New 3.17

Crossed Factorial Design

-factorial design where researchers cross the two independent variables and study each possible combination of the independent variables.

A recent study (Koordeman et al., 2011), conducted in the Netherlands, on the effects of commercials for alcohol or alcohol consumption in the movie theater, found that young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week are influenced by the commercials, whereas young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week were not influenced. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their drinking habits. What type of design is this?

-independent-groups factorial

A threat to internal validity occurs only if a potential design confound varies ________ with the independent variable. 1. Systematically 2. Spontaneously 3. Especially 4. Haphazardly

1

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many interactions will Dr. Gavin need to examine?

1

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 ´ 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many interactions will Dr. Gavin need to examine?

1

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's: 1. External validity 2. Construct validity 3. Statistical validity 4. Internal validity

1

Which of the following is true of statistical significance testing?

It can lead to an incorrect conclusion about the population.

Which of the following is NOT a problem with journalists ignoring the importance of pattern and parsimony in research?

It makes people read fewer studies about psychology.

Which of the following is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? _____________________________________

Number of Words Remembered

Nested Factorial Design

One independent variable in primary, and the other indpendent variable is nested under it i.e. researcher studies two school districts and then three schools within each district (district is first IV and three schools are second, nested, IV)

Mixed Factorial Designs

One independent variable is manipulated as independent groups and the other is manipulated as within - groups. Each participant does both the manipulated and the control conditions of the study.

For a third variable to be plausible as the explanation in an established association, which of the following must also be true?

The third variable must be related to both of the measured variables in the original association.

insensitive measures: the scale does not have the precision to detect ______

the differences between two treatments

5. The number of main effects that need to be examined is ________________ the number of independent variables.

the same as,

A multiple-regression analysis is run to examine third variables as a follow-up to the study indicating that boys with unusual names are more likely to commit crimes. Unusual names, ethnic backgrounds, and geographical regions are all included as predictor variables. Even after controlling for all of these variables, unusual names still predict criminal activity. Why doesn't this study establish causation?

there may be some other third variable

These designs rely on fewer participants.

Which of the following is NOT a disadvantage of within-groups designs

Not allow participants to leave a study once it has started

Which of the following is NOT a method researchers used to identify or correct for attrition?

Use of a within-subjects design

Which of the following is NOT a reason that a study might yield a null result?

treatment group

Which of the following is NOT an example of a participant variable?

Being in an angry mood likely has the same effect on memory as being in a sad mood.

Which of the following should Dr. Lonsbary NOT conclude from her study?

Using a pretest/posttest design

Which of the following things CANNOT be done to reduce measurement error?

reference to a peer-reviewed journal

Which of the following would NOT necessarily be a clue that the study described in a popular press article was a factorial design?

interaction effect

a result from a factorial design, in which the difference in the levels of one independent variable changes, depending on the level of the other independent variable; a difference in differences.

Cross-lag correlations are used in a longitudinal design to check if a variable measured at one point in time correlates with

a second variable measured at a different point in time.

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following?

a selection effect

Frances did a study to investigate the effect of concreteness on memory. She created a list of 12 items that are very concrete (such as pencil and table) and a list of 12 items that are very abstract (such as justice and freedom). Each item was viewed for one second, then participants recalled them in order. Ten participants were tested in each condition. The study showed null effects. Which is NOT a possible explanation?

attrition

Which of the following would NOT necessarily be a clue that the study described in a popular press article was a factorial design? the phrase "it depends" reference to a peer-reviewed journal the use of a participant variable as well as another independent variable phrasing that suggests that there was a difference in the differences

b

What is the name for a variable that the experimenter holds constant on purpose?

control variable

A variable that could be a nuisance variable is held constant and called a _______.

control variable.

Which of the following is NOT an example of a participant variable?

treatment group

An interaction means there is a ______.

difference in the differences.

magnitude of a relationship between two are more variables

effect size

By measuring possible third variables and using multiple-regression analysis, these third variables can be:

eliminated as explanations for the relationship between the key variables

Which of these is NOT an advantage of within-groups designs?

elimination of practice effects

Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance which type of validity of the study?

external

QUESTION Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity? TRUE OR FALSE ___Counterbalancing ___A placebo group ___A demand characteristic ___Random sampling ___A manipulation check

false false false true true

QUESTION Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following? TRUE OR FALSE ___An order effect ___A selection effect ___A practice effect ___A carryover effect

false true false false

QUESTION What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study? ____________________________

independent groups design

Selection effects only apply to _________ designs.

independent-groups

A recent study (Koordeman et al., 2011), conducted in the Netherlands, on the effects of commercials for alcohol or alcohol consumption in the movie theater, found that young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week are influenced by the commercials, whereas young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week were not influenced. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their drinking habits. What type of design is this?

independent-groups factorial

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. What type of design is this?

independent-groups factorial design

21. Using a matched-group design is especially important in which of the following cases? TRUE OR FALSE ___ When you have only a few people in your study ___ When you have at least three levels/conditions of the independent variable ___ When you do not have a control group

true false .

16. Dr. Kline (an environmental psychologist) conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is true for Dr. Kline's study? TRUE OR FALSE ___He is lacking a control group. ___ He did not manipulate an independent variable. ___ He cannot make a causal statement. ___ He is unable to determine covariance.

true true false

QUESTION In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following types of groups exists? TRUE OR FALSE ___ Control group ___ Treatment group ___ Placebo group

true true false

18. Which of the following is true of selection effects? TRUE OR FALSE ___ They are a type of confound. ___They can occur when experimenters allow participants to choose their own treatment group. ___They can occur when researchers assign one type of person to one treatment group and another type of person to another treatment group.

true true true

25. Which of the following are advantages of within-groups designs: TRUE OR FALSE ___Participants in the treatment/control groups will be equivalent ___It is less time-consuming for the participants ___It gives researchers more power to find differences between conditions ___They require fewer participants

true true true true

In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following types of groups exists? TRUE OR FALSE ___ Control group ___ Treatment group ___ Placebo group

true - Control group true - Treatment group false - Placebo group

How many possible orders for full counterbalancing are there in a study with four conditions?

twenty-four

What allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality?

is having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered.

Identifying Factorial Designs in Popular Press Articles — Peer-reviewed journals publish _________, so this would not be a cue specific to a factorial study.

many types of studies

a third variable that, depending on its level, changes the relationship between two other variables

moderator

For full counterbalancing, all the _______ must be used.

possible

Longitudinal studies conducted in this way do not help to rule out:

possible third variables

What design is an experiment in which each participant is randomly assigned to one level of the independent variable and then tested on the dependent variable once?

posttest only

he ability for a study to reveal a statistically significant difference between the levels of an independent variable when one truly exists is known as:

power

Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs?

practice effects

_______ are one of the possible problems in within-groups designs, as the participants respond to each independent variable more than once.

practice effects

What is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs?

practice effets

Which of the following would NOT necessarily be a clue that the study described in a popular press article was a factorial design?

reference to a peer-reviewed journal

Which of the following would not be a cue that the study was a factorial design in a popular press article?

reference to a peer-reviewed journal

Which of the following would not be a cue that the study was a factorial design in a popular press article?

reference to a peer-reviewed journalq

Jared is conducting an experiment with ESP (extrasensory perception) training. He begins with a pretest of his 40 participants and divides them into two groups based on their scores. The participants with the 10 lowest scores are given extensive training on how to detect the signals. The participants with the 30 highest scores are given no training. Both groups are retested and the average score of the participants with the training improved, while the average score of the participants without the training actually fell. What threat to internal validity should Jared consider?

regression

Which design is Dr. Acitelli using?

repeated measure design

19. Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following? TRUE OR FALSE ___Random selection ___Selection effects ___Carryover effects ___Large effect sizes ___Demand characteristics

Selection effects

When authors of a research article are describing just the results of a factorial study, which of these terms would you not expect to see?

"Correlation" is not a term used in describing the results of a strictly factorial study, though it may be used within the same article.

Which popular press headline does NOT suggest that a multiple regression has been used?

"Dog ownership decreases stress."

Which popular press headline might suggest that a multiple regression has been used?

"Vacations are important for life satisfaction, even after correcting for length of vacation."

Which popular press headline might suggest that a multiple regression has been used? 1. "Vacations are important for life satisfaction, even after correcting for length of vacation." 2. "Cuddling is an important factor in marital satisfaction for men." 3. "Daughters are happier when their mothers are happy working outside the home." 4. "Drinking coffee is associated with greater work productivity."

"Vacations are important for life satisfaction, even after correcting for length of vacation."

Testing threats involve ________ whereas instrumentation threats involve ________.

Participants; measurements

A more general term for practice effects and carryover effects is: 1. Order effects 2. Within-person effects 3. Between-person effects 4. Design effects

1

To achieve a goal of 20 observations per cell in a 2 × 2 × 3 mixed experiment with the first two factors run within groups and the last factor run between groups, what would be the number of participants needed?

- 60 If this was just a 2 × 2 within-groups design, it would need just 20 participants. Adding the third between groups factor makes 60 necessary: 20 for each level.

Within-Groups Factorial Designs

- both independent variables are manipulated as within groups. - in a 2x2 there is only one group of participants who participate in all four combinations

Results of Strayer and Dweyer's studies

- effect of talking on a cell phone did not depend on age. Older drivers did tend to brake more slowly than younger ones, consistent with past research on aging drivers. -the effect of using a cell phone did not differ with age = cell phone use did not interact with age.

Spreading interaction

- lines not parallel, do not cross over ( treat and no treat/ say something and say nothing) - one line flat, one line increase or decrease but never cross

Which are control variables in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

-The amount of words on the list -The amount of time allowed for remembering/typing the words -The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words *neutral

A comparison group

Which of the following cannot be found in a one-group, pretest/posttest design?

Observer bias threatens internal validity because ______ and threatens construct validity because _______.

-an alternative explanation exists -the ratings are inaccurate

Independent Groups Factorial Designs

-both independent variables are manipulated as independent groups - in a 2x2 there are four independent groups

Mixed Factorial Designs

-one independent variable is manipulated as independent groups and the other is manipulated within groups - i.e. old and young group, each group drove with and without cellphone condition -strayer and and drews

Factorial Designs Can Test Limits

-test whether IV affects different kinda of people, or people in different situations, in the same way. -would cell phone use while driving only affect one age group? or have same effect on people of different ages? -function as form of external validity: testing whether effect generalizes (when IV effects groups in the same way. suggests effect generalizes to all) -Interactions show moderators - Test Theories

What differences need to be investigated when a three-way design is used?

-three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction

?7. Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they are also thinking about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the" dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. ---- QUESTION How many participant variables exist in Dr. Elder's study?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A participant variable is one that the experimenter does not manipulate, but does select for measure . . . 0?

Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 How many participant variables exist in Dr. Elder's study?

0

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity? 1. A manipulation check 2. Counterbalancing 3. A placebo group 4. A demand characteristic

1

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following should Dr. Lonsbary NOT conclude from her study? 1. Being in an angry mood likely has the same effect on memory as being in a sad mood. 2. Being in a mood other than neutral causes people to have a better memory. 3. Listening to music can cause changes in mood. 4. Being in a happy mood does not cause more of a change in memory than being in a sad mood.

1

Random selection enhances ________ and random assignment enhances ________. 1. External validity; internal validity 2. Internal validity; internal validity 3. External validity; external validity 4. Internal validity; external validity

1

Which of the following is NOT true of selection effects? 1. They are unimportant for interrogating internal validity. 2. They can occur when experimenters allow participants to choose their own treatment group. 3. They are a type of confound. 4. They can occur when researchers assign one type of person to one treatment group and another type of person to another treatment group.

1

cross-lag correlations

a correlation between an earlier measure of one variable and a later measure of another variable

What are two common reasons to use a factorial design?

1. Factorial designs can test limits; to test whether an independent variable effects different kinds of people, or people in different situations, the same way. 2. Factorial designs can test theories; can test generalizability of a causal variable and also test theories.

factorial

A _______ design is one in which there are two or more independent variables.

Which of the following graph formats is the best way to examine an association claim between a categorical variable and a quantitative variable?

A bar graph

External validity

12. Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's:

An independent-groups design is also known as a ________. 1. Within-groups design 2. Between-subjects design 3. Matched-groups design 4. Mixed design

2

Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or with photographs. A group of 45 first-graders are shown two copies of a book (Little Red Riding Hood) at the same time. Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs? 1. Posttest-only design 2. Concurrent-measures design 3. Repeated-measures design 4. Longitudinal design

2

Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 In Dr. Elder's study, how many possible main effects exist?

2

Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 To determine if there is a main effect for type of activity, Dr. Elder must examine how many marginal means?

2

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many independent variables are in his study?

2

Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is NOT true of Dr. Kline's study? 1. He cannot make a causal statement. 2. He does not have a dependent variable. 3. He did not manipulate an independent variable. 4. He is lacking a control group.

2

Generally, what is the main priority for experimental studies? 1. Statistical validity 2. Internal validity 3. Construct validity 4. External validity

2

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following? 1. An order effect 2. A selection effect 3. A practice effect 4. A carryover effect

2

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following does NOT exist? 1. A treatment group 2. A placebo group 3. A control variable 4. A manipulation check

2

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. Running this preliminary study helps establish which of the following? 1. Statistical validity 2. Construct validity 3. External validity 4. Internal validity

2

What is the primary difference between pretest/posttest designs and within-groups designs? 1. The number of participants used 2. The number of levels of the independent variable participants are exposed to 3. There is no difference between the two designs 4. The number of times the dependent variable is measured

2

Which of the following is NOT a disadvantage of within-groups designs? 1. There is a potential for demand characteristics. 2. These designs rely on fewer participants. 3. There is a potential for order effects. 4. Depending on the independent variable, these designs are not always possible.

2

Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs? 1. Design confounds 2. Practice effects 3. Demand characteristics 4. Selection effects

2

Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What is the factorial notation for this design?

2 x 2

autocorrelations

determine the correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions

Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think more differently about the category of "southern" if they are also thinking about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. Dr. Elder also is curious as to whether categorization happens similarly for children as it does for adults. As such, he recruits a group of 10-year-olds and a group of 20-year-olds to participate in the study. In the study described above, Dr. Elder will need to examine how many two-way interactions?

3

How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

3

QUESTION How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary's study? _______

3

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Her decision to include this step was done to address the study's: 1. Internal validity 2. External validity 3. Statistical validity 4. Construct validity

3

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary's study? 1. Two 2. Five 3. Three 4. Nine

3

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study? 1. Within-groups design 2. Pretest/posttest design 3. Independent-groups design 4. Matched-group design

3

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? 1. Time given to type the words remembered 2. Time given to memorize the words 3. Number of words remembered 4. Number of words on the list

3

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? 1. Feeling happy 2. Type of card drawn 3. Participant's mood 4. Number of groups participants were assigned to

3

RESEARCH STUDY 10.2 Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep without watching TV. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Refer to Research Study 10.2 to answer the following four questions. Which of the following designs is Dr. Acitelli using? 1. Posttest-only design 2. Pretest/posttest design 3. Repeated-measures design 4. Concurrent-measures design

3

Which of the following is NOT a reason that a researcher might choose a pretest/posttest design? 1. To make a strong causal claim 2. To ensure that random assignment made the treatment/comparison groups equal 3. To allow for the study of spontaneous behaviors 4. To determine how groups change over the course of the experiment

3

Which of the following is NOT true of control variables? 1. They are essential in experimental designs. 2. They help establish internal validity. 3. They help define the control group. 4. They are kept the same for all participants.

3

Which of the following research designs is used to address possible selection effects? 1. Pretest/posttest designs 2. Correlational designs 3. Matched-groups designs 4. Posttest-only designs

3

How many independent variables and how many cells are there in a 2 × 3 × 4 study?

3 independent variables, 24 cells

Using a matched-group design is especially important in which of the following cases? 1. When you have at least three levels/conditions of the independent variable 2. When you have a complex dependent variable 3. When you do not have a control group 4. When you have only a few people in your study

4

When conducting an experiment, what is provided by the independent variable? 1. Confirmation of internal validity 2. Random assignment 3. Proof of temporal precedence 4. A comparison group

4

All of the following are advantages of within-groups designs EXCEPT: Selected Answer: [None Given] Answers: 1. It gives researchers more power to find differences between conditions 2. They require fewer participants 3. Participants in the treatment/control groups will be equivalent 4. It is less time-consuming for the participants

4

Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following? 1. Carryover effects 2. Random selection 3. Demand characteristics 4. Selection effects

4

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a: 1. Pretest-only study 2. Concurrent measure study 3. Pretest/posttest study 4. Pilot study

4

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality? 1. Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered 2. Putting the 60 participants into equal groups 3. Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words 4. Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people

4

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality? Selected Answer: [None Given] Answers: 1. Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words 2. Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people 3. Putting the 60 participants into equal groups 4. Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered

4

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following is a NOT control variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? 1. The number of words on the word list 2. The amount of time allowed for remembering/typing the words 3. The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words 4. The mood of the participants

4

RESEARCH STUDY 10.2 Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep without watching TV. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Refer to Research Study 10.2 to answer the following four questions. Dr. Acitelli was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease which of the following? 1. Order effects 2. Counterbalancing effects 3. Selection effects 4. Demand characteristics

4

RESEARCH STUDY 10.2 Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep without watching TV. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Refer to Research Study 10.2 to answer the following four questions. Given that Dr. Acitelli's participants have agreed to participate for three nights each, which type of counterbalancing should she use? 1. Full counterbalancing 2. Carryover counterbalancing 3. Minimal counterbalancing 4. Partial counterbalancing

4

RESEARCH STUDY 10.2 Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep without watching TV. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Refer to Research Study 10.2 to answer the following four questions. Given that there are three conditions/levels of the independent variable, how many orders of the conditions are possible in Dr. Acitelli's study? 1. Three 2. Nine 3. Twelve 4. Six

4

The ability for a study to reveal a statistically significant difference between the levels of an independent variable when one truly exists is known as: 1. Covariance 2. Statistical validity 3. Effect size 4. Power

4

?10. " QUESTION In Dr. Elder's study, how many possible main effects exist?

4?

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition with financial compensation being introduced following the low anxiety-level performance. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about putting technique, thinking of irrelevant cue words, and thinking about a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. How many cells was each golfer in?

6

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. How many cells was each participant in?

6

Given that there are three conditions/levels of the independent variable, how many orders of the conditions are possible in Dr. Acitelli's study?

6 pp41

A researcher wants to run a 2 x 3 mixed factorial design. The first factor is within-subjects. The second factor is between-subjects. If the researcher wants 20 observations per cell, how many participants will he need in total?

60

To achieve a goal of 20 observations per cell in a 2 × 2 × 3 mixed experiment with the first two factors run within groups and the last factor run between groups, what would be the number of participants needed?

60

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. How many cells are there in this study?

8

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many cells are in his design?

8

Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 In graphing the difference between the differences, which of the following values would Dr. Elder use?

9

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. One group (A) listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song entitled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). One group (B) listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song entitled "Alone Again"). One group (C) listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for 5 minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, she would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. If the participant drew a 1, 2, or 3, he or she was assigned to Group A. If the participant drew a 4, 5, or 6, he or she was assigned to Group B. If a participant drew a 7, 8, or 9, he or she was assigned to Group C. The participants were then given a CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. There were no identifying marks on the CD indicating what was contained on the disc. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to put the CD in the computer, put on the headphones, and listen to the CD while trying to memorize the list of words. When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. In addition, all participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference p = .05 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference p = .03 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference p = .04 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference p = .24

>>>>

Which of these is not an advantage of within-groups designs? a. elimination of practice effects b. assurance of equivalence of the groups c. requirement of fewer participants d. more statistical power

A Advantages of Within-Groups Designs—Practice effects are one of the possible problems in within-groups designs as the participants respond to each independent variable more than once.

In a study in which two variables are measured at two different points in time, what type of correlation shows whether an earlier measure of one variable is associated with the later measure of the other variable? a. cross-lag b. longitudinal c. autocorrelation d. cross-sectional

A Cross-Lag Correlations —Cross-lag correlations are used in a longitudinal design to check if a variable measured at one point in time correlates with a second variable measured at a different point in time.

Martins et al. (2010) studied factors relating to the retrieval of names of famous people based on pictures. Famous faces tests are used in studies of memory. They were interested in understanding the factors that influence successful recall. Five groups of stimuli were formed based on reason for celebrity and time of peak fame. Multiple regressions for age, gender, and education were performed for each of the groups. What is the criterion variable? a. recall of names b. stimuli group c. age of participant d. education of participant

A Dependent Variables and Predictor Variables —The recall of names is the dependent variable or variable the researchers were most interested in understanding.

Which of the following is a categorical variable? a. base played by a baseball player b. score on the verbal portion of the SAT c. score on the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale d. days of class missed last semester

A Describing Associations with Categorical Data—The bases are numbered, but they represent categories of positions.

In a word list-learning experiment, participants are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of time between the study period and the recall is being manipulated: it is 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Which of the following is a confounding variable? a. All participants in the 2-minute condition are tested at 8:00a.m., those in the 5-minute condition are tested at noon, and those in the 10-minute condition are tested at 4:00 p.m. b. The same list is used for each condition and is randomized for each participant. c. The three groups are run simultaneously in three different rooms, and the room for each condition is randomly chosen before each group arrives. d. Three different experimenters administer the task and rotate which condition they are administering.

A Design Confounds—The time of day of the tests varies systematically with the independent variable, so this is a confounding variable.

Which of these is not a drawback of a within-groups design? a. Extraneous differences are held constant across conditions. b. Participants cannot be returned to their original state after each condition. c. Demand characteristics may result from hypothesis guessing with repeated testing. d. Order effects can threaten internal validity.

A Disadvantages of Within-Groups Design—That extraneous differences are held constant is a strength, not a weakness.

Professor Fofana offers extra credit points in his introductory psychology classes. He wonders which students take advantage of this. He makes a scatterplot for his classes, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.179. This is a weak association. What other information would Professor Fofana need to determine if it is statistically significant? a. the sample size b. the phi coefficient c. the effect size d. the letter grades of the students

A Effect Size, Sample Size, and Significance—The r value is the effect size; in addition to it, to find significance you need the sample size.

In a study of the span of apprehension, or how many objects you can assess (report seeing) after a brief exposure, the length of exposure is held constant and the number of objects is varied, from one to twelve. After a large number of trials, the percentage correct for each number of objects is found. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? a. the percentage correct b. the number of objects c. the length of exposure d. the number of trials

A Independent and Dependent Variables —The measured variable is the dependent variable. In this study it is the percentage correct.

In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the independent variable in this experiment? a. role of the participant b. price that the buyer will pay c. price that the seller will accept d. name of the participant

A Independent and Dependent Variables—Theo assigns the participants to their roles, so that is the manipulated variable.

Which of these is not required to establish causality? a. convergent validity b. internal validity c. temporal precedence d. covariation of the cause variable and the effect variable

A Internal Validity: Can We Make a Causal Inference from an Association?—Concurrent validity is a way to assess construct validity.

Which type of validity is typically not relevant to association claims? a. internal b. external c. construct d. statistical

A Interrogating Association Claims—Internal validity is typically not relevant to association claims because both variables are being measured, and neither is being manipulated.

Alex is studying the effect of practice on improving performance in highly trained athletes. The mediator in the relationship might be the confidence that comes from practice. Which of these is not one of the tests that would be used to test the hypothesis that confidence is a mediator between practice and improved performance? a. run a regression test with concentration and confidence as predictor variables and compare the results b. test for a relationship between practice and confidence c. test for a relationship between confidence and improved performance d. run a regression test with both practice and confidence as predictor variables for improved performance and check if the relationship between practice and performance goes away

A Mediation—Concentration may be a mediator variable, but it isn't under consideration in this question.

Martins et al. (2010) studied factors relating to the retrieval of names of famous people based on pictures. Famous faces tests are used in studies of memory. They were interested in understanding the factors that influence successful recall. Five groups of stimuli were formed based on reason for celebrity and time of peak fame. Multiple regressions for age, gender, and education were performed for each of the groups. For each of the groups, the beta for the predictor variable of education was positive and statistically significant. Why couldn't you say that education improves recall of names for famous people? a. The temporal precedence is not established and there may be another variable that accounts for the relationship. b. The p values are not large enough. c. More variables should have been included in the multiple regression. d. There were some uncontrolled variables.

A Regression Does Not Establish Causation—While education clearly is related to recall of famous names, it isn't clear whether the superior recall preceded the education or if there is another variable besides age, gender, and education involved.

Which of the following phrases used in the popular press is not terminology suggesting that multiple regression is used? a. made a difference in b. correcting for c. taking into account d. controlled for

A Regression in Popular Press Articles—The terminology "made a difference in" suggests a causal claim, which isn't established by regression.

How can multiple regression address issues of internal validity? a. by ruling out third variables b. by establishing temporal precedence c. by eliminating selection threats d. by introducing a control condition

A Ruling Out Third Variables with Multiple-Regression Designs—By measuring possible third variables and using multiple regression analysis, these third variables can be eliminated as explanations for the relationship between the key variables.

Which of the following is the essential characteristic of an association claim? a. It is a study designed in which both of the variables are measured. b. The correlation coefficient of the variables is over .01 or under -.01. c. It is a study with at least one categorical variable. d. It is a study in which the results can be evaluated using the phi coefficient.

A Two Measured Variables Make a Study Categorical—It doesn't matter what type of graph you make or what statistic you use. When both variables are measured, the claim being tested is an association claim.

The student government at a college is interested in determining how important intercollegiate sports are to the students there. Since all students have e-mail accounts, they are able to send a survey to all the students. About 50 percent of the students respond. Which is the most likely bias in this sample? a. self-selection, or a higher rate of response by those who have strong feelings b. a bias from contacting only those the student government could easily contact c. a bias from contacting only those the student government could contact d. response bias from leading questions

A What Causes Biased Samples?—There is no way to know if the 50 percent of the students who responded were representative of the entire student body or the reasons they chose to answer.

cells

A condition in an experiment; in a simple experiment, it can represent the level of one independent variable; in a factorial design it represents one of the possible combinations of two independent variables. Ex: older people driving while using cell phones, driving while not using cell phones, and younger people driving while using cell phones, or driving while not using cell phones

Reverse confound

A confound that keeps a researcher from finding a relationship between two variables is known as a/an:

1. The mathematical way to describe an interaction is: TRUE OR FALSE A difference in differences A caveat A qualified main effect A patterned pattern

A difference in differences

When examining an association claim using a bar graph, an association is indicated by which of the following?

A difference in height between the bars

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity? 1. A manipulation check 2. Counterbalancing 3. A placebo group 4. A demand characteristic

A manipulation check

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following does NOT exist? 1. A treatment group 2. A placebo group 3. A control variable 4. A manipulation check

A placebo group

60

A researcher wants to run a 2 x 3 mixed factorial design. The first factor is within-subjects. The second factor is between-subjects. If the researcher wants 20 observations per cell, how many participants will he need in total?

When examining an association in which one variable is categorical and one is quantitative, which of the following is NOT likely to be used?

A scatterplot

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following? 1. An order effect 2. A selection effect 3. A practice effect 4. A carryover effect

A selection effect

factorial design

A study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors.

Which of the following studies would NOT have a possible threat of observer bias?

A study looking at the relationship between college GPA and SAT scores

Systematically

A threat to internal validity occurs only if a potential design confound varies ________ with the independent variable.

participant variable

A variable whose levels are selected (i.e. measured), not manipulated. Because the levels are not manipulated, variables such as age, gender, and ethnicity are not truly 'independent' variables. However, when they are studied in a factorial design, researchers often call them independent variables for the sake of simplicity. A variable such as age, gender, or ethnicity whose levels are selected (i.e., measured), not manipulated.

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many independent variables are in his study? Question options: a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 8 e) 10

A) 2

Which one of the following is NOT a type of order effect? Question options: a) Reactive effect b) Practice effect c) Fatigue effect d) Carryover effect

A) Reactive effect

(Table 2) Based on her pattern of correlations, which of the following can Dr. Farah safely conclude? Question options: a) Because Correlation C is significant but Correlation E is not, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement. b) Because not all the correlations are significant, Dr. Farah has no evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement. c) Because all the correlations are significant, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement. d) Because Correlations A and B are significant, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement. e) Because Correlation D is stronger than Correlation F, Dr. Farah has no evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.

A) Because Correlation C is significant but Correlation E is not, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.

In APA style when you use a first or second level heading do you put the words in: Question options: a) Bold b) All capital letters c) Italics d) Flush right

A) Bold

(Table 1) Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's: Question options: a) External validity b) Statistical validity c) Internal validity d) Construct validity e) None of the above

A) External validity

Regression toward the mean refers to the fact that Question options: a) extreme scores tend to change toward the average b) average scores tend to move towards extremes c) statistical averages can be different depending on populations studied d) Both a and c e) Both b and c

A) Extreme scores tend to change toward average

In conducting quasi-experimental designs, researchers tend to give up some ________ in exchange for ________. Question options: a) Internal validity; external validity b) Internal validity; statistical validity c) Statistical validity; external validity d) External validity; construct validity e) Construct validity; statistical validity

A) Internal validity; external validity

Which of these is correct? Question options: a) Jones and Jones (2000) think people are great b) Jones & Jones (2000) think people are great c) Psychologists think some people are great (Jones and Jones, 2000) d) Both a and c e) All of the above

A) Jones and Jones (2000) think people are great.

(Table 1) Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality? Question options: a) Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people b) Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered c) Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words d) Both a and b e) Both b and c

A) Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people

Which of the following is a difference between true experiments and quasi-experiments? Question options: a) Quasi-experiments do not use random assignment. b) Quasi-experiments do not involve manipulated variables. c) Quasi-experiments cannot have comparison groups. d) Quasi-experiments cannot have pretest measures. e) All of the above are differences between true experiments and quasi-experiments.

A) Quas-iexperiments do not use random assignment

Which of the following is NOT a problem that may contribute to a null effect in a study?

large sample size

The most serious flaw associated with the nonequivalent control group design is that ____ occur. Question options: a) selection differences b) data variances c) participant dropouts d) regression to the mean e) history

A) selection differences

8. " QUESTION To make his study a 2 X 2 X 3 factorial design, which of the following would Dr. Elder need to do? TRUE or FALSE Add a second dependent variable (quality of the category attributes listed) Add a new manipulated variable (time to complete the task: 5 minutes versus 10 minutes versus 15 minutes) Add a new participant variable (sex: males versus females)

Add a new manipulated variable (time to complete the task: 5 minutes versus 10 minutes versus 15 minutes)

Which of the following is a control in Dr. Lonsbary's study? Question options: a) The number of words on the word list b) The amount of time allowed for remembering/writing the words c) The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words d) All of the above e) None of the above

All of the above

It is less time-consuming for the participants

All of the following are advantages of within-groups designs EXCEPT:

Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Which of the following scenarios would present a design confound in this experiment?

All participants in the 2-minute condition are tested at 8:00 a.m.; those in the 5-minute condition are tested at noon; and those in the 10-minute condition are tested at 4:00 p.m.

Cross-lag correlations are NOT helpful for answering/addressing which rule of causation? 1. Are there third variables that could explain the relationship? 2. Rule of covariance: Is there covariance? 3. Rule of temporal precedence: Is there temporal precedence? 4. Rule of parsimony

Are there third variables that could explain the relationship?

Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. Variable A Variable B Correlation Coefficient Correlation 1 Fall number of hours of homework Fall semester GPA .83* Correlation 2 Fall number of hours of homework Spring number of hours of homework .36* Correlation 3 Fall number of hours of homework Spring semester GPA .69* Correlation 4 Fall semester GPA Spring number of hours of homework .18 Correlation 5 Fall semester GPA Spring semester GPA .45* Correlation 6 Spring number of hours of homework Spring semester GPA .80* * Indicates a statistically significant relationship. 1. In considering the three causal rules, which of the following rules/questions will Dr. Farah's study NOT be able to address? 1. Rule of parsimony 2. Rule of covariance: Is there covariance? 3. Are there third variables that could explain the relationship? 4. Rule of temporal precedence: Is there temporal precedence?

Are there third variables that could explain the relationship?

1. Correlation 5 is an example of which of the following types of correlations? Answers: 1. Cross-lag correlation 2. Autocorrelation 3. Cross-sectional correlation 4. Multivariate correlation

Autocorrelation

Which of the following is not a method to interrogate construct validity in an experimental design? a. pilot studies b. checking for statistical significance c. manipulation checks d. adding additional conditions

B Construct Validity: How Well Were the Variables Measured and Manipulated?—Checking statistical significance is a way of interrogating statistical validity.

Which of these does not need to be considered as an alternative explanation of the results in a within-groups design experiment? a. fatigue b. selection c. practice d. boredom

B Covariance, Temporal Precedence, and Internal Validity in Within-Groups Designs—The problems with within-groups designs involve the possibility of order effects.

Professor Horvat studies the relationships between job and home satisfaction. She designs a study to test the same group of workers on various factors of work satisfaction and home satisfaction. She administers the test two times, one year apart. She finds that at both testings, there is a strong correlation between job satisfaction and home satisfaction. What type of correlations are these? a. autocorrelations b. cross-sectional c. cross-lag d. curvilinear

B Cross-Sectional Correlations—These two tests are made a year apart showing the relationship between the factors of job satisfaction and home satisfaction.

Martins et al. (2010) studied factors relating to the retrieval of names of famous people based on pictures. Famous faces tests are used in studies of memory. They were interested in understanding the factors that influence successful recall. Five groups of stimuli were formed based on reason for celebrity and time of peak fame. Multiple regressions for age, gender, and education were performed for each of the groups. Which of the following is not a predictor variable? a. education b. recall of names c. gender d. age

B Dependent Variables and Predictor Variables—Recall has been chosen as the dependent variable or the criterion variable.

What type of research design involves measuring the same variables for the same people across different points in time? a. cross-sectional b. longitudinal c. naturalistic observation d. case study

B Establishing Temporal Precedence with Longitudinal Designs—In longitudinal designs, the same variables are studied in the same people across time.

Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. Associations were found between the waiting times of the preschoolers and behaviors of the same children as adolescents. Which of the following is not an issue of external validity for this study? a. All the students were middle class. b. The preschool children were all roughly the same age. c. The sample size was about 100 children. d. All the children attended the Stanford University preschool.

B External Validity : To Whom Can the Association Be Generalized?—All of the factors except the age of the children make it difficult to extend the results to a larger population.

In a study of the span of apprehension, or how many objects you can assess (report seeing) after a brief exposure, the length of exposure is held constant and the number of objects is varied, from one to twelve. After a large number of trials, the percentage correct for each number of objects is found. What is the independent variable? a. the percentage correct b. the number of objects c. the length of exposure d. the number of trials

B Independent and Dependent Variables—The number of objects is manipulated, so this is the independent variable.

In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? a. role of the participant b. value selected for the mug c. type of mug d. name of the participant

B Independent and Dependent Variables—The value of the mug is the measured variable.

The Yerkes-Dodson law (1908), shows that performance increases with arousal up to a point, but beyond that, performance decreases with increasing arousal. What type of correlation this? a. Zero b. Curvilinear c. Positive d. Negative

B Introduction to Bivariate Correlations—At low arousal, the correlation is positive, but at high arousal, the correlation is negative, hence the correlation is represented by a curve.

Professor Horvat studies the relationships between job and home satisfaction. She designs a study to test the same group of workers on various factors of work satisfaction and home satisfaction. She administers the test two times, one year apart. She finds that home satisfaction measured at the first time correlates strongly with job satisfaction at the second time, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at time one and home satisfaction measured a year later. For which of the rules of causation do these two correlations provide evidence? a. covariance b. temporal precedence c. internal validity d. none of the above

B Longitudinal Studies and the Three Rules for Causation—Because the path from home satisfaction to job satisfaction is stronger than the path from job satisfaction to home satisfaction, the experimenter is closer to determining which precedes the other.

If the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of a third variable in association research, what is this third variable called? a. continuous b. moderator c. predictor d. dependent

B Moderating Variables—In association research, when the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of a third variable, the third variable is called a moderator. Marital status of the mother was a moderator in the Harvey (1999) study as indicated in Table 7.6.

Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety, a known predictor of foreign language achievement, using a multiple regression analysis of variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. Which of the following questions interrogates external validity of this study? a. What was the measure of perceived scholastic competence? b. Which languages were studied? c. What effect size was found? d. Are there subgroups in the study?

B Multivariate Designs and the Four Validities—External validity is concerned with generalizing the results, and so you would want to know if the results applied to all foreign languages.

In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated measures design. How is the independent variable being manipulated in Tetiana's design? a. independent groups b. within-groups c. concurrently d. as a participant variable

B Posttest-Only Designs—Tetiana is not using a pretest and her design is within-groups.

In a word list-learning experiment, participants are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of time between the study period and the recall is being manipulated: it is 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Since different groups need different amounts of time, the first 25 participants who arrive are assigned to the 10-minute group, the next 25 are assigned to the 5-minute group, and the final 25 are assigned to the 2-minute group. What confound does this create? a. demand characteristic b. selection effect c. experimenter bias d. carryover effect

B Selection Effects—The participants that arrive first may be systematically different from the later arrivers, so the differences between group performances may result from this rather than the independent variable.

The Flynn effect, the widespread increase in intelligence scores over the last century, is unexplained. One proposed explanation is that the lowest performers have improved because of better nutrition and more widespread availability of education, and this improvement in the lowest performers has been what has raised the averages for the population. To explore this explanation, what statistical validity question should be considered? a. What is the effect size? b. Are there subgroups? c. Is the correlation statistically significant? d. What is the sample size?

B Statistical Validity Question 3: Are There Subgroups?—This explanation suggests that the lower scoring performers form a subgroup and the correlation for this group should be computed separately and compared to that of the rest of the performers.

(Table 1) Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following? Question options: a) An order effect b) A selection effect c) A practice effect d) A carryover effect e) A reaction effect

B) A selection effect

The number of main effects that need to be examined is __________ the number of independent variables. Question options: a) More important than b) Equal to c) Similar to d) Unrelated to e) Independent of

B) Equal to

(Table 1) Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality? Question options: a) Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people b) Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered c) Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words d) Both a and b e) Both b and c

B) Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered

I assess your attitude toward marijuana, present you with a persuasive communication favoring liberalization of marijuana laws, and then reassess your attitude toward the drug. However, between assessment 1 and assessment 2, the President also advocates liberalization of marijuana laws. If I don't use a control group, any differences I observe are suspect on the grounds of: Question options: a) maturation b) history c) regression to the mean d) testing e) participant mortality

B) History

A control series design is a(n) _____ design with a comparison group Question options: a) true experimental b) interrupted time series c) outcome series d) matched pairs e) cross sectional

B) Interrupted time series

A researcher designed an experiment to test the effects of a top‑secret vitamin supplement on the strength of weight‑lifters. Lifting heavy books would not be a useful measure of strength because book lifting: Question options: a) cannot be measured b) is not a sensitive enough measure of strength. c) is subject to a floor effect. d) is a behavioral measure. e) is too subjective (i.e. books weights aren't standard)

B) Is not a sensitive enough measure of strength

Which of the following CANNOT be said of the interaction in a study? Question options: a) It can be determined by examining a graph of the results. b) It can be determined by investigating marginal means. c) It can exist even if the main effects are not significant. d) It is almost always more important than a study's main effects. e) There are multiple types of interactions (e.g., crossover interaction).

B) It can be determined by investigating marginal means

A study is conducted in which the attitudes of the staff of one mental hospital are assessed; then the staff is exposed to an attitude‑change manipulation, and attitudes are assessed again. A control hospital of similar size is also chosen; attitudes there are measured and then at a later time, assessed again. This quasi‑experimental design is called a _____ design. Question options: a) matched pairs b) nonequivalent control group c) interrupted time series d) cohort-sequential e) case study

B) Nonequivalent control group

A psychologist is interested to know which of two sorting techniques leads to better memory performance in 6‑year‑olds. Each participant first sorts a set of pictures any way he or she would like. Recall is then tested. After this, each participant is required to sort an equivalent set of pictures into five predetermined categories. Recall for the items in this test is then tested. What procedure does this study represent? Question options: a) Matched random assignment b) Repeated measures c) Simple random assignment d) Independent groups e) Combined assignment

B) Repeated measures

Dr. Quong notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable? Question options: a) Variable A cancels out Variable B. b) The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B. c) The effect of Variable A is confounded by Variable B. d) Variable A only affects Variable B. e) The effect of Variable A is mediated by Variable B.

B) The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B

(Table 1) How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary's study? Question options: a) Two b) Three c) Five d) Nine e) Twenty-five

B) Three

Which of the following is an independent-groups quasi-experimental design? Question options: a) Interrupted time-series design b) Nonequivalent control group design c) Nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design d) Stable-baseline design e) All of the above are independent-groups quasi-experimental designs

B) nonequivalent control group design

1. Based on her pattern of correlations, which of the following can Dr. Farah safely conclude? 1. Because Correlation 4 is stronger than Correlation 5, Dr. Farah has no evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement. 2. Because Correlation 3 is significant but Correlation 4 is not, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement. 3. Because Correlations 2 and 3 are significant, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement. 4. Because not all the correlations are significant, Dr. Farah has no evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.

Because Correlation 3 is significant but Correlation 4 is not, Dr. Farah has evidence that increased homework comes before academic achievement.

Why are curvilinear relationships hard to detect with correlation coefficients (r)?

Because r always looks for the best straight line to fit the data

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following should Dr. Lonsbary NOT conclude from her study? 1. Being in an angry mood likely has the same effect on memory as being in a sad mood. 2. Being in a mood other than neutral causes people to have a better memory. 3. Listening to music can cause changes in mood. 4. Being in a happy mood does not cause more of a change in memory than being in a sad mood.

Being in an angry mood likely has the same effect on memory as being in a sad mood.

In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following types of groups exists? Question options: a) Control group b) Treatment group c) Placebo group d) Both a and b e) All of the above

Both a and b

Within - Groups Factorial Design

Both independent variables are manipulated as within groups. If the design is 2 x 2, there is only one group of participants, but they participate in all four combinations (or cells) of the design.

Independent - Groups Factorial Design

Both independent variables are studied as independent groups. If the design is a 2 x 2, there are four different groups of participants in the experiment.

What sample size is often cited as the optimal balance between accuracy and effort? a. 100 b. 500 c. 1,000 d. 2,000

C Are Bigger Samples Better Samples?—A random sample of size of 1,000 allows the generalization to a population with an error margin of plus or minus 3 percent. Making the effort to double the sample size to 2,000 only gains 1 percent on the error margin, which isn't generally considered worth the effort.

Professor Horvat studies the relationships between job and home satisfaction. She designs a study to test the same group of workers on various factors of work satisfaction and home satisfaction. She administers the test two times, one year apart. She finds that job satisfaction at the initial testing is correlated with job satisfaction at the second testing, but that home satisfaction at the first testing is not correlated with home satisfaction at the second testing. What type of correlations are these? a. cross-sectional b. cross-lag c. autocorrelations d. negative

C Autocorrelations —Each of these is a correlation of a variable with the same variable measured at two different times.

What is a variable that the experimenter holds constant on purpose? a. dependent b. independent c. control d. confound

C Control Variables—A variable that could be a nuisance variable is held constant and called a control variable.

Professor Hu is examining the relation between memory and time spent sleeping in different age groups. He administers a memory test and a sleep time questionnaire to two groups of participants: one which is made up of 50-year-olds and the other made up of 65-year-olds. He finds the correlations between memory performance and sleep time for each group. What type of correlations are these? a. longitudinal b. autocorrelations c. cross-sectional d. cross-lag

C Cross-Sectional Correlations—Professor Hu has looked at simple correlations from measurements made at the same time from two groups of different ages.

What other information, in addition to effect size, must you know in order to determine if a correlation is statistically significant? a. direction of the association b. scale of the scatterplot c. sample size d. external validity

C Effect Size, Sample Size, and Significance—Larger samples are less easily affected by chance so a small correlation can be significant if the sample size is large.

In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated measures design. She finds that d = 1.53. What effect size is this? a. weak b. moderate c. strong d. This cannot be determined without knowing the number of participants.

C How Large is the Effect?—Her findings give a d well above 0.80, so the effect size is strong.

According to Cohen's conventions for effect size, how do you describe an effect size when d = 0.50? a. not existent b. weak c. moderate d. strong

C How Large is the Effect?—Table 9.1 indicates that when d = .050, the effect size is moderate or medium.

(Table 1) Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? Question options: a) Number of groups participants were assigned to b) Feeling happy c) Participant's mood d) Type of card drawn e) None of the above

C) Participant's mood

Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. Associations were found between the waiting times of the preschoolers and behaviors of the same children as adolescents. Parents rated various self-control skills on a Likert-type scale and also completed a personality test for their adolescents. Overall, a positive relation between waiting time as a preschooler and self-control in adolescence emerged. Why isn't this a causal relationship? a. Covariance was not established. b. Temporal precedence was not established. c. Internal validity was not established. d. none of the above; it is a causal relationship

C Internal Validity: Can We Make a Causal Inference from an Association?—There was not a manipulated variable so there may have been other alternative explanations for the results.

Vida is studying the connection between school grades and time spent using social media. She finds a strong correlation, showing the students with lower grades spend more time using social media. She decides that before she can claim that increased use of social media causes grades to drop she must check the students' grade history. What criterion of causality is she concerned with? a. covariance b. statistical significance c. temporal precedence d. internal validity

C Internal Validity: Can We Make a Causal Inference from an Association?—To make a causal claim, she needs to establish that the increased social media use preceded the low grades.

In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept. Which validity is concerned with the significance of the difference in the prices? a. construct b. internal c. statistical d. external

C Is the Difference Statistically Significant?—Statistical validity is concerned with whether the difference is statistically significant and how large the effect is.

Professor Horvat studies the relationships between job and home satisfaction. She designs a study to test the same group of workers on various factors of work satisfaction and home satisfaction. She administers the test two times, one year apart. She finds that home satisfaction measured at the first time correlates strongly with job satisfaction at the second time, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at time one and home satisfaction measured a year later. Which of the three rules of causation is not addressed by the results of this study? a. covariance b. temporal precedence c. internal validity d. none of the above; they all are addressed

C Longitudinal Studies and the Three Rules for Causation—This study does not provide any evidence regarding third variables, so it does not address internal validity.

In what type of design does the experimenter sort the participants from lowest to highest of a relevant trait, form groups based on similar scores on that trait, then randomly assign those within each group to the different conditions? a. independent groups b. concurrent measures c. matched-groups d. within-groups

C Matched-Groups Designs Also Take Care of Selection Effects—This is used to make sure that no one group has a disproportionate number of participants with a particular level of one trait.

Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety, a known predictor of foreign language achievement, using a multiple regression analysis of variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. Which of the following questions interrogates the statistical validity of the study? a. How was academic achievement measured? b. What were the ages of the participants? c. Were there outliers in the data? d. What stage of learning the foreign language were the participants in?

C Multivariate Designs and the Four Validities—Statistical validity issues such as outliers, subgroups, and curvilinear relationships apply to multivariate designs.

A multiple-regression analysis is run to examine third variables as a follow-up to the study indicating that boys with unusual names are more likely to commit crimes. Unusual names, ethnic backgrounds, and geographical regions are all used as predictor variables. Even after controlling for all of these variables, unusual names predict criminal activity. Why doesn't this study establish causation? a. Temporal precedence isn't established. b. The beta values are not shown, so there isn't enough information to conclude causation. c. There may be some other third variable. d. No cross-lag correlation was done.

C Regression Does Not Establish Causation—Multiple regression controls for any third variable the researcher measures in the study, but it can't control for unmeasured variables.

In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. How does Theo control for selection effects? a. by using a control group b. by using matched-groups design c. by random assignment of participants d. by using a pretest/posttest design

C True Experiments Avoid Selection Effects—Random assignment avoids selection effects since each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to either condition.

(Table 1) Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a: Question options: a) Pretest/posttest study b) Repeated measures study c) Pilot study d) Pretest-only study e) All of the above

C) Pilot study

Which of the following is NOT an advantage of using quasi-experimental designs? Question options: a) Allows researchers to take advantage of real-world opportunities b) Allows researchers to enhance external validity c) Allows researchers to disregard internal validity d) Allows researchers to avoid some ethical concerns e) All of the above are advantages of quasi-experimental designs

C) Allows researchers to disregard internal validity

While Leo is performing a cognitive task, a researcher uses a physiological measure that scans various areas of his brain. The researcher is most likely using a: Question options: a) electrocardiogram b) galvanic skin response c) functional MRI d) cognitive task inventory e) electromyogram

C) Functional MRI

(Table 1) What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study? Question options: a) Matched-group design b) Within-groups design c) Independent-groups design d) Pretest/posttest design e) Concurrent measures design

C) Independent-groups design

When a confound is discovered in an experiment, Question options: a) internal validity can be assumed b) external validity can be assumed c) internal validity is challenged d) external validity is challenged

C) Internal validity is challenged

(Table 1) Which of the following provides information about the statistical differences found in Dr. Lonsbary's study? Question options: a) The sources of Dr. Lonsbary's participants b) The method of random assignment c) The reported p value d) The number of people in each group e) The mood reported by the participants

C) The reported p value

If you wanted to use an interrupted time series design to examine if lowering the legal limit of blood alcohol level (BAL) for driving under the influence affected the frequency of arrests, you would: Question options: a) compare a state with a higher BAL to one with a lower BAL. b) measure the number of arrests just before and immediately after a law lowering BAL. c) measure an extended period of time before and after a law lowering BAL. d) correlate the amount of alcohol consumed by an individual and the number of times they have been arrested. e) instruct participants on the details of the new law and then test their knowledge of BAL and driving

C) measure an extended period of time before and after a law lowering BAL

24. Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or with photographs. A group of 45 first graders are given two copies of a book (Little Red Riding Hood) at the same time. Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs? TRUE OR FALSE ___Longitudinal design ___Repeated-measures design ___Concurrent-measures design ___Posttest-only design

Concurrent-measures design

Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to include this step was done to address the study's: Question options: a) External validity b) Statistical validity c) Internal validity d) Construct validity e) None of the above

Construct validity

Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. Running this preliminary study helps establish which of the following? Question options: a) External validity b) Statistical validity c) Internal validity d) Construct validity e) None of the above

Construct validity

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. Running this preliminary study helps establish which of the following? 1. Statistical validity 2. Construct validity 3. External validity 4. Internal validity

Construct validity

According to the text, when researchers conduct longitudinal research, the type of correlation they are most interested in is which of the following? 1. Cross-lag correlation 2. Cross-sectional correlation 3. Autocorrelation 4. Multivariate correlation

Cross-lag correlation

What research design is used to address possible selection effects?

random assessment no pp

According to the text, when researchers conduct longitudinal research, the type of correlation they are most interested in is which of the following?

Cross-lag correlation

27. Order effects can be controlled by using which of the following techniques? TRUE OR FALSE ___ Random assignment ___ Design confounds ___ Increasing demand characteristics ___ Counterbalancing

Counterbalancing

7. For Dr. Farah to make the claim that homework causes academic achievement, which correlation does she predict will NOT be significant?

Correlation 4

1. For Dr. Farah to make the claim that homework causes academic achievement, which correlation does she predict will NOT be significant? 1. Correlation 1 2. Correlation 4 3. Correlation 3 4. Correlation 2

Correlation 4 she predict will NOT be significant

Correlation 5 is an example of which of the following types of correlations? 1. Cross-lag correlation 2. Autocorrelation 3. Cross-sectional correlation 4. Multivariate correlation

Correlation 5 is an example of .....Autocorrelation

1. Which of the correlations is an autocorrelation? 1. Correlation 4 2. Correlation2 3. Correlation 1 4. Correlation 6

Correlation2

Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. Imagine that Dr. Farah noted a cyclical, reinforcing relationship between homework and academic achievement. For this to be case, which of the following correlations would need to be significant?

Correlations 3 and 4

Which of the following is a correlation that could be examined in both longitudinal designs and simple bivariate designs?

Cross-sectional correlation

Which of the following is a correlation that could be examined in both longitudinal designs and simple bivariate designs? 1. Sequential correlation 2. Cross-lag correlation 3. Autocorrelation 4. Cross-sectional correlation

Cross-sectional correlation

an association between two variables which is not a straight line; instead, as one variable increases, the level of another variable increases and then decreases (or vice versa)

Curvilinear association

What type of variable is internal to the causal variable that is responsible for a relationship? a. third b. moderating c. control d. mediating

D Mediation—A mediator is internal to the causal variable, and often is found by isolating the aspect of the causal variable that is responsible for the relationship.

The "freshman 15" is a popular term for the amount of weight that average college students are believed to gain in their freshman year. Iva is checking this belief at her college. She collects weights from all the incoming freshmen in the fall, then collects weights from them again at the end of the spring term. What is the term for the correlation she finds when she compares these two sets of measurements? a. cross-sectional b. non-linear c. cross-lag d. autocorrelations

D Autocorrelations—This is a correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions or an autocorrelation.

What type of group is a level of the independent variable that is intended to represent a neutral condition? a. treatment b. comparison c. experimental d. control

D Comparison Groups, Treatment Groups, and Control Groups—The group that represents "no treatment" or the neutral condition is the control group.

Professor Horvat studies the relationships between job and home satisfaction. She designs a study to test the same group of workers on various factors of work satisfaction and home satisfaction. She administers the test two times, one year apart. She finds that home satisfaction measured at the first time correlates strongly with job satisfaction at the second time. What type of correlation is this? a. autocorrelation b. cross-sectional c. curvilinear d. cross-lag

D Cross-Lag Correlations—When one variable measured at time one correlates with another variable measured at time two, there is a cross-lag correlation.

When using multiple regression, what is the term for the variable that the researcher is most interested in understanding or predicting? a. predictor b. independent c. response d. criterion

D Dependent Variables and Predictor Variables —Multiple regression is used to study three or more variables and the variable chosen as one that researchers want to understand is called the criterion variable.

In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept. Which validity is concerned with applying the results to more expensive objects? a. construct b. internal c. statistical d. external

D Generalizing to Other Situations—External validity is concerned with extending the results to other situations.

In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated measures design. What is the independent variable in this experiment? a. depth perception b. number of trials c. disparity from perfect alignment d. eye/eyes used

D Independent and Dependent Variables—Tetiana is manipulating whether participants use their left eyes, right eyes, or both eyes.

Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. Associations were found between the waiting times of the preschoolers and behaviors of the same children as adolescents. Parents rated their adolescents for various self-control skills on a Likert-type scale. What type of analysis should be used to look at two variables at a time? a. categorical estimation b. multi-dimensional scaling c. sign test d. bivariate correlation

D Introduction to Bivariate Correlations—Although the study looked at several aspects of self-control, an analysis of bivariate correlations looks at two variables at a time.

How many variables can be measured in a study that uses bivariate correlations? a. one b. two c. three d. any number greater than one

D Introduction to Bivariate Correlations—Bivariate correlations look at two variables at a time, but the study that uses these correlations may measure many variables, then present the bivariate correlations between different pairs of variables separately.

Professor Fofana offers extra credit points in his introductory psychology classes. He wonders which students take advantage of this. He makes a scatterplot for his classes, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.179. What does this correlation tell him about which students take advantage of the extra credit option? a. Students with higher numerical grades are less likely than students with lower numerical grades to do extra credit work. b. Students with lower numerical grades are more likely than students with higher numerical grades to do extra credit work. c. All students are equally likely to do extra credit work. d. Students with higher numerical grades are more likely than students with lower numerical grades to do extra credit work.

D Introduction to Bivariate Correlations—This association is positive, meaning that the cloud of points in the scatterplot would slope upward.

What design is an experiment in which participants are randomly assigned to independent variable groups then tested on the dependent variable once? a. within-groups b. repeated measures c. pretest/posttest d. posttest only

D Posttest-Only Design—The participants are randomly assigned to the groups and only a posttest is administered.

Nesta is making a scatterplot of the digit spans (how many numbers you can remember and repeat back) for his psychology class, with the spans for digits the students hear on one axis and the span for digits the students read on the other. The association is strong, but he notices that one student has a visual digit span that is twice as long as anyone else. What Statistical Validity Question is he examining? a. Is the correlation statistically significant? b. Are there subgroups? c. Is the relationship curvilinear? d. Could outliers be affecting the relationship?

D Statistical Validity Question 4P: Could Outliers Be Affecting the Relationship?—One extreme score can have a strong effect on the correlation coefficient, r.

Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many conditions are in his design? Question options: a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 8 e) 10

D) 8

To examine how a reward influences a desired behavior, a mother first counts the number of times her son makes his bed over a two-week period. For the next two weeks, she gives him a reward every time he makes his bed. Following this period, she stops giving him a reward and again counts the number of times he makes his bed. This procedure would be an example of a(n) _____ design? Question options: a) pretest-posttest b) baseline treatment c) control series d) ABA

D) ABA

(Table 1) Which of the following is a control in Dr. Lonsbary's study? Question options: a) The number of words on the word list b) The amount of time allowed for remembering/writing the words c) The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words d) All of the above e) None of the above

D) All of the above

(Table 1) In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following types of groups exists? Question options: a) Control group b) Treatment group c) Placebo group d) Both a and b e) All of the above

D) Both a and b

(Table 2) In considering the three causal rules, which of the following rules/questions will Dr. Farah's study address? Question options: a) Rule of covariance: Is there covariance? b) Rule of temporal precedence: Is there temporal precedence? c) Are there third variables that could explain the relationship? d) Both a and b e) Both a and c

D) Both a and b

(Table 2) A colleague of Dr. Farah's asks her why she did not simply conduct an experiment. Which of the following is a probable reason for Dr. Farah's choice not to conduct an experiment? Question options: a) It would be impossible to manipulate GPA. b) It would be impossible to manipulate whether students are told to do homework for a semester. c) It would be unethical to manipulate whether students are told to do homework for a semester. d) Both a and c are probable reasons. e) Both a and b are probable reasons.

D) Both a and c are probable reasons

(Table 1) Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to include this step was done to address the study's: Question options: a) External validity b) Statistical validity c) Internal validity d) Construct validity e) None of the above

D) Construct validity

(Table 1) Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. Running this preliminary study helps establish which of the following? Question options: a) External validity b) Statistical validity c) Internal validity d) Construct validity e) None of the above

D) Construct validity

Rachel is interested in math skills of boys versus girls in the sixth grade. She administers a series of math problems to both groups and asks them to solve as many problems as they can within a 15-minute period. She finds that both groups were only able to answer 2% of the problems. Rachel's results may be due to a _____ effect. Question options: a) performance b) maximum c) ceiling d) floor e) reactive

D) Floor

Over time, human observers may become fatigued or change the standards on which observations are based. When this change in measurement occurs over time a researcher might suspect which type of effect? Question options: a) History b) Regression toward the mean c) Testing d) Instrument decay e) Maturation

D) Instrument decay

Dr. Gorton is studying the effect of exercise on cholesterol level. He first measures his patients' cholesterol level before recommending an exercise program and after one month of participating in an exercise program, he measures their cholesterol level again. What type of research design has Dr. Gorton employed? Question options: a) Between groups design b) One-shot case study c) Missing control group design d) One group pretest-posttest design e) Multiple baseline study

D) One group pretest-posttest design

31. Dr. Acitelli was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease which of the following? TRUE OR FALSE ___ Order effects ___ Selection effects ___ Demand characteristics ___ Counterbalancing effects

Demand characteristics

In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Dr. Schulenberg likely designed his study so that neither he nor his students knew which group they were in to address which of the following?

Demand characteristics

Concurrent-measures design

Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or with photographs. A group of 45 first-graders are shown two copies of a book (Little Red Riding Hood) at the same time. Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs?

Which of the following studies is an example of a longitudinal design?

Dr. Benson's study in which she measured people's spatial manipulation ability in August and measured their ability again in May after they had taken two semesters of art classes.

Too many participants

Dr. Deveraux has conducted a study that has resulted in a null effect. Nonetheless, she suspects that there truly is a causal relationship between her independent and dependent variables. Which of the following is UNLIKELY to be to blame?

A colleague of Dr. Farah's questions the internal validity of her causal claim. He is curious as to whether the relationship between homework and academic achievement could be explained by interest in one's classes. Specifically, he thinks that students who are interested in their classes will both do more homework and have higher GPAs. Which of the following is a solution to this possible threat to internal validity?

Dr. Farah should also measure students' interest in their class

1. A colleague of Dr. Farah's questions the internal validity of her causal claim. He is curious as to whether the relationship between homework and academic achievement could be explained by interest in one's classes. Specifically, he thinks that students who are interested in their classes will both do more homework and have higher GPAs. Which of the following is a solution to this possible threat to internal validity? 1. Dr. Farah should study a different sample. 2. Dr. Farah should measure students' interest in their class instead of GPA. 3. Dr. Farah should also measure students' interest in their class. 4. Dr. Farah should measure students' interest in their class instead of time spent doing homework.

Dr. Farah should also measure students' interest in their class.

Using only one research assistant to code all the videos

Dr. LaGuardia is curious as to whether children in a daycare center will share more after watching an educational video on sharing. Immediately before and after the video, he has several undergraduate research assistants code the sharing behavior of a group of 33 four-year-olds. Which of the following would you NOT recommend to him to decrease the threat of instrumentation?

A selection effect

Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid which of the following?

Construct validity

Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Her decision to include this step was done to address the study's:

A manipulation check

Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity?

A weak manipulation

Dr. Morimoto is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. He assigns half his participants to play a video game for five minutes and the other half to play for seven minutes. He finds that there is no relationship between playing the game longer and being more aggressive. What might be to blame for this null effect?

Ceiling effect

Dr. Sanderson is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. She assigns half her participants to play a violent video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play the same game for 25 minutes. Afterward, she has them play a board game and has a well-trained coder determine whether they are very aggressive in their playing style, barely aggressive, or not at all aggressive. She finds that a vast majority of her participants, regardless of group assignment, are rated as very aggressive. This outcome would be known as a/an:

Collecting pretest data twice

Dr. Whetstone is curious about how self-esteem changes as a result of a new counseling program. She is concerned about testing threats in her study. Which of the following would you NOT recommend to her as a way to address this type of threat?

(Table 1) Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity? Question options: a) Counterbalancing b) A placebo group c) A demand characteristic d) Random sampling e) A manipulation check

E) A manipulation check

(Table 1) Which of the following should Dr. Lonsbary conclude from her study? Question options: a) Being in a mood other than neutral causes people to have a better memory. b) Listening to music can cause changes in mood. c) Being in a happy mood does not cause more of a change in memory than being in a sad mood. d) Both a and c can be concluded. e) All of the above can be concluded.

E) All of the above can be concluded

Dr. Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 x 3 x 4 mixed factorial design. Which of the following things will change? Question options: a) The number of main effects that need to be examined b) The number of interactions that need to be examined c) The number of participants needed d) The number of conditions e) All of the above will change

E) All of the above will change

Which one of the following is a behavioral measure? An investigator measures: Question options: a) the number of times a person "sniffs" with his nose when placed in a pleasant smelling environment during a 15-minute period b) the time it takes a receptionist to answer the telephone c) how long a conversation lasts between a participant and a confederate d) how quickly a person can recite the alphabet after consuming various amounts of alcohol e) All of these

E) All of these

(Table 2) If Dr. Farah had changed her design so she only collected data in the fall semester with high school seniors, college freshmen, and college sophomores then her study would have employed a _________ design. Question options: a) Interrupted time series b) ABA c) Cohort-sequential d) Stable base-line e) Cross-sectional

E) Cross-sectional

(Table 2) What type of study design is Dr. Farah using? Question options: a) Experimental design b) Quasi-experimental design c) Bivariate correlational design d) Interrupted time series design e) Longitudinal design

E) Longitudinal design

When asked if he would like to taste a chocolate covered grasshopper, Anton declines. He then attends an all-day presentation on the nutritional benefits of eating insects. At the end of the presentation, Anton is again offered a taste of a chocolate covered grasshopper and accepts. What effect may be responsible for Anton's change in behavior? Question options: a) History b) Regression toward the mean c) Testing d) Instrument decay e) Maturation

E) Maturation

(Table 1) Which of the following is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? a) Number of words on the list b) Number of groups participants were assigned to c) Time given to remember the words d) Time given to memorize the words e) Number of words remembered

E) Number of words remembered

In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Which of the following aspects of Dr. Schulenberg's study allows him to prevent observer bias?

Ensuring the person grading the exams is unaware of each student's writing group

In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Which of the following aspects of Dr. Schulenberg's study allows him to prevent observer bias?

Ensuring the person grading the exams is unaware of each students writing group

The number of main effects that need to be examined is ________ the number of independent variables.

Equal to

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's: 1. External validity 2. Construct validity 3. Statistical validity 4. Internal validity

External validity

Random selection enhances ________ and random assignment enhances ________.

External validity, internal validity

Which of these is NOT a potential drawback of a within-groups design?

Extraneous difference are held constant across conditions

In the case of a factorial design, another term for independent variable is:

Factor

When determining mediation, how many steps are necessary? 1. Two 2. Five 3. Four 4. Three

Five

Which of the following is NOT one of the three most common threats to internal validity?

Floor effects

Stronger effect sizes allow for all of the following EXCEPT?

Greater construct validity

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality?

Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality? Selected Answer: [None Given] Answers: 1. Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words 2. Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people 3. Putting the 60 participants into equal groups 4. Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered

Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered

Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. Which of the following is NOT true of Dr. Kline's study?

He does not have a dependent variable

Dr. Kline, an environmental psychologist, conducts a study to examine whether visiting zoos causes people to have more positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. He asks a group of 45 people attending the zoo on a Saturday morning about their attitudes. He finds that 69% of the people report having a positive attitude after their visit. What are some key elements of Dr. Kline's study?

He is lacking a control group. He cannot make a causal statement. He did not manipulate an independent variable.

Three

How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

3 independent variables, 24 cells

How many independent variables and how many cells are there in a 2 × 3 × 4 study?

Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Refer to Research Study 8.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. In evaluating Dr. Oswald's study, you question the construct validity of the study. Which of the following questions would you be asking?

How reliable is the measure of daily stress?

Interaction

How two independent variables are related, whether one depends on the other. - difference in differences = the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends on on the level of the other independent variable

In understanding "controlling for" a third variable, which of the following is a similar concept?

Identifying subgroups

How do you detect interactions from a graph?

If the lines are not parallel, there probably is an interaction. If the lines are parallel, there probably is no interaction.

A null effect

Imagine that Dr. Bloedorn finds no difference between the calories consumed with the drink additive and without. This is known as

A placebo group

In Dr. Lonsbary's study, which of the following does NOT exist?

three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction

In a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design, what are all the possible effects to test?

the interaction

In a factorial design study, which effect is usually considered the most important effect?

marginal means

In a factorial design, the arithmetic means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over the levels of another independent variable.

main effect

In a factorial design, the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable.

It causes more overlap between experimental/comparison groups.

In what way does high within-groups variance obscure between-groups variance?

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study? 1. Within-groups design 2. Pretest/posttest design 3. Independent-groups design 4. Matched-group design

Independent-groups design

moderating

Interactions allow researchers to examine _________ variables.

Which of the following is NOT a question you should ask about the statistical validity of an association claim?

Is random assignment affecting the findings?

?6. Which of the following CAN be said of the interaction in a study? It can be determined by examining a graph of the results. It can be determined by investigating marginal means. (main effects?) It can exist even if the main effects are not significant. It is almost always more important than a study's main effects.

It can be determined by examining a graph of the results. It can exist even if the main effects are not significant. It is almost always more important than a study's main effects.

Why is the statistical validity of a multiple regression design more complicated to interrogate than a bivariate design? 1. Betas and rs share no similarities. 2. These designs require more participants. 3. It is harder to detect outliers. 4. Statistical significance of associations cannot be determined.

It is harder to detect outliers.

Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. A colleague of Dr. Farah's asks her why she did not simply conduct an experiment. Which of the following is a probable reason for Dr. Farah's choice not to conduct an experiment?

It would be unethical to manipulate whether students are told to do homework for a semester

independent-groups factorial design

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. What type of design is this?

The effect of the alcohol commercial on alcohol consumption depended on whether the viewer was usually a heavy drinker or a light drinker.

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following can be inferred from the study?

type of commercial shown

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a factor in this study?

amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a participant variable in this study?

Which of the following is true of the relationship between effect size and statistical significance?

Larger affect sizes are advantageous for statistical significance.

6

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. How many cells was each participant in?

a two-way interaction between race and personality

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. Caucasian "Competitors" were identified more easily than the other two Caucasian personality types, but there was no difference in accuracy for African-American faces. What does this describe?

two main effects and one interaction

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. What are all the differences that must be examined?

the number of pictures accurately identified

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. What is the dependent variable?

1. What type of study design is Dr. Farah using? 1. Quasi-experimental design 2. Longitudinal design 3. Multiple regression design 4. Bivariate correlational design

Longitudinal design

Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the potential causal relationship between doing homework and academic achievement. In January, Dr. Farah has her students report their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement) and estimate how many hours they spent doing homework during a typical week in the fall semester. In May, Dr. Farah measures the same variables again (the estimated number of hours spent doing homework during a typical week in the spring semester and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. What type of study design is Dr. Farah using?

Longitudinal design

4. In the case of a factorial design, another term for independent variable is: TRUE OR FALSE Interaction Main effect Cell Factor Moderator

Main effect

According to the textbook, why is it important to study interactions?

Many outcomes in psychology are interactions

Martin has found a correlation of r = .18 between the two variables of caffeine consumption and frontal lobe activity. This correlation is more likely to be statistically significant if:

Martin used a larger number of subjects

Which of the following is a necessary component of a longitudinal design? 1. Measuring different age groups at two different times 2. Measuring at least four variables at one time 3. Manipulating a variable at two points in time 4. Measuring the same variables at two points in time

Measuring the same variables at two points in time

If a researcher is asking why the relationship between two variables exists, she is curious about which of the following? 1. Third variables 2. Mediation 3. Controlling variables 4. Moderation

Mediation

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1 Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Refer to Research Study 8.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. According to the benchmarks established by Cohen, what type of effect size has Dr. Oswald found for the association between number of friends and life satisfaction?

Medium

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .32. According to Cohen's benchmarks, the magnitude of this effect is:

Moderate

Dr. Oswald finds that the relationship between the number of friends one has and life satisfaction is stronger for men than for women. In this study, sex (male or female) is considered a/an:

Moderator

What is the relationship between moderators and external validity?

Moderators suggest that associations may not generalize to all subgroups of people.

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality? 1. Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered 2. Putting the 60 participants into equal groups 3. Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words 4. Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people

Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people

QUESTION Which of the following is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? _____________________________________

Number of Words Remembered

RESEARCH STUDY 8.1 Dr. Oswald conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the southern United States. Below are her findings. < Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57 ( p = .01) < Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, not sig. < Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36 ( p = .04) Refer to Research Study 8.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Oswald has decided to examine one of her relationships with a scatterplot to double-check for a curvilinear relationship. Which relationship will be most important for her to examine?

Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? 1. Time given to type the words remembered 2. Time given to memorize the words 3. Number of words remembered 4. Number of words on the list

Number of words remembered

When reading popular press articles, why does the inclusion of participant variable information often denote a factorial design?

Participant variables are often used as moderators

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? 1. Feeling happy 2. Type of card drawn 3. Participant's mood 4. Number of groups participants were assigned to

Participant's mood

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a: 1. Pretest-only study 2. Concurrent measure study 3. Pretest/posttest study 4. Pilot study

Pilot study

Dr. Bloedorn is a health psychologist who researches nutrition. She is curious as to whether a new drink additive will help people consume fewer calories during a meal. The drink additive is a white, odorless, tasteless powder that a person can add to any drink. She collects a random sample of 63 overweight students on campus and measures the calories they eat during lunch, using a bomb calorimeter. She then gives this additive to the same 63 participants to use at dinner and measures how many calories they eat (again, using the bomb calorimeter). Which of the following threats to internal validity will Dr. Bloedorn NOT be worried about?

Placebo effects

30. Which of the following study designs is Dr. Acitelli using? YES OR NO ___ Pretest/posttest design ___ Concurrent-measures design ___ Repeated-measures design ___ Posttest-only design

Posttest-only design

Pilot study

Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a:

In a multiple regression design, ________ is to independent variable as ________ is to dependent variable.

Predictor variable, criterion variable

In a multiple regression design, ________ is to independent variable as ________ is to dependent variable. 1. Bivariate variable, multivariate variable 2. Predictor variable, criterion variable 3. Control variable, mediator variable 4. Measured variable, manipulated variable

Predictor variable, criterion variable

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .32 and reports p < .05. The p is a/an ________.

Probability estimate

In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. Imagine that in Dr. Schulenberg's study, he notes that all of the students do extremely well on the midterm exam. When he looks at the results of the final exam, he notices that all the students' exam scores went down. Given this information, which of the following threats might be present in his study?

Regression

When one group has an extremely high score at pretest

Regression is especially problematic in which of the following situations?

If a there is not a full range of scores on one of the variables, this is known as ________.

Restriction of range

Statistical significance depends on which of the following?

Sample size and effect size

A researcher has examined a variety of correlational studies that point to a causal relationship between two variables. All of the studies have found a positive relationship between the two variables, but for ethical reasons, no experiments have been conducted. Using an approach of pattern and parsimony, the researcher may begin to make a causal claim by doing which of the following? 1. Specifying a mechanism or explanation for the causal relationship 2. Replicating all of the original studies 3. Running another correlational study but with more people 4. Examining the dates of the studies to look for temporal precedence

Specifying a mechanism or explanation for the causal relationship

Dr. Oswald realizes that the women in her study have more friends than the men in her study. This might result in which of the following?

Spurious associations due to subgroups

How can you detect an interaction from a table of means?

Start by computing two differences. Begin with one level of the first independent variable. Then go to the 2nd level of the first independent variable. Be sure to compute the difference in the same direction both times. If the differences are different, you can conclude there is an interaction in this factorial study.

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Her decision to include this step was done to address the study's: 1. Internal validity 2. External validity 3. Statistical validity 4. Construct validity

Statistical validity

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .32. This number gives you information about which of the following?

Strength and direction of the relationship

2 x 2

Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What is the factorial notation for this design?

mixed factorial design

Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What kind of study design is this?

two parallel diagonal lines

Susan ran a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Susan found that there was a main effect for age such that younger people reported being more anxious than older people. She found a main effect for audience size such that people were more anxious in the room with 50 people than they were in the room by themselves. She did not find an interaction in the results. If Susan were to graph her results, what would they look like?

20.A threat to internal validity occurs only if a potential design confound varies ________________with the independent variable. TRUE OR FALSE ___ Haphazardly ___ Systematically ___ Selectively ___ Spontaneously ___ Cyclically

Systematically

(Table 1) Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. One group (A) listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song entitled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). One group (B) listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song entitled "Alone Again"). One group (C) listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for 5 minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, she would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. If the participant drew a 1, 2, or 3, he or she was assigned to Group A. If the participant drew a 4, 5, or 6, he or she was assigned to Group B. If a participant drew a 7, 8, or 9, he or she was assigned to Group C. The participants were then given a CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. There were no identifying marks on the CD indicating what was contained on the disc. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to put the CD in the computer, put on the headphones, and listen to the CD while trying to memorize the list of words. When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. In addition, all participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference p = .05 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference p = .03 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference p = .04 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference p = .24

Table 1

(Table 2) Dr. Farah is an educational psychologist who is interested in studying the link between homework and academic achievement. Over the years, several researchers have found a link between the two, suggesting that doing homework is associated with higher grades. However, Dr. Farah is curious about the possible causal link between the two variables. She conducts the following study. At the beginning of the spring semester, Dr. Farah measures the number of hours her students spend doing homework during the preceding week and their fall GPA (a measure of academic achievement). At the end of the semester, Dr. Farah measures the same students on the same variables (the hours spent doing homework the preceding week and their spring GPA). She finds the following correlations. Variable A Variable B Correlation Coefficient Correlation A Fall Number of Hours of Homework Fall Semester GPA .83* Correlation B Spring Number of Hours of Homework Spring Semester GPA .80* Correlation C Fall Number of Hours of Homework Spring Semester GPA .69* Correlation D Fall Number of Hours of Homework Spring Number of Hours of Homework .36* Correlation E Fall Semester GPA Spring Number of Hours of Homework .18 Correlation F Fall Semester GPA Spring Semester GPA .45* * Indicates a statistically significant relationship.

Table 2

Participants; measurements

Testing threats involve ________ whereas instrumentation threats involve ________.

Dr. Rhodes notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable?

The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B

marginal means

The arithmetic means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over levels of the other independent variable. may or may not have statistical significance

Considering Dr. Oswald's sample, which of the following statements is true?

The association found in her study could probably generalie to elderly people in other large cities in Tennessee.

Dr. Rhodes notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable?

The effect of Variable A is mediated by Variable B

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .32 and reports p < .05. The p value indicates which of the following?

The correlation is unlikely to have come from a zero association population.

Which of the following provides information about the statistical validity of Dr. Lonsbary's study?

The d coefficient

2. Dr. Rhodes notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable? TRUE OR FALSE Variable A cancels out Variable B. The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B. The effect of Variable A is confused by Variable B. Variable A mainly affects Variable B. The effect of Variable A is mediated by Variable B.

The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B.

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following can be inferred from the study?

The effect of the alcohol commercial on alcohol consumption depended on whether the viewer was usually a heavy drinker or a light drinker.

If an association study did not select people for the study by using random sampling, which of the following statements is true?

The findings should be replicated in another population.

When a study shows both a main effect and an interaction, which is likely more important to researchers?

The interaction is almost always more important.

Interaction cont.

the difference of the simple differences -interaction is almost always more important

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique or irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. The main effect for anxiety was not significant. What does this mean about the marginal means?

The marginal means for the two anxiety conditions are not significantly different.

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique or irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. The main effect for anxiety was not significant. What does this mean about the marginal means?

The marginal means for the two anxiety conditions are not significantly different. -Marginal means are used to inspect the main effects, and in the case of a not significant main effect of anxiety, they are very close to each other.

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. Which of the following is a NOT control variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? 1. The number of words on the word list 2. The amount of time allowed for remembering/typing the words 3. The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words 4. The mood of the participants

The mood of the participants

Dr. Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 x 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 x 3 x 4 mixed factorial design. Which of the following things will NOT have to change?

The number of researchers needed

Comparing all three correlations, Dr. Oswald will be most able to accurately predict life satisfaction from the experience of daily stress because:

The relationship has the largest effect size

Which of the following provides information about the statistical differences found in Dr. Lonsbary's study? Question options: a) The sources of Dr. Lonsbary's participants b) The method of random assignment c) The reported p value d) The number of people in each group e) The mood reported by the participants

The reported p value

Why might it be better to call a main effect an overall effect?

The term main effect is usually misleading, because it seems to suggest that it is the most important effect in a study. It is not. The interaction itself is the most important effect.

When evaluating the external validity of an association claim, which of the following is the most important issue to consider?

The way the sample was selected from the population

factorial design

There are two or more independent variables. A study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors. In the most common factorial design, researchers cross the two independent variables; that is, they study each possible combination of the independent variables. The process of using a factorial design to test limits is sometimes called testing for moderators. (moderator: variable that changes the relationship between two variables)

?3. Which of the following is IS necessary for a study to be a crossed factorial design? There are at least two independent variables. The study examines every possible combination of independent variables. The data result in a crossover interaction.

There are at least two independent variables. The study examines every possible combination of independent variables. *maybe,? researchers cross the two IDVs

Neely is examining the graph of an interaction and sees that one line is flat and one line rises sharply to the right. Which of the following should Neely conclude?

There is a spreading interaction

What is the difference between a main effect and an overall effect?

There is no difference between main effects and overall effects

Dr. Oswald creates a scatterplot of the relationship between the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. In doing so, she realizes there are three scores that seem to be very extreme and are nowhere near the other points on the scatterplot. Specifically, it appears that three people report very high levels of daily stress and very low levels of life satisfaction. Which of the following statements is NOT true?

These scores are more likely to have an effect because of the large sample size

Which of the following is NOT true of selection effects?

They are unimportant for interrogating internal validity

Which of the following is true of instrumentation threats?

They can be avoided with counterbalancing

Which of the following is true of moderators?

They can inform external validity.

According to the textbook, which of the following is a reason that multiple regression designs are inferior to experimental designs?

They can only control for third variables that are measured.

According to the textbook, which of the following is a reason that multiple regression designs are inferior to experimental designs? 1. They take longer to conduct. 2. They cannot establish covariance. 3. They are more expensive to conduct. 4. They can only control for third variables that are measured.

They can only control for third variables that are measured.

All of the following are true of outliers EXCEPT:

They have the biggest effect when dealing with large sample sizes.

Which of the following is NOT true of third variables and mediating variables?

Third variables can be detected using multiple regression techniques, but mediating variables cannot.

Which of the following is NOT true of third variables and mediating variables? 1. Third variables are external to the causal variable, but mediating variables are internal to the causal variable. 2. Third variables can be detected using multiple regression techniques, but mediating variables cannot. 3. Third variables are not usually of central interest to researchers, but mediating variables are. 4. Third variables are considered nuisances, but mediating variables are not.

Third variables can be detected using multiple regression techniques, but mediating variables cannot.

RESEARCH STUDY 10.1 Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Group A (Happy) Group B (Sad) Group C (Neutral) Number of Words Remembered 16 14 9 Groups A and B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .36 Group A vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .30 Group B vs. Group C Statistically significant difference d = .41 Group A vs. Group B No statistically significant difference d = .09 Refer to Research Study 10.1 to answer the following sixteen questions. How many conditions/levels of the independent variable were in Dr. Lonsbary's study? 1. Two 2. Five 3. Three 4. Nine

Three

Systematically, affecting most members of the group

To be a history threat, the external event must occur:

23. For which of the following reasons might a researcher choose a pretest/ posttest design? TRUE OR FALSE ___To ensure that random assignment made the treatment/comparison groups equal ___To determine how groups change over the course of the experiment ___To avoid selection threats

To ensure that random assignment made the treatment/comparison groups equal

Of the correlations listed in the table, how many are autocorrelations? 1. Two 2. Five 3. Three 4. Four

Two autocorelations

Which of the following is NOT a reason that a study might yield a null result?

Use of a within-subjects design

Which of the following things CANNOT be done to reduce measurement error?

Using a pretest/posttest design

Participant Variable

Variable whose level are selected (measured) and not manipulated i.e. age, sex, ethnicity, and culture - not truly independent variables

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique, irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. What are all the differences that must be examined?

What are all the differences that must be examined? -two main effects and one interaction There are two independent variables, so there are two main effects and one interaction possible, even though one variable has three levels. How many cells was each golfer in? -6

to test the limits of an effect and to test theories

What are the two main reasons researchers use factorial designs?

interaction

What is it called when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable?

Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people

Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality?

Independent-groups design

What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study?

correlation

When authors of a research article are describing just the results of a factorial study, which of these terms would you NOT expect to see?

External validity

When interrogating experiments, on which of the big validities should a person focus?

Regression is especially problematic in which of the following situations?

When one group has an extremely high score at pretest

Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered

Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality?

Using a matched-group design is especially important in which of the following cases?

When you have only a few people in your study

The mood of the participants

Which of the following is a NOT control variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

Number of words remembered

Which of the following is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

Practice effects

Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs?

Participant's mood

Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

8??

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. How many cells are there in this study?

tastiness and expensiveness

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. What is the dependent variable?

Increasing number of independent variables

__ x __ x __ ^ level of each dependent variable - with each additionial variable need to test main effect ( 2x2x2) need to test for three main effects

Marginal means

___________ are the means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over levels of the other independent variable.

A _______ design is one in which there are two or more independent variables. factorial repeated measures concurrent measures pretest-posttest

a

cell

a condition in an experiment; in a simple experiment, it can represent the level of one independent variable; in a factorial design, it represents one of the possible combinations of two independent variables.

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a factor in this study? type of commercial shown amount of alcohol consumed during the movie young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week the movie shown

a

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. What is the dependent variable? the number of pictures accurately identified race of the personality in the picture personality of the person in the picture race of the participant

a

Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What is the factorial notation for this design? 2 x 2 1 x 2 2 x 2 x 2 2 x 4

a

What is it called when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable? interaction main effect overall effect mediation

a

When authors of a research article are describing just the results of a factorial study, which of these terms would you NOT expect to see? correlation main effect interaction effect significant

a

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. What is the dependent variable? tastiness and expensiveness price picture consumer

a

Dr. Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members. Dr. Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of his study are below. (listed cutting out picture, drawing pictures) Dogs and cats: 15 , 9 Dogs only: 7 , 6 Which of the following best describes Dr. Elder's Study?

a 2' 2 crossed factorial design

When conducting an experiment, what is provided by the independent variable?

a comparison group

Factorial Designs

a design in which there are two or more independent variables (aka factors).

The mathematical way to describe an interaction is:

a difference in differences

In previous studies, Dr. Schulenberg has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. The study described above is an example of which of the following?

a double blind study

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity?

a manipulation check

The group that represents "no treatment" or the neutral condition is the ______..

control group

__________ is a simple study that uses a separate group of participants that is generally completed before conducting the study of primary interest in order to confirm the effectiveness of a manipulation.

a pilot study

Dr. Lonsbary's decision to randomly assign participants to the three groups was done to avoid what?

a selection effect

If a person describes the results of a study to you by saying that there is a zero difference in one condition but a large difference in another condition, they are most likely describing which of the following?

a spreading interaction

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique, irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. High anxiety increased distance in the technique condition but not in the other two conditions. What does this describe?

a two-way interaction between anxiety and condition

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique, irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. High anxiety increased distance in the technique condition but not in the other two conditions. What does this describe?

a two-way interaction between anxiety and condition -This wording suggests that the dependent variable was changed by the anxiety manipulation in the technique condition, but not in the other conditions.

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. A main effect of price and a main effect of picture were found. It was found that the picture had a greater impact on tastiness/expensiveness judgments in self than in classmate. What type of interaction does this describe?

a two-way interaction between picture and consumer

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. A main effect of price and a main effect of picture were found. It was found that the picture had a greater impact on tastiness/expensiveness judgments in self than in classmate. What type of interaction does this describe?

a two-way interaction between picture and consumer -This means that in looking at the tastiness/expensiveness ratings for self, there is a larger difference between the attractive and unattractive ratings than there is in those ratings for classmate.

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. A main effect of price and a main effect of picture were found. It was found that the impact of price on tastiness/expensiveness judgments was weaker in the self than in the classmate. What type of interaction does this describe?

a two-way interaction between price and consumer

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. A main effect of price and a main effect of picture were found. It was found that the impact of price on tastiness/expensiveness judgments was weaker in the self than in the classmate. What type of interaction does this describe?

a two-way interaction between price and consumer -This means that in looking at the tastiness/expensiveness ratings for self, there is a smaller difference between the inexpensive and expensive ratings than there is in those ratings for classmate.

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. Caucasian "Competitors" were identified more easily than the other two Caucasian personality types, but there was no difference in accuracy for African-American faces. What does this describe?

a two-way interaction between race and personality

In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?

a value selected for the mug

participant variable

a variable such as age, gender, or ethnicity whose levels are selected (i.e., measured), not manipulated.

Dr. Morimoto is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. He assigns half his participants to play a video game for five minutes and the other half to play for seven minutes. He finds that there is no relationship between playing the game longer and being more aggressive. What might be to blame for this null effect?

a weak manipulation

Which of the following is a participant variable?

all of the above

Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. What is a question that one could ask to assess the construct validity of this association? a. How well was delay of gratification measured? b. Is there a third variable that explains this relationship? c. Can the results be generalized to all American children? d. Were the results statistically significant

a. How well was delay of gratification measured? Construct Validity: How Well Was Each Variable Measured? — Table 8.5 lists the validity questions, including convergent validity, or how well the results of two tests correlate with each other.

Adding a comparison group would allow one to show that the intervention had :

an effect above and beyond the normal effects of maturation.

Frances did a study to investigate the effect of concreteness on memory. She created a list of 12 items that are very concrete (such as pencil and table) and a list of 12 items that are very abstract (such as justice and freedom). Each item was viewed for one second, then participants recalled them in order. Ten participants were tested in each condition. The study showed null effects, and large variability within the groups. What is a likely solution?

add more participants

Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. What does this correlation tell him about which students take advantage of the extra credit option? a. Students with higher grades are more likely than students with lower grades to do extra credit work b. Students with lower grades are more likely than students c. Students with higher grades are less likely than students with lower grades to do extra credit work d. All students are equally likely to do extra credit work

a. Student with higher grades are more likely than students with lower grades to do extra credit work Introducing Bivariate Correlations- This association is positive, meaning that the cloud of points in the scatterplot would slope upward

If the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of another variable, what is this other variable called? a. a moderator b. a confound c. a quantitative variable d. a categorical variable

a. a moderator Moderating Variables — In association research, when the relationship between two variables changes depending on the level of a third variable, the third variable is called a moderator. Gender moderates the relationship between extroversion and group conversations in Table 8.6.

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at the first time point and home life satisfaction measured at the second time point. Which of the three criteria for causation does Professor Horvat's study fulfill? a. covariance and temporal precedence b. temporal precedence and internal validity c. covariance and internal validity d. covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity

a. covariance and temporal precedence Longitudinal Studies and the Three Criteria for Causation — Because the path from home satisfaction to job satisfaction is stronger than the path from job satisfaction to home satisfaction, the experimenter is closer to determining which precedes the other.

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that, at both the first time point and the second time point, there is a strong correlation between work satisfaction and home life satisfaction. What type of correlations are these? a. cross-sectional b. cross-lag c. autocorrelations d. curvilinear

a. cross-sectional Cross-Sectional Correlations — These two tests are made a year apart, showing the relationship between the factors of job satisfaction and home satisfaction.

Professor Schwartz does a study that examines the relationship between time spent at a shopping mall and happiness. She finds that for women, the more time in the mall is associated with higher levels of happiness. She finds that for men, the more time in the mall is associated with lower levels of happiness. What is the moderator in this relationship? a. gender b. time in the mall c. the combination of happiness and mall time d. happiness

a. gender Moderating Variables — When the relationship between two variables (time in the mall and happiness) depends on the level of a third variable (gender), that variable is a moderator of the relationship.

20. Which of the following research designs is used to address possible selection effects? YES OR NO ___Posttest-only designs ___ Matched-groups designs ___Pretest/posttest designs

all

When a third variable explains the relationship between two other variables, that kind of a third variable is called a: a. mediator b. spurious correlation c. predictor variable d. moderator

a. mediator Mediators vs. Moderators — Mediators address the question of why two other variables are related.

Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. According to Cohen's conventions, how strong is this association? a. medium, or moderate b. not significant c. large, or strong d. small, or weak

a. medium, or moderate Review: Describing Associations Between Two Quantitative Variables — Table 8.4 shows that an r of about 0.30 is a medium or moderate effect size.

Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He decides the plot will be clearer if he converts the numerical grades into letter grades and plots a bar graph with letter grades on the x-axis and the mean number extra credit points earned on the y-axis. What type of statistic would he run to determine if there is a relationship between letter grades and extra credit points earned? a. t test b. Cronbach's alpha c. mean d. bivariate correlation

a. t test Analyzing Associations When One Variable is Categorical — Letter grades are a categorical variable so this is an analysis of one categorical variable and one quantitative variable. A t test is a statistic used to describe this type of relationship.

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. Which variable is a participant variable?

all of them are manipulated

26. Which of the following is a threat to internal validity found in within- groups designs but not in independent-groups designs? FIRST - Define internal validity ___ Then answer T or F ___Selection effects ___Design confounds ___Counterbalancing ___Demand characteristics ___Practice effects

alternative explanations, T T F T T

A recent study (Koordeman et al., 2011), conducted in the Netherlands, on the effects of commercials for alcohol or alcohol consumption in the movie theater, found that young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week are influenced by the commercials, whereas young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week were not influenced. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their drinking habits. What is a participant variable in this study?

amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a participant variable in this study?

amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week

A recent study (Koordeman et al., 2011), conducted in the Netherlands, on the effects of commercials for alcohol or alcohol consumption in the movie theater, found that young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week are influenced by the commercials, whereas young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week were not influenced. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their drinking habits. What is a participant variable in this study?

amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week -The weekly alcohol consumption of the participant was selected, not manipulated.

This is a correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions or __________

an autocorrelations

Random assignment avoids selection effects since each participant has:

an equal chance of being assigned to either condition.

In a factorial experiment, which is the most important effect?

an interaction

When one variable measured at time one correlates with ________, there is a cross-lag correlation.

another variable measured at time two

The ability for a study to reveal a statistically significant difference between the levels of an independent variable when one truly exists is known as:

as power - the likelihood that a study will show a statistically significant result

In a study that only lasts a few minutes, _____ isn't usually an issue. There was no mention of participant loss.

attrition

On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. When Professor Mutola rechecks her data, she finds that the five students with the lowest scores on the first exam have dropped the class. What threat to internal validity is this?

attrition

The rise in scores on the second test may be due to the loss of these extreme scores, which is ______

attrition

Which threat to internal validity occurs when there is a greater systematic loss of participants in one condition than the other condition?

attrition

in a longitudinal design, the correlation of one variable with itself, measured at two different times

autocorrelation

In a factorial design study, which effect is usually considered the most important effect? the main effect of the first independent variable the interaction the main effect of the second independent variable the overall effect

b

Interactions allow researchers to examine _________ variables. mediating moderating confounding third main effect

b

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following can be inferred from the study? The alcohol commercial increased the alcohol consumption of all viewers. The effect of the alcohol commercial on alcohol consumption depended on whether the viewer was usually a heavy drinker or a light drinker. The alcohol commercial had no effect on the consumption of alcohol. The effect of the alcohol commercial on alcohol consumption was unpredictable.

b

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a participant variable in this study? type of commercial shown amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week amount of alcohol consumed during the movie the movie shown

b

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. Caucasian "Competitors" were identified more easily than the other two Caucasian personality types, but there was no difference in accuracy for African-American faces. What does this describe? a main effect a two-way interaction between race and personality a two-way interaction between Caucasian and personality a three-way interaction between race, personality, and accuracy

b

Susan ran a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Susan found that there was a main effect for age such that younger people reported being more anxious than older people. She found a main effect for audience size such that people were more anxious in the room with 50 people than they were in the room by themselves. She did not find an interaction in the results. If Susan were to graph her results, what would they look like? two parallel horizontal lines two parallel diagonal lines two parallel vertical lines two crossed lines

b

Iva is studying whether students gain weight during their first year of college. She collects weights from all the incoming freshmen in the fall, then collects weights from them again at the end of the spring term. What is the term for the correlation she finds when she compares the fall and spring weights of the students? a. cross-sectional b. autocorrelations c. non-linear d. cross-lag

b. autocorrelations Autocorrelations — This is a correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions or an autocorrelation.

How do multiple-regression designs help address internal validity? a. by establishing temporal precedence b. by ruling out third variable c. by eliminating selection threats d. by introducing a control condition

b. by ruling out third variable Regression Results Indicate If a Third Variable Affects the Relationship — By measuring possible third variables and using multiple-regression analysis, these third variables can be eliminated as explanations for the relationship between the key variables.

What is the name for the level of the independent variable that is intended to represent a neutral condition?

control group

Dr. Stevens did a study that found that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years because people who are highly educated take cognitively demanding jobs, and people who are highly educated have better cognitive skills. She found that the amount of education is a ________ in the relationship between having demanding job and cognitive benefits in later years. a. moderator b. confounding third variable c. criterion variable d. mediator

b. confounding third variable Mediators vs. Third Variables — In a third-variable explanation, the third variable (amount of education) explains the relationship between the two variables in the original bivariate correlation (having a demanding job and cognitive benefits in later years).

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction measured at the second time point. What type of correlation is this? a. curvilinear b. cross-lag c. autocorrelation d. cross-sectional

b. cross-lag Cross-Lag Correlations — When one variable measured at time one correlates with another variable measured at time two, there is a cross-lag correlation.

de Abreu, Gathercole, and Martin (2011) found that the correlation of non-word repetition and digit recall in a memory was r = .59. Based on Cohen's (1992) guidelines, how would you describe this effect size? a. small b. large c. medium d. more information is needed to make this determination

b. large Feedback: Table 8.4- According to the table, an r of approximately 0.50 is considered to have a large or strong effect size

Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. The parents' ratings of likelihood of yielding to temptation correlated with the preschool waiting time measurement at r = -0.50. How would this effect size be described according to Cohen's benchmarks? a. weak b. strong c. moderate d. zero

b. strong Review: Describing Associations Between Two Quantitative Variables- Table 8.4 shows that an r of -.05 is a strong effect size.

Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. In addition to this correlation coefficient, what other information would Professor Fofana need to determine if this result is statistically significant? a. the letter grades of the students b. the sample size c. the effect size d. the mean of scores

b. the sample size Effect Size, Sample Size, and Significance — The r value is the effect size; in addition to it, to find significance you need the sample size.

Dr. Stevens wants to examine the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and depression. He selects a sample of American athletes who are currently training for the summer Olympic Games as his research subjects. Dr. Stevens finds no relationship between BMI and depression. What is one problem with his research design that could have kept him from finding a relationship between those? a. there is a third variable problem b. there is a restriction of range problem c. there is a problem with outliers in his sample. d. there is a directionality problem

b. there is a restriction of range problem Statistical Validity Question 4: Is There Restriction of Range? Olympic athletes generally have low BMIs, so Dr. Stevens may not be finding a relationship between BMI and depression because there is a restriction of range of the BMI variable.

When is an outlier most likely to be problematic? a. when the sample size is large and the outlier is extreme on one of the variables b. when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both variables c. when the sample size is large and the outlier is extreme on both variables d. when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on one of the variables

b. when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both variables Statistical Validity Question 3: Could Outliers Be Affecting the Association? — Outliers are most problematic when the sample size is small and the outlier is extreme on both variables.

22. An independent-groups design is also known as a _____________ design.

between-subject design

An independent-groups design is also known as a ________.

between-subjects

an association that involved exactly two variables

bivariate correlation

Which of the following is a reason that multiple regression designs are inferior to experimental designs?

both a and b are true (only control for 3rd variables that are measured and cannot establish temporal precedece)

In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. How does Theo control for selection effects?

by using random assignment of participants

A researcher wants to run a 2 x 3 mixed factorial design. The first factor is within-subjects. The second factor is between-subjects. If the researcher wants 20 observations per cell, how many participants will he need in total? 20 40 60 120

c

In a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design, what are all the possible effects to test? two main effects and a two-way interaction?? three main effects and three-way interaction three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction three main effects, three two-way interactions, and three three-way interactions

c

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. What type of design is this? within-groups factorial design mixed factorial design independent-groups factorial design nested factorial design

c

Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What kind of study design is this? independent-groups factorial design within-groups factorial design mixed factorial design concurrent measures design

c

What are the two main reasons researchers use factorial designs? to increase construct validity and to test theories to increase construct validity and to increase internal validity to test the limits of an effect and to test theories to use fewer participants and to test the limits of an effect

c

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. How many cells are there in this study? 1 3?? 8?? 16

c

Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. They found â = -0.39 for foreign language anxiety. What does this mean? a. There is no relation between foreign language anxiety and foreign language achievement. b. People who are more anxious about learning and foreign language have higher levels of achievement in foreign language c. People with lower levels of anxiety about learning a foreign language have higher levels of achievement in foreign language. d. There is not enough information given here to answer this.

c. People with lower levels of anxiety about learning a foreign language have higher levels of achievement in foreign language. Beta Basics — A negative beta means that there is a negative relationship between the predictor variable and the dependent variable, so foreign language achievement decreases with increasing levels of foreign language anxiety.

holding a potential third variable at a constant level while investigating the association between two other variables

control for

Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. Which of the following is NOT a predictor variable? a. foreign language anxiety b. perceived scholastic competence c. foreign language achievement d. perceived self-worth

c. foreign language achievement Dependent Variables and Predictor Variables — Foreign language achievement has been chosen as the dependent variable or the criterion variable.

Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. What is the criterion variable? a. academic achievement b. perceived self-worth c. foreign language achievement d. foreign language anxiety

c. foreign language achievement Dependent Variables and Predictor Variables — Foreign language achievement is the dependent variable or variable the researchers were most interested in understanding.

Dr. Samuels does a study that finds that children with unusual names are more likely to have delinquency records as adolescents because they got teased more, and the teasing makes them act out. He found that teasing is a ________ in the relationship between having an unusual name and adolescent delinquency. a. moderator b. confounding third variable c. mediator d. criterion variable

c. mediator Mediation — A mediator (teasing) explains why there is a relationship between two other variables (having an unusual name and adolescent delinquency)

Dr. Aarons does a study that finds that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years, but only among men, not among women. In her findings, gender is a _________ in the relationship between having a cognitively demanding job and cognitive benefits later in life. a. confounding third variable b. mediator c. moderator d. criterion variable

c. moderator Mediators vs. Moderators — Moderating variables (gender) provide information about when or under what conditions two other variables (cognitively demanding jobs and cognitive benefits later in life) are related.

What is it called when researchers investigate causality by using a variety of correlational studies that all point in a single, causal direction? a. multiple-regression design b. longitudinal study c. pattern and parsimony d. cross-lag design

c. pattern and parsimony Getting at Causality with Pattern and Parsimony — In cases where researchers cannot establish causality by running an experiment, they can find support for a causal relationship by looking for pattern and parsimony in a variety of correlational studies.

Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) examined foreign language anxiety as a predictor of foreign language achievement. They performed a multiple-regression analysis and included other predictor variables including academic achievement, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth. The beta for the predictor variable of perceived scholastic competence was positive and statistically significant. Why couldn't you say that perceived scholastic competence improves foreign language achievement? a. More variables should have been included in the multiple-regression analysis b. the p values are not large enough c. the temporal precedence is not established and there may be another variable that accounts for the relationship d. There were some uncontrolled variables

c. the temporal precedence is not established and there may be another variable that accounts for the relationship Regression Does Not Establish Causation — While perceived scholastic competence clearly is related to foreign language achievement, it isn't clear whether the perceived competence preceded foreign language achievement or if there is another variable besides foreign language anxiety, academic achievement, and perceived self-worth involved.

The terminology "made a difference in" suggests a _____, which isn't established by regression.

causal claim

Dr. Sanderson is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. She assigns half her participants to play a violent video game for 5 minutes and the other half to play the same game for 25 minutes. Afterward, she has them play a board game and has a well-trained coder determine whether they are very aggressive in their playing style, barely aggressive, or not at all aggressive. She finds that a vast majority of her participants, regardless of group assignment, are rated as very aggressive. This outcome would be known as a/an:

ceiling effect

The students in a 50-student Introductory Psychology class were randomly assigned to one of two review sessions, each being taught with a different technique. The next day, every student got all 10 of the test questions correct. What problem does Professor Zhao have in determining the better teaching technique for review sessions?

ceiling effect

Which of the following does NOT contribute to within-groups variability?

ceiling effect

Adding more participants to a study reduces the impact of individual differences within groups and will increase the ______

chance of finding differences between groups

Frances did a study to investigate the effect of concreteness on memory. She created a list of 12 items that are very concrete (such as pencil and table) and a list of 12 items that are very abstract (such as justice and freedom). Each item was viewed for one second, then participants recalled them in order. Ten participants were tested in each condition. The study showed null effects, and almost all of the participants remembered all of the words on both lists. What is a likely solution?

change the design to eliminate ceiling effects

instrumentation: the raters, who are the measuring instrument, are______

changing over time

Dr. Whetstone is curious about how self-esteem changes as a result of a new counseling program. She is concerned about testing threats in her study. Which of the following would you NOT recommend to her as a way to address this type of threat?

collecting pretest data twice

A ________ can be used to control for maturation threats.

comparison group (the changes in the treatment group that differ from those in the comparison group can be ascribed to the treatment.)

External validity

concerned with extending the results to other situations.

Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of what design?

concurrent measure design

What are advantages of within-groups designs?

concurrent measures

Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to include this step was done to address the study's ___________ validity:

construct

QUESTION Dr. Lonsbary's study asked participants to report on their mood before completing the memory test. Dr. Lonsbary's decision to include this step was done to address the study's ___________ validity:

construct

QUESTION Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods-really did change after listening to the music. Running this preliminary study helps establish which of the forms of validity?

construct

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. Which variable is a participant variable?

consumer price picture all of them are manipulated <<<

When authors of a research article are describing just the results of a factorial study, which of these terms would you NOT expect to see?

correlation

When authors of a research article are describing just the results of a factorial study, which of these terms would you not expect to see?

correlation

Correlation 1 is an example of which of the following types of correlations? 1. Multivariate correlation 2. Autocorrelation 3. Cross-sectional correlation 4. Cross-lag correlation

correlation 1 is an example of .....Cross-sectional correlation

Correlation 4 is an example of which of the following types of correlations? 1. Cross-sectional correlation 2. Multivariate correlation 3. Cross-lag correlation 4. Autocorrelation

correlation 4 is an example of.....Cross-lag correlation

Order effects can be controlled by using what technique?

counter balancing

Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned that he could have a problem with order effect in his study. How can Eric fix this problem?

counterbalancing

the variable in a multiple-regression analysis that the researchers are most interest in understanding or predicting

criterion variable

According to the text, when researchers conduct longitudinal research, the type of correlation they are most interest in is which of the following?

cross-lag correlation

In a longitudinal design, a correlation between an earlier measure of one variable and a later measure of another variable.

cross-lag correlation

In a longitudinal design, a correlation between two variables that are measured at the same time.

cross-sectional correlation

Which of the following is a correlation that could be found using a longitudinal design and a simple bivariate design?

cross-sectional correlation

what are the ways to interpret the results from a longitudinal design?

cross-sectional correlations autocorrelations cross-lag correlations

How many independent variables and how many cells are there in a 2 × 3 × 4 study? 2 independent variables, 4 cells 2 independent variables, 9 cells 3 independent variables, 9 cells 3 independent variables, 24 cells

d

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. How many cells was each participant in? 1 2 3 6

d

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. What are all the differences that must be examined? three main effects and two interactions two main effects and two interactions three main effects and one interaction two main effects and one interaction

d

Which of the following is NOT an example of a participant variable? age sex years of education treatment group

d

___________ are the means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over levels of the other independent variable. Moderating variables Factorial designs Interaction effects Marginal means

d

Which of the following phrases would NOT suggest that multiple regression was used? a. "controlled for" b. "correcting for" c. "taking into account" d. "made a difference in"

d. "made a difference in" Regression in Popular Press Articles — The terminology "made a difference in" suggests a causal claim, which isn't established by regression.

In a study in which two variables are measured at two different points in time, which of the following is an example of a cross-lag correlation? a. Variable B at Time 1 is associated with variable B at Time 2 b. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 1 c. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable A at Time 2 d. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 2

d. Variable A at Time 1 is associated with Variable B at Time 2 Cross-Lag Correlations — Cross-lag correlations are used in a longitudinal design to check if a variable measured at one point in time correlates with a second variable measured at a different point in time.

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that home life satisfaction measured at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction measured at the first time point and home life satisfaction measured at the second time point. Why can't Dr. Horvat conclude that home life satisfaction causes job satisfaction? a. Home satisfaction is not related to life satisfaction b. Home satisfaction did not occur before life satisfaction c. Home satisfaction and life satisfaction are too highly correlated with each other d. There are potential third variable that might explain the relationship

d. There are potential third variable that might explain the relationship Longitudinal Studies and the Three Criteria for Causation — Longitudinal studies conducted in this way do not help to rule out possible third variables.

Which of the following is the essential feature of studies that support association claims? a. They involve a correlation between one measured variable and one manipulated variable b. They involve a correlation between one quantitative variable and one categorical variable. c. They involve a correlation between one measured variable and one manipulated variable d. They involve two measured variables

d. They involve two measured variables Bivariate Correlational Research — It doesn't matter what type of graph you make or what statistic you use. When both variables are measured, the claim being tested is an association claim.

Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. Overall, a positive relation between waiting time as a preschooler and self-control in adolescence emerged. Can a causal relationship be inferred? a. No, because internal validity was not established b. No, because temporal precedence was not established c. No, because covariance was not established. d. Yes; covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity were established.

d. Yes, covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity were established. Internal Validity: Can We Make a Causal Inference from an Association? — There was not a manipulated variable so there may have been other alternative explanations for the results.

Jenna is interested in the association between the height of professional basketball players and their free-throw shooting percentage. She looks at the correlation between NBA players and their free-throw percentage from last season and she finds a statistically significant negative association. Jenna's friend Elizabeth suggests that Jenna should look at scatter plot of the data. Jenna follows Elizabeth's advice and finds that one of the players is much shorter than the rest of the players and that player has a much better free-throw shooting percentage. When Jenna removes this player from her analysis, she finds that there is no longer a statistically significant relationship between height and free-throw shooting. What kind of problem has Elizabeth helped Jenna identify? a. a moderation problem b. a third variable problem c. a restriction of range problem d. a problem with an outlier in the sample

d. a problem Statistical Validity Question 3: Could Outliers Be Affecting the Association? — The player who is short and good at free throws is having a disproportionate influence on the correlation. That player is an outlier.

Dr. Thompson researches gang-related crime in Chicago. She notices that more graffiti appears when there are more ice cream trucks in town. She does a study that measures the frequency of new graffiti being reported and ice cream truck sales for each week over a year. She finds a positive association between ice cream truck sales and graffiti and concludes that the ice cream trucks are encouraging graffiti. Her colleague, Dr. Richardson, points out that both ice cream sales and graffiti might be influenced by rising temperatures during the summer. What kind of problem has Dr. Richardson identified? a. a restriction of range problem b. a problem with outliers in the sample c. a moderation problem d. a third variable problem

d. a third variable problem More on Internal Validity: When Is That Potential Third Variable a Problem? — The changing temperature throughout the year is responsible for both the increase in ice cream truck sales and the increase in graffiti. The third variable of temperature is responsible for the relationship between the two variables that Dr. Thompson studied.

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home life satisfaction on two occasions, one year apart. She finds that job satisfaction at the first time point is correlated with job satisfaction at the second time. What type of correlation is this? a. cross-lag b. cross-sectional c. negative d. autocorrelations

d. autocorrelations Autocorrelations — Each of these is a correlation of a variable with the same variable measured at two different times.

Dr. Russell did a study that found that praise provided by supervisors is associated with higher levels of work productivity only because more motivated employees are praised more often, and highly motivated people are more productive. In her findings, employee motivation is a ___________ in the relationship between praise from supervisors and work productivity. a. moderator b. criterion variable c. mediator d. confounding third variable

d. confounding third variable Mediators vs. Third Variables — In a third-variable explanation, the third variable (employee motivation) is external to the two variables in the original bivariate correlation (praise from supervisors and work productivity).

When using multiple regression, what is the term for the variable that the researcher is most interested in explaining or predicting? a. predictor b. independent variable c. response d. criterion

d. criterion Criterion Variables and Predictor Variables — Multiple regression is used to study three or more variables and the variable chosen as one that researchers want to understand is called the criterion variable.

Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28 and that p<0.001. What does this mean? a. the result is not statistically significant b. the result probably no association between extra credit and course grades in the full population c. the result probably came from a zero-association population d. it is very unlikely that is association was found in the sample she, in the full population, there is really no association

d. it is very unlikely that is association was found in the sample she, in the full population, there is really no association Effect Size, Sample Size, and Significance — This p value means that it is very unlikely (less than .01 percent) that the values came from a zero-association population.

When a relationship between two variables depends on the level of a third variable, that kind of a third variable is called a: a. mediator b. spurious correlation c. predictor variable d. moderator

d. moderator Mediators vs. Moderators — Moderating variables provide information about when or under what conditions two other variables are related.

To look at the relationship between reaction time and level of expertise in tennis, experts and non-experts are compared. Which of the following would be the most appropriate, easiest way to evaluate the relationship between these variables? a. Cronbach's alpha and a bar graph b. correlation coefficient and a bar graph c. correlation coefficient and scatterplot d. t test and a bar graph

d. t test and a bar graph Analyzing Associations When One Variable is Categorical-- Reaction time is a categorical variable so a t test and a bar graph can be used to evaluate this relationship

Which of the following things CANNOT be done to reduce the effect of individual differences?

decrease power

Dr. Acitelli was concerned that asking participants how long it took them to fall asleep would lead them to suspect that was the purpose of the study. Her decision to measure how long it took participants to go to sleep using the EEG instead of self-report was meant to decrease what?

demand characteristics

Lucia is interested in studying discrimination in hiring. She designs an experiment in which the participant takes the role of an employer looking at job candidates for a specific position. Each participant is given two very similar resumés—one of a candidate with a female name and one of a candidate with a male name—and is then asked to rate the suitability of each candidate for a job. Lucia finds no difference in participants' ratings of male and female candidates. What threat to internal validity should she be concerned about?

demand characteristics

In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?

distance out of alignment of the rods

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's:

external validity

Random selection enhances ________ and random assignment enhances ___

external validity and random assignment 50

In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the independent variable in this experiment?

eye/eyes used

A _______ design is one in which there are two or more independent variables.

factorial

Correlation is not a term used in describing the results of a strictly ______ study, though it may be used within the same article.

factorial

Independent variables can also be called_______.

factors

9. " QUESTION What is the most likely reason Dr. Elder conducted a factorial design? To test if task type _____________ with the effect of activity focus.

generalizes // interacts

What does a longitudinal study help us do?

helps to measure the same variables over time, giving us temporal precedence

A city in California has asked Professor Rodriguez to conduct an experiment on earthquake preparedness. Professor Rodriguez will assess the preparedness of a random sample of residents in the city and the city will mail out their annual brochure on earthquake safety. Then, two weeks later, he will again assess the preparedness of those residents. Right after the brochures are mailed, a large earthquake is reported in Japan. What threat to internal validity does this pose?

history

Which of the following threats to internal validity CANNOT occur in just any study?

history threats

Of the correlations listed, how many are cross-sectional correlations? 1. Two 2. Four 3. Three 4. One

how many are cross-sectional......Two

Manipulation checks help researchers measure:

how well their manipulation worked.

In longitudinal designs, the same variables are studied:

in the same people across time.

Selection effects can lead to a confounded experiment, but would not ____.

increase variability within groups.

What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study?

independant group design

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study?

independent groups design

In an experiment on improving children's handwriting, two different techniques of improving handwriting and a control condition are used. Using a pretest/posttest design, both groups who received the treatment showed more improvement than the control group. However, the two groups didn't show any difference from each other. The researcher believes that there is a difference, but that the 5-point assessment scale of handwriting cannot detect it. What measurement problem is the researcher concerned with?

insensitive measures

As part of an experiment on the effects of behavior modeling, a set of raters are evaluating the prosocial behavior in a series of videotapes of a class of preschoolers. Initially, the raters were quite strict in their ratings, but after three hours of rating, their criteria had changed. What type of threat to internal validity has occurred?

instrumentation

On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. Professor Mutola looks back over the second exam and begins to wonder if it was just an easier exam. What threat to internal validity is she considering?

instrumentation

What is it called when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable?

interaction

What is it called when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of the other independent variable?

interaction

If the study's results show an interaction, the _______ is the most important effect.

interaction itself

What two types of validity in an experiment can observer bias threaten?

internal and construct validty

Generally, what is the main priority for experimental studies?

internal validity

criterion variable is what?

it is the dependent variable; it is almost always specified either in the top row or in the title of a regression table dependent is measured

predictor variable is what?

it is the independent variable; found below the criterion variable in a table independent variable is manipulated

QUESTION What is the independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? ________________________

listening to the CD

What is the independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study? ________________________

listening to the CD

What type of research design involves measuring the same variables, for the same people, across different points in time?

longitudinal

A study in which the same variables are measured in the same people at different points in time.

longitudinal design

After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 10, 20, and 20 and in the second row are 20, 10, and 10. Describe her results.

main effect of role, no effect of others present, and an interaction

In an experiment, researchers:

manipulate one variable and measure another.

Pilot studies help researchers test out a :

manipulation before using it in their study of primary interest.

____________ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked.

manipulation check

Dr. Lonsbary's study contains what technique designed to address a threat to construct validity?

manipulation check 52

Floor effects are a special case of ______ and________, not one of the three most common threats.

manipulations and insensitive measures

___________ are the means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over levels of the other independent variable.

marginal means

Kathryn wants to control for intelligence in her study. She has a list of all of the participants for her study and their IQ scores. She sorts the list of participants according to their IQ scores and then forms groups making sure that the groups are balanced in terms of IQ scores. Finally, she randomly assigns each group to one of the conditions of her study. What kind of design is Kathryn using?

matched-groups

Which of the following research designs is used to address possible selection effects?

matched-groups designs

Emma is planning an experiment to examine whether reading to children increases their vocabulary size. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18-month-olds, read to them three times a week for three months, then measure their vocabulary size again. What threat to internal validity should she be most concerned about?

maturation

On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. Professor Mitchell points out that in her classes, students always do better on the second exam because they are more used to her tests. What threat to validity is she suggesting?

maturation

Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an example of which of the following threats to internal validity?

maturation

Some internal validity threats can be addressed simply by including a comparison group, while other internal validity threats can occur even in studies with a comparison group. Which of the following threats to internal validity would be improved with the inclusion of a comparison group?

maturation threats

an arithmetic average; a measure of central tendency computed from the sum of all scores in a set of data, divided by the total number of scores

mean

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition with financial compensation being introduced following the low anxiety-level performance. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about putting technique, thinking of irrelevant cue words, and thinking about a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. What is the dependent variable?

mean distance from hole

Marginal Means

means for each level of an independent variable - may or may not be statistically significant (if not- no effect)

Which of the following is a necessary component of a longitudinal design?

measuring the same variable at two points in time

A variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables. Also called mediating variable.

mediator

Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What kind of study design is this?

mixed factorial design

According to Cohen's conventions for effect size, how do you describe an effect size when d = 0.50?

moderate

Table 10.2 indicates that when d = .050, the effect size is _________.

moderate/medium

Interactions allow researchers to examine _________ variables.

moderating

An interaction of two independent variables allows researchers to establish whether or not a variable is a ______.

moderator

A statistical technique that computes the relationship between a predictor variable and a criterion variable, controlling for other predictor variables. Also called multivariate regression.

multiple regression

Which of the following is NOT true of a third variable and a mediating variable

multiple regression techniques can only be used to detect third variables but not mediating variables

A study designed to test an association involving more than two measured variables.

multivariate design

longitudinal designs, multiple-regression designs, and the pattern of parsimony use what type of design approach?

multivariate design which involves more than two measured variables

QUESTION Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality? YES or NO ___Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people ___Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered ___Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words

no yes no

QUESTION Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality? YES OR NO ___Noting that there is a difference between the number of words recalled by the happy and neutral people ___ Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered ___Making sure that all participants were asked to remember the same list of words

no yes no

After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 15, 15, and 15 and in the second row are 20, 15, and 10. Describe her results.

no effect of role, main effect of others present, and interaction

After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 15, 15, and 15 and in the second row are 20, 15, and 10. Describe her results.

no effect of role, main effect of others present, and interaction -Increasing the Number of Levels of an Independent Variable—The marginal means differ for both factors and there are differences in the differences in each column.

After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 10, 15, and 20 and in the second row are 20, 15, and 10. Describe her results.

no effect of role, no effect of others present, and an interaction

After reading a report by Rockoff (2010), Yingying is studying the effects of others present and their roles on the rate of gambling bets using a simulated slot machine. Her levels of others present are one, two, or six. Her levels of roles are gamblers and observers. She constructs a 2 × 3 table of her results of average time between bets. There are two rows for the roles and three columns for the others present. The values in the first row are 10, 15, and 20 and in the second row are 20, 15, and 10. Describe her results.

no effect of role, no effect of others present, and an interaction -The marginal means are the same for both factors and there are differences in the differences in each column.

What is a dependent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

number of words remembered MEMORY

Double-blind studies can control for _____ and _______, but this wouldn't help with the contribution of individual differences to within-group variability.

observer effects and demand characteristics

On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. What is the formal name for this type of design?

one-group, postest/pretest

What are disadvantages of within-groups designs?

order effets repeated measures not practical demand characteristic.

a score that stands out as either much higher or much lower than most of the other scores in a sample

outlier

Since there is a main effect for both variables, the lines would be _______, and since there is no interaction, the lines would be ________.

parallel, parallel

Dr. Acitelli studies sleep and sleep disorders. She is curious as to whether falling asleep in front of a television set causes people to fall asleep more slowly than falling asleep without watching TV. She recruits a sample of 60 middle-aged women from a local church who reported no history of sleep problems. She creates three conditions. All participants come to the sleep lab for three nights in a row and experience all three conditions. In the first condition (A), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is off. In the second condition (B), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel. In the third condition (C), participants fall asleep in front of a television that is turned on to the same 24-hour news channel but is muted. With the use of an electroencephalograph (EEG), the researcher measures how long it takes participants to fall asleep. Given that Dr. Acitelli's participants have agreed to participate for three nights each, which type of counterbalancing should she use?

partial counterbalancing

A repeated-measures design is a type of within-groups design in which:

participants are measured on a dependent variable after exposure to each level of the independent variable.

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy (a song titled "Don't Worry, Be Happy"). Group B listened to a five-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Alone Again"). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for five minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask him or her to draw a card. Participants who drew a 1, 2, or 3 were assigned to Group A. Participants who drew a 4, 5, or 6, were assigned to Group B. Participants who drew a 7, 8, or 9, were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or five minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 words to remember. When five minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given three minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered. Which of the following is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

participants mood

What is an independent variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study?

participants moods

Testing threats involve ________ whereas instrumentation threats involve ________.

participants; measurements

In cases where researchers cannot establish causality by running an experiment, they can find support for a causal relationship by looking for _________ in a variety of correlational studies.

patterns and parsimony

QUESTION Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. This preliminary study is known as a:

pilot study

Prior to conducting the current study, Dr. Lonsbary asked her research assistant to use the same mood manipulation with a sample of 30 college students to determine if people's moods really did change after listening to the music. What is this preliminary study called?

pilot study slide 54

Dr. Bloedorn is a health psychologist who researches nutrition. She is curious as to whether a new drink additive will help people consume fewer calories during a meal. The drink additive is a white, odorless, tasteless powder that a person can add to any drink. She collects a random sample of 63 overweight students on campus and measures the calories they eat during lunch, using a bomb calorimeter. She then gives this additive to the same 63 participants to use at dinner and measures how many calories they eat (again, using the bomb calorimeter). The addition of a group that does not use the drink additive but adds a similar-looking substance that they think is the additive would help Dr. Bloedorn address which of the following threats to internal validity?

placebo effects

Dr. Keller wants to test the effect of a new anti-anxiety medication. He recruits a group of anxious patients and randomly assigns them to two groups. One group will receive his new medication and the other will receive a sugar pill. What is the second group called?

placebo group

When the control group is exposed to an inert treatment such as a sugar pill, it is called a

placebo group

A variable in multiple-regression analysis that is used to explain variance in the criterion variable.

predictor variable

Cara is running a study to examine the effect of music on mood. She randomly assigns participants to three conditions — rock, jazz, and country. She has the participants rate their mood with a short questionnaire, then listen to their assigned music for 20 minutes, and then fill out the mood questionnaire again. What kind of design is she using?

pretest/posttest

longitudinal design

provide evidence for Temporal precedence by measuring the same variables in the same people at several points in time

Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all of the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment of the tea, and finally drink a cup of milk and rate their enjoyment of the milk. What kind of design is this?

repeated measures

which correlation cross-lag, autocorrelations, or cross sectional correlation is a researchers primary interest?

researchers are more interested in cross-lag correlations which show whether the earlier measure of one variable is associated with the later measure of the other variable they address the directional problem establish temporal precedence

a situation involving bivariate correlation, in which there is not a full range of possible scores on one of the variables in the association, so the relationship from the sample underestimates the true correlation

restriction of range

In a business class experiment on the endowment effect, Theo is comparing the value of a coffee mug to someone who owns it and is selling it to someone who is buying it. The endowment effect describes the tendency of sellers to value something they own more than buyers do. Participants are randomly assigned to be buyers or sellers of a mug with their first name on it. Buyers select the maximum price they would pay for the mug. Sellers select the minimum price they would accept for the mug. What is the independent variable in this experiment?

role of the participant

Cross-lag correlations are important for answering/addressing which of the following rules of causation?

rule of temporal precedence

Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Since different groups need different amounts of time, the first 25 participants who arrive are assigned to the 10-minute group, the next 25 are assigned to the 5-minute group, and the final 25 are assigned to the 2-minute group. What confound does this create?

selection effect

Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following?

selection effects

Which of the following does NOT need to be considered as an alternative explanation of the results in a within-groups design experiment?

selection effects

Dr. Harrison wants to test the effectiveness of the support group he runs for undergraduates who have drinking problems. He recruits a group of students who have been referred to the counseling center. He randomizes them to two groups — a treatment group and a control group. The treatment group attends 10 structured support group sessions at 8:00 a.m. on Fridays that are facilitated by Dr. Harrison. The control group attends 10 unstructured meetings at 3:00 p.m. on Wednesdays that are facilitated by members of the group. Several of the participants in the treatment group stop attending the group after just a couple of sessions. All of the control group members attend their group regularly. At the end of the 10 weeks of groups, Dr. Harrison measures drinking behavior of the people who are still attending the groups. He finds that the drinking behavior of people who attended all 10 of the structured group sessions is less than the drinking behavior of people who attended all 10 of the unstructured group sessions. What kind of threat to internal validity should Dr. Harrison be concerned about?

selection-attrition threat

Emma is planning an experiment to examine whether reading to children increases their vocabulary size. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18-month-olds, read to them three times a week for three months, then measure their vocabulary size again. How could Emma change the design of the study to remove a major threat to internal validity?

she could add a comparison gorup

When is using a matched-group design especially important?

small samples

a bivariate association that is attributable only to systematic mean differences on subgroups within the sample; the original association is not present within the subgroups

spurious association

A conclusion that a result from a sample (such as an association or a difference between groups) is so extreme that the sample is unlikely to have come from a population in which there is no association or no difference.

statistical significance

Disadvantages of Within-Groups Design — That extraneous differences are held constant is a _______, not a weakness.

strength

In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. She finds that d = 1.53. What effect size is this?

strong

Attrition is not a threat if it occurs uniformly across both groups, but if it is _________, it becomes a threat.

systematic

a statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two means

t test

Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and expensiveness of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. What is the dependent variable?

tastiness and expensiveness

cross-sectional correlations

test to see whether two variables, measured at the same point in time, are correlated

An instructor hypothesizes that doing jumping jacks will improve his students' quiz performance. On Monday, he has his class sit in their chairs for five minutes before completing a multiple-choice quiz on their reading assignment. On Wednesday, he has his class do two minutes of jumping jacks before completing the same quiz that they took on Monday. The students performed better on the quiz on Wednesday. What is a possible threat to internal validity in this study?

testing threat

interaction effect

the effect of an additional independent variable. A result from a factorial design, in which the difference in the levels of one independent variable changes, depending on the level of the other independent variable; a difference in differences

What allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the covariance rule for causality?

the fact that there is a difference between the number of words recalled (1) by the happy and neutral group (A vs. C) and (2) by the sad and neutral group (B vs. C)

An author might use all of the following methods to indicate statistical significance EXCEPT:

the inclusion of a graph

In a factorial design study, which effect is usually considered the most important effect?

the interaction

In a factorial experiment, which is the most important effect?

the interaction

In interactions the effect depends on:

the level of another vairable

Marginal means are a way of looking at:

the main effect of one variable.

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. What is the dependent variable?

the number of pictures accurately identified

main effect

the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable. In other words, a main effect is a simple difference. In a factorial design with two independent variables, there are two main effects. main effect = overall effect : the overall effect of one independent variable at a time.

Main Effect

the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the other levels of he other independent variable - not necessarily most important -simple difference

Which of the following means a study used a bivariate correlational design?

the presence of measured variables

Instrumentation threat occurs when:

the pretest and posttest are not sufficiently equivalent.

In a third-variable explanation, the third variable is external to

the two variables in the original bivariate correlation.

Which of the following correlations is a cross-lag correlation? 1. Both Correlations 3 and 4 2. Both Correlations 3 and 5 3. Both Correlations 2 and 5 4. Both Correlations 1 and 6

these are cross-lag correlations .....Both Correlations 3 and 4

Imagine that Dr. Farah noted a cyclical, reinforcing relationship between homework and academic achievement. For this to be case, which of the following correlations would need to be significant? 1. Correlations 2 and 3 2. Correlations 2 and 5 3. Correlations 1 and 6 4. Correlations 3 and 4

these correlations would need to be significant Correlations 3 and 4

All of the following are true of ceiling and floor effects EXCEPT:

they are only problematic in pretest/postest designs

a situation in which a plausible alternative explanation exists for the association between two variables

third-variable problem

In a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design, what are all the possible effects to test?

three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction

What differences need to be investigated when a three-way design is used?

three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction

Which of the following is NOT a reason a researcher might choose to conduct a double-blind placebo control group study?

to prevent attrition

What are the two main reasons to conduct a factorial study?

to test limits and to test theories

What are the two main reasons to use factorial designs?

to test limits and to test theories

Dr. Deveraux has conducted a study that has resulted in a null effect. Nonetheless, she suspects that there truly is a causal relationship between her independent and dependent variables. Which of the following is UNLIKELY to be to blame?

too many participants

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) reported on an experiment on choking under pressure in skilled golfers. They varied anxiety level and putting condition in a 2 × 3 within-group design. Anxiety level (low or high) was varied with a competition being introduced following the low-anxiety trials. The putting conditions were thinking of cue words about either putting technique, irrelevant items, or a single swing thought such as "smooth." Mean distance from hole was computed for the 10 putts in each condition. What are all the differences that must be examined?

two main effects and one interaction

Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "Cooperator", a "Competitor", or an "Individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily, and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 x 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African-American and Caucasian people who are "Cooperators", "Competitors", or "Individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. What are all the differences that must be examined?

two main effects and one interaction (there are two independent variables, so there are two main effects and one interaction possible, even though one variable has three levels)

Susan ran a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Susan found that there was a main effect for age such that younger people reported being more anxious than older people. She found a main effect for audience size such that people were more anxious in the room with 50 people than they were in the room by themselves. She did not find an interaction in the results. If Susan were to graph her results, what would they look like?

two parallel diagonal lines

A recent study (Koordeman et al., 2011), conducted in the Netherlands, on the effects of commercials for alcohol or alcohol consumption in the movie theater, found that young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week are influenced by the commercials, whereas young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week were not influenced. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their drinking habits. What is a factor in this study?

type of commercial shown

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a factor in this study?

type of commercial shown

Multiple regression controls for any third variable the researcher measures in the study, but it can't control for _______.

unmeasured variables.

Individual differences can contribute to too much within-group variability. Which of the following is NOT a possible solution to individual differences?

use a double blind study

moderator

variable that changes the relationship between two other variable. -in factorial language moderator is an independent variable that changes the relationship between another independent variable and a dependent variable. (results in an interaction) i.e. driver age did not moderate impact of cell phone use on brake time

cross over interaction

when lines cross each other in demonstrating interaction (hot and cold foods/ ice cream pancakes)

Moderating variables provide information about

when or under what conditions two other variables are related

A mediator explains:

why there is a relationship between two other variables.

Mediators address the question of:

why two other variables are related

In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. How is the independent variable being manipulated in Tetiana's design?

within-groups

28. Which of the following is a disadvantage of within-groups designs? YES OR NO ___ There is a potential for order effects. ___ There is a potential for demand characteristics. ___ Depending on the independent variable, these designs are not always possible.

yes yes yes

QUESTION Which of the following is a control variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study, YES or NO? ___The number of words on the word list ___ The amount of time allowed for remembering/writing the words ___ The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words

yes yes yes

QUESTION Which of the following should Dr. Lonsbary conclude from her study? YES or NO ___Being in a mood other than neutral causes people to have a better memory. ___Listening to music can cause changes in mood. ___Being in a happy mood does not cause more of a change in memory than being in a sad mood.

yes yes yes

15. When conducting an experiment what is provided by the independent variable? YES OR NO ___ A comparison group ___ Evidence of covariance ___Proof of temporal precedence ___Confirmation of internal validity

yes yes yes yes

Which of the following should Dr. Lonsbary conclude from her study? YES or NO ___Being in a mood other than neutral causes people to have a better memory. ___Listening to music can cause changes in mood. ___Being in a happy mood does not cause more of a change in memory than being in a sad mood.

yes - Being in a mood other than neutral causes people to have a better memory. yes - Listening to music can cause changes in mood. yes - Being in a happy mood does not cause more of a change in memory than being in a sad mood.

Which of the following is a control variable in Dr. Lonsbary's study, YES or NO? ___The number of words on the word list ___ The amount of time allowed for remembering/writing the words ___ The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words

yes - The number of words on the word list yes - The amount of time allowed for remembering/writing the words yes - The amount of time allowed for memorizing the words