may or may not be statistically significant (if not- no effect)
A variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables. Also called mediating variable.
mediator
When a third variable explains the relationship between two other variables, that kind of a third variable is called a:
mediator
Double-blind studies can control for _____ and _______, but this wouldn't help with the contribution of individual differences to within-group variability.
observer effects and demand characteristics
Statistical significance calculations depend not only
on effect size but also on sample size.
standardized beta
one for each predictor variable. like r. higher the value, the stronger the relationship is between the predictor variable and the dependent variable. can compare predictor variables to show larger betas to predictor variables with smaller betas. cannot compare betas from one regression table to strengths from another.
factorial design
one in which there are two or more independent variables may also be called factors. most commonly researchers cross the two independent variables that is they study each possible combination of the independent variables
measurement error
one reason for high within group variability. used for factors that can inflate or deflate a persons true score on a dependent measure. example- a man can be 160 cm talls, but the measuruer could see 161 or 159 because the angle of vision of the person reading the measurement is slouching
Where a researchers recruits one groups of participants, measures them on a pretest, exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change, and then measures them on a posttest.
one-group, pretest/posttest design
Dependent Variable
outcome variable. How a participant acts on the measured variable depends on the level of the independent variable.
Since there is a main effect for both variables, the lines would be _______, and since there is no interaction, the lines would be ________.
parallel, parallel
Where only some of the possible condition orders are represented
partial counterbalancng
- allow us to examine EXTERNAL VALIDITY (can add age, ethnicity, gender, etc. to see if results are the same for all groups) - can allow deeper test of theories (most psych theories include more than one variable-allow us to study full theory)
purposes of factorial designs
In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the independent variable in this experiment?
role of the participant
What other information, in addition to effect size, must you know in order to determine if a correlation is statistically significant?
sample size
he r value is the effect size; in addition to it, to find significance you need the ________..
sample size
what kind of graph is used in an association claim for both variables are quantitative?
scatterplot
An outside event or factor systematically affects people in the study-but only those at one level of the independent variable
selection-history threat
Emma is planning an experiment to examine whether reading to children increases their vocabulary size. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18-month-olds, read to them three times a week for three months, then measure their vocabulary size again. How could Emma change the design of the study to remove a major threat to internal validity?
she could add a comparison gorup
A study in which researchers gather information from only one animal or one person
single-N design
External distractions of any kind-a third factor that could cause variability within groups and obscure true group differences
situation noise
irrelevant events, sounds, or distractions in the external situation that create unsystematic variability within groups in an experiment.
situational noise
Larger samples are less easily affected by chance so a ________ can be significant if the sample size is large.
small correlation
A study in which researchers gather information from just a few cases
small-N design
• Experiments
specifically means that the researchers manipulated at least one variable and measured another
regression threats to internal validity
stat concept called regression toward the mean. when a performance is extreme at Time 1 the time perfromance is measured, Time 2, is likely to be less extreme or closer to the average performance. mean is the average of all performances or scores of a particular group. if you feel like everything is going wrong one day like bad weather, no parking spot, friends being mean, next day going to regress towards the mean or regularness the next day
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. She finds that d = 1.53. What effect size is this?
strong
a statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two means
t test
To look at the relationship between reaction time and level of expertise in tennis, experts and non-experts are compared. Which of the following would be the most appropriate, easiest way to evaluate the relationship between these variables?
t test and bar graph
scores have changed over time just because subjects have taken the test more than once, meaning the participant changes (e.g., "maybe subjects have adapted to the test after taking it the first time?"); how to minimize: - use comparison group - drop pretest (use post-test only) - use alternative form of pretest; occurs in a repeated-measures experiment or quasi-experiment
testing threat
Reading the news on the Internet, Johan comes across the headline, "When Stress is Increased, Men Rush Ahead, Women More Cautious." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Lighthall et al., 2011.) In this study, men and women were asked to perform a decision task as many times as possible in a set period, in either a stressed or unstressed condition. In the unstressed condition, men and women performed similarly. However, in the stressed condition, the number of decision tasks performed by men increased while the number performed by women decreased. Which of the following is a constant in this study?
the amount of time to perform the decision task
When p is less than .05
the beta (i.e., the relationship between that predictor variable and the criterion variable, when the other predictor variables are controlled for) is considered statistically significant.
When p is greater than .05
the beta is considered not significant, meaning we cannot conclude that beta is different from zero
Which of the following tells you that an association claim is being made?
the fact that the two variables are measured
An author might use all of the following methods to indicate statistical significance EXCEPT:
the inclusion of a graph
In a factorial experiment, which is the most important effect?
the interaction
The stronger a correlation
the larger its effect size and the more likely the correlation will be statistically significant. That's because the stronger an association is, the less likely it could have been sampled, just by chance, from a population in which the association is zero
In interactions the effect depends on:
the level of another vairable
The stronger the effect size
the more accurate, on average, our predictions will be
The are that encompasses the extreme 5% of a distribution is frequently referred to as
the rejection region
An association claim describes
the relationship found between two measured variables
When researchers suspect a curvilinear association
the statistically valid way to analyze it is to compute the correlation between one variable and the square of another
The higher beta is
the stronger the relationship is between that predictor variable and the criterion variable.
The smaller beta is
the weaker the relationship
A researcher's intent for a study, testing association claims or causal claims to investigate support for a theory
theory-testing mode
Roediger and McDermott (1995) conducted a study involving a paradigm initially developed by Deese (1959) which produces false recall of a word when a participant is given a list of words to recall which centers on a particular word but does not include it. For example, if participants were given a list that included sandal, towel, sunscreen, and waves, then they would falsely remember the word beach even though it was not on the list. They did two studies based on Deese's original study. In the first study, they used the same word lists that Deese used and in the second experiment they used new sets of stimulus words. This study is in ____________.
theory-testing mode
Unlike r
there are no quick guidelines for beta to indicate effect sizes that are weak, moderate, or strong. The reason is that betas change, depending on what other predictor variables are being used -- being controlled for -- in the regression
The best way to find an outlier is
to look at scatterplots and see if one or a few data points stand out
What are the two main reasons researchers use factorial designs?
to test the limits of an effect and to test theories
A recent study (Koordeman et al., 2011), conducted in the Netherlands, on the effects of commercials for alcohol or alcohol consumption in the movie theater, found that young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week are influenced by the commercials, whereas young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week were not influenced. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their drinking habits. What is a factor in this study?
type of commercial shown
Multiple regression controls for any third variable the researcher measures in the study, but it can't control for _______.
unmeasured variables.
This association is positive, meaning that the cloud of points in the scatterplot would slope ______
upward.
Individual differences can contribute to too much within-group variability. Which of the following is NOT a possible solution to individual differences?
use a double blind study
sum up of internal validity in multivariate designs
use longitudinal correlation or multiple regression. long help establish temporal precedence. multi- help rule out third variables and help with internal
how to prevent instrumentation threats?
use posttest only. only measure behavior once. if not possible, can collect data from each instrument to be sure that the two are calibrated that same. or could train their coders multiple times throughout the experiment, establishing reliability and validity of pre and posttest. can also counterbalance the different forms of the test.
manipulation checks
use to collect data on the construct validity of their independent variables. it is an extra dependent variable that researchers can insert into an experiment ot help them quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked. social inclusion example-could have asked how the participant felt right after writing about the social memory. could provide evidence that their manipulation worked.
An experiment in which all the participants plan to receive treatment, but are assigned to do so at different times
wait-list design
what is the problem with a nonsignificant result?
we cannot rule out the possibility that the result came from a population in which the association is zero
If the probability (p) association is very small -- that is, less than 5%
we know that the result is very unlikely to have come from a "zero-association" population. The correlation is considered statistically significant
explanation of covariance (needed for causality)
well being and small talk association, as percentage fo small talk goes up, well being goes down.
observer bias, demand characterizations, and placebo effects
what are the 3 threats that apply to any experiment?
maturation threats, history threats, regression threats, attrition threats, testing threats, and instrumentation threats
what are the 6 common threats to internal validity?
does single IV have significant effect on DV?
what do we ask in "simple" experimental designs?
detecting interactions from a graph
when on line graph, look is lines are parallel. if not, probably is an interaction. is they are, probably is not interaction. when on bar graph, imagine connecting the tops of each matching bar with straight lines. would the lines be parallel or night or look at the differences in heights, differences different or the same?q
Moderating variables provide information about
when or under what conditions two other variables are related
why is it called third-variable problem?
when you can come up with an alternative variable for the association between two variables, that alternative explanation is this
When asking about the statistical validity of an association claim
you are asking about factors that might have affected the scatterplot, correlation coefficient r, bar graph, or difference score that led to your association claim
