Nursing Research 3
Qualitative Research - Ethnography
"a portrait of people" Roots: Anthropology (culture/groups of people), Assumes that people evolve a culture that gives direction to their lives / Very much associated with fieldwork Question: What is this? What is happening in this subculture?
Odds Ratio
"the probability" indicates how much more likely certain independent variables (factors) predict the probability of developing the dependent variable (outcome).
Null Value
"the value of no effect" which varies according to the outcome measure.
Measures of dispersion (variability)
(Measure of Spread) Measures the degree to which data points (Scores) are spread out to each other
outcome variable
(outcomes research-a type of research that evaluates the impact of health care on the health outcomes of patients and population, including evaluation of economic impacts linked to health outcomes, such as cost effectiveness and cost utility.
Pre-experimental study
- manipulation of independent variable - NO control group & NO randomization + limited control over extraneous variables
Significant results
- probability that an effect occurred by chance less than 5 times out of 100 (p<.05) is statistically significant and we reject the null hypothesis and thereby support the alternative hypothesi
What is the range that correlation coefficients can range from
-1.00 to +1.00
Internal validity
-Asks whether the IV really made the difference or the change in the dependent variable. -Established by ruling out other factors or threats as rival explanations. -Must be established before external validity can be established.
Constancy
-Data collection procedures are the same for each subject; data collected in the same manner and under the same conditions.
Randomization
-Each subject in a population as an equal chance of being selected. -Each subject in the study has an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or the experimental group.
Manipulation of the Independent variable
-Experimental and control groups -The independent variable is: the variable that the researcher hypothesizes will have an effect on the dependent variable. Usually manipulated (experimental study) but sometimes cannot be manipulated (nonexperimental)
When considering a practice change, why is identification of stakeholders important?
-Facilitates implementation of the proposed change -Decreases misunderstandings related to the change -Allows for clarification of the purpose of the proposed change
Means of control:
-Homogenous sample -Consistent data-collection procedures -Manipulation of IV -Randomization
Cronbach's alpha (Likert-type response)
-Most commonly used test of internal consistency; a Likert scale format asks the subject to respond to a question on a scale of varying degrees of intensity between two extremes.
The historical background that led to the development of ethical guidelines for the use of human subjects in research
-Nazi experiments 1930's-1940's -Tuskegee: Untreated syphilis in black males: 1932-1973 -Jewish chronic disease study 1965 -San Antonio Contraceptive study 1969-impoverished hispanic women -Willowbrook: Hepatitis/gamma globulin in children: 1972 -UCLA Schizophrenia medication study: 1983 -AIDS/AZT study 1980's
Qualitative data analysis involves what process?
-Organizing data -Managing data -Prioritizing data
Homogenous sample
-Participants in the study are homogenous or have similar extraneous variables that might affect the dependent variable. Homogeneity of the sample limits generalizability or the potential to apply the results of a study to other populations.
Define external validity
-Questions the conditions under which the findings be generalized. -Deals with the ability to generalize the findings outside the study to other populations and environments.
What are the major tests of reliability?
-The reliability coefficient expresses the relationship between the error variance, true variance, and the observed score. -Scored between 0-1. -0 means no relationship -1 means 100% reliability. -Closer to 1 more reliable. -An instrument should be 0.70 or higher to be considered reliable.
In contrast to quantitative studies, the literature reviews of qualitative studies are usually handled in a different manner. How is this so?
-There is often little known about the topic under study. The literature may be conducted at the beginning of the study or after that data analysis is completed with qualitative.
In deciding how to apply evidence to practice, nurses must incorporate additional sources of information in making patient care decisions. These are
-any policy or cost considerations. -the individual patient experience. -the clinical experience.
Sources of data in qualitative research include
-direct observations. -artifacts such as documents, photographs, and physical objects. -in-depth interviews
Accepted strategies for generating meaning from qualitative data include
-noting patterns or themes and building a logical chain of evidence. -making contrasts or comparisons and noting relationships between variables. -clustering, counting, and making metaphors.
Nurses can utilize resources designed to rank and evaluate evidence provided by
-the Cochrane Collaboration. -the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. -the Joanna Briggs Institute.
While qualitative researchers must adhere to the same ethical standards as quantitative researchers, unique ethical considerations apply to
-the relationship between the researcher and participant -data-management procedures
Descriptive statistics can be shown as a ____________, which is calculated by dividing the frequency of an event the by total number of events.
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Implications
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Research
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Sections of the research report
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Sixteen health policy interest groups in the state of Alabama is an example of which sampling method?
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The rights of human subjects
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The sampling method that does not require random selection of elements is
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When sample criteria are ____________, nurses can determine if the study results are applicable to the clinical practice topic under consideration.
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Which type of synthesis is systematically created by a group of experienced experts and key affected groups who read, critique, and prioritize the relevant evidence?
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data coding
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histogram
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instrumentation factors
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normal curve
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physiological measure
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random non-probability sampling
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sections of a research report
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Methods of Data Collection
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4 Steps of Phenomenology
1) bracketing 2) intuiting 3) analyzing 4) describing what was shared and gathered
Levels of evidence:
1-7 (greatest to least)
3 Characteristics of a research question:
1. Clearly identifies variables 2. Specifies population 3. Implies possibility of empirical testing
Steps of Qualitative studies
1. Conceptualizing and planning the study 2. Conducting the study 3. Disseminating the findings
Kearney's Categories of Qualitative Findings
1. Descriptive categories 2. Shared pathway or meaning 3. Depiction of experimental variation 4. Dense explanatory description 5. Restricted by a priori (existing theory) frameworks
Steps of Evidence-based practice
1. Framing a clinical question 2. Searching for research-based evidence 3. Appraising and synthesizing evidence 4.Integrating evidence/ making changes 5. Assessing effectiveness 6. Disseminating the outcomes
The threats to internal validity (6)
1. History-an event, other than the intervention, that might have an effect on the DV; the event could be either inside or outside the experimental setting. 2. Maturation-Developmental, biological, or psychological processes that operate within an individual over time. These processes are outside the experimental setting. 3. Testing-Taking the same test more than once can influence the participant's responses the next time the test is taken. 4. Instrumentation-Changes in equipment used to make measurements or changes in observational techniques may cause measurements to vary between participants related to treatment fidelity. 5. Mortality-Loss of subjects between pretest and post test 6. Selection bias-A partiality in choosing the participants in a study.
what a research problem does
1. ID area of particular concern for a pop 2. significance of the problem 3. background info 4. outline the need for addt'l study
4 ways that qualitative findings can be used in EBP (4 modes of clinical application from Kearney)
1. Insight or empathy 2. Assessment of status or progress 3. Anticipatory guidance 4. Coaching
Steps in the qualitative research process (8 steps)
1. Literature review 2. Study Design 3. Sample 4. Setting/recruitment 5. Data collection 6. Data analysis 7. Findings 8. Conclusions
What are the 4 components of clinical questions?
1. Population 2. Interventions 3. Comparison 4. Outcome
4 strategies for critical reading:
1. Preliminary 2. Comprehensive 3. Analysis 4. Synthesis
The conditions that affect external validity: (3)
1. Selection effects: what method was used to select the sample? How were the subjects assigned to groups? Generalizability to other populations 2. Reactive effects: subjects response to being studied-Hawthorne effect 3. Measurement effects: Administration of a pretest affects generalizability of the findings to other populations. A pretest may act like an intervention and influence or change the subjects' responses.
A pediatric nurse measures and weighs a 9-year-old patient and determines that his height is in the 94th percentile, and his weight is in the 65th percentile. This patient weighs more than 65% of children in his age group but less than ____________ of children in the same group.
35%
In a normal distribution, what percentile represents the median of the sample?
50th
Bivariate correlation
A Correlational analysis relating only two variables
Relationship
A bond or a connection between two or more variables
Grand Theories
A broad theory aimed at describing large segments of the physical, social or behavioral world; also called macrotheory
Research Question
A clear, concise interrogative statement that is worded in the present tense, includes one or more variables, and is expressed to guide the implementation of studies.
Research Purpose
A clear, concise statement of the specific goal or focus of a study
Research Objective
A clear, concise, declarative statement that is expressed in the present tense
Double-blind study/experiment
A clinical trial in which neither the participants nor those who administer the treatment know who is in the experimental or control group
Research Topic
A concept or broad issue that is important to nursing, such as acute pain, chronic pain management, coping with illness, or health promotion
Randomized clinical trial
A controlled medical experiment in which subjects are randomly chosen to receive either an experimental treatment or a standard treatment (or placebo).
Pearson product-moment correlation
A correlation statistic used primarily for two sets of data that are of the ratio or interval scale. The most commonly used correlational technique.
Credibility
A criterion for evaluting integrity and quality in qualitative studies, refering to confidence in the truth of the data; analogous to iternal validity in quantitative research
Statement of purpose
A declaritive statement of the overall goals of a study
Experimental design
A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect (causality) relationship.
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
A design strategy that statistically eliminates the influence of extraneous factors so the effect of independent variable can be seen more clearly. allows the researcher to examine the effect of a treatment apart from the effect of one or more potentially confounding variables. Potential confounding variables can include pretest scores, age, education, social class, and anxiety level.
confounding variable
A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
Hypothesis
A formal statement of the expected relationship(s) between 2 or more variables in a specified population
Define research design
A framework that the researcher creates.
Model
A graphic or symbolic representation of a phenomenon.
Relative Risk Reduction
A helpful tool to indicate how much of a baseline risk (the control group event rate) is removed as a result of having the intervention.
A Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.94 was obtained for an instrument. What does this indicate?
A high degree of internal consistency
Positive relationship
A high score on one variable is correlated with a high score on the other variable. A value of +1 indicates a perfect positive relationship.
Negative relationship
A high score on one variable is correlated with a low score on the other variable. A value of -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation.
Research Question
A key preliminary step wherein the foundation for a study is developed from the research problem and results in the research hypothesis.
Sampling frame
A listing of every member of the population who meets delimitations for study participation. Participants are selected from the sampling frame to create the sample.
Median
A measure of center in a set of numerical data. The median of a list of values is the value appearing at the center of a sorted version of the list - or the mean of the two central values if the list contains an even number of values.
Internal consistency
A measure of reliability; the degree to which a test yields similar scores across its different parts, such as on odd versus even items; Homogeneity testing that examines the extent to which all the items in the instrument consistently measure the construct.
Variance
A measure of spread within a distribution (the square of the standard deviation). Can only be calculated on data of interval or ratio level of measurement.
Stratified random sampling
A method of sampling that involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. Used in situations in which the researcher knows some of the variables in the population that are critical for achieving representativeness. Variables commonly used for stratification include age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, diagnosis, geographical region, type of institution, type of care, type of registered nurse, nursing area of specialization, and site of care.
Standards of Care
A norm by which quality of care is judged and is defined by clinical guidelines, critical paths, and care maps. EVIDENCED BASED PRACTICE
Likert scale
A numerical scale used to assess people's attitudes, designed to determine the opinions or attitudes of study subjects, containing a number of declarative statements with a scale after each statement.
Bias
A partiality that prevents objective consideration of an issue or situation; A slant or deviation from the true or expected, and can distort findings.
Population
A particular group of individuals or elements
Self-determination
A person's ability to vountarily decide whether or not to participate in a study
Article
A piece of writing about a specific topic and may be published together with other articles on similar themes in journals, encyclopedia, or edited books.
Evidence based practice
A practice that invovles making clinical decisions on the best available evidence, with an emphasis on evidence from disciplined research
Hypothesis
A prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.
Assumption
A principle that is accepted as being true based on logic or reason, without proof
Evidence hierchies
A ranked arrangement of the valididty of dependability of evidenced based on the rigor of the method that produced it; the traditional evidence hierarchy is appropriate primarily for cause probing research, especially Therapy questions
Levels of Evidence
A rating system for judging the strength of a study's design.
nondirectional hypothesis
A research hypothesis that does not stipulate the expected direction of the relationship between variables
Meta Analysis
A research method that takes the results of multiple studies in a specific area and synthesizes the findings to make conclusions regarding the area of focus.
Cluster sampling
A researcher develops a sampling frame that includes a list of all the states, cities, institutions, or organizations with which elements of the identified population can be linked. This sample technique can save time and expense, but may not give reliable results unless the groups are representative of the population.
Thick Description
A rich, thorough description of context and participants ina qualitative study
Evidence Based Guidelines
A set of guidelines that allows the researcher to better understand the evidence base of certain practices.
Abstract
A short, comprehensive synopsis or summary of a study at the beginning of an article.
Pilot Test
A small scale version, in trial run, done in preparation for a major study or to assess feasibility
Research questions
A specific query the researcher wants to answer to address a research problem
Research Hypothesis
A statement about the expected relationship between the variables; also known as a scientific hypothesis.
hypothesis
A statement of predicted relationships between variables or predicted outcomes
Factor analysis
A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score.
Independent Variable
A stimulus or activity that is manipulated or varied by the researcher to create an effect on the dependent variable
Network sampling (Snowball or chain sampling)
A strategy used for locating samples that are difficult to locate. It uses social networks and the fact that friends tend to have characteristics in common; subjects who meet the eligibility criteria are asked for assistance in getting in touch with others who meet the same criteria.
Systematic Review
A structured, comprehensive synthesis of qualitative studies in a particular healthcare area to determine the best research evidence available for expert clinicians to use to promote an EBP
Frequency distribution
A summary chart, showing how frequently each of the various scores in a set of data occurs.
Meta-Synthesis
A synthesis of a number of qualitative articles on a focused topic using specific qualitative methodology.
Covert data collection/concealment
A tactic involving the unobtrusive collection of research data without participants knowledge or consent, used to obtain an accurate view of naturalistic behavior when the known presence of an observer would distort the behavior of interest
Meta analysis
A technique for quantitatively integrating the results of multiple studies addressing the same or a highly similar research question
Middle range theories
A theory that focueses on a limited piece of reality or human experience, involving a selected number of concepts
Cost
A third dimension of the examination of quality of care.
Environmental Variables
A type of extraneous variable composing the setting in which the study is conducted
Systematic sampling
A type of probability sampling in which every kth unit in a list is selected for inclusion in the sample.
Homogeneity
A type of reliability testing used primarily with paper and pencil instruments or scales to address the correlation of each question to the other questions within the instrument.
Absolute Risk Reduction
A value that gives reduction of risk in absolute terms. The ARR is considered the "real" reduction because it is the difference between the risk observed in those who did and did not experience the event.
Outliers
A value that lies far from the center of a distribution, Outlier is a relative term, but it indicates a data point that is much higher or much lower than the values that could be normally expected for the distribution.
Paradigm
A way of looking at natural phenomena that encompasses a set of philosophical assumptions and that guides one's approach to inquiry
Population
A well defined set that has certain specified properties.
Level 2
A well-designed RCT
How can retrospective studies simultaneously exist as functional entities? (Select all that apply). A. They can be universities. B. They can be any organization applying for a federal grant. C. They can be hospitals. D. They can be any agency that does not receive grant funding.
A, B, C Correct Feedback: Rationale (CORRECT): 1. Universities and colleges conducting research or other projects involving human subjects must have an institutional review board (IRB) to review proposals. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. Any organization that applies for federal grants must have an IRB. Rationale (CORRECT): 3. Hospitals that conduct research must have an IRB. Incorrect Feedback: Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Agencies that do not receive grant funding or conduct research do not need an IRB.
Which criteria are used to determine testability of a hypothesis? (Select all that apply.) A. Use of quantifiable words such as greater than or less than B. A hypothesis stated in such a way that it can be clearly supported or not supported C. The use of value-laden words in a hypothesis D. Data-collection efforts that prove the validity of the hypothesis
A,B Rationale (CORRECT): 1. Quantifiable words increase the testability of a hypothesis. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. The more clearly the hypothesis is stated, the easier it will be to accept or reject it based on study findings. Incorrect Feedback: Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. Hypotheses should not have value-laden words. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Data-collection processes are not part of the criterion used to evaluate the testability of hypotheses.
Which of the following could be considered the "context" of a study? (Select all that apply.) A. Cultural understandings and beliefs of study participants B. The physical setting of the study C. The sample selected for the study D. The number of subjects in the study
A. B.
Which of the following are consistent with the constructivist paradigm? (Select all that apply.) A. Subjectivism is valued. B. Natural laws exist. C. Time and place are important. D. Generalizability is valued.
A. C.
The nurse develops the following hypothesis: Elderly women receive less aggressive treatment for breast cancer than do younger women. Which variable would be considered to be the dependent variable? A. Degree of treatment received B. Age of the patient C. Type of cancer being treated D. Use of inpatient treatment
A. 1. The degree of treatment received is considered the dependent variable. (INCORRECT): 2. The age of the patient would be the independent variable.
Accuracy in the research design means that: A. All aspects of the study logically flow from the research question. B. All mediating variables have been controlled. C. Gaps in the literature have been identified. D. The timing of data collection was the same for each subject.
A. All aspects of the study logically flow from the research question.
What are scientific criteria appropriate for qualitative research? (Select all that apply.) A. Auditability B. Credibility C. Fittingness D. Reliability
A. Auditability B. Credibility C. Fittingness
What are ethical concerns for qualitative researchers? (Select all that apply.) A. Because the study emerges over time, the researcher may not anticipate and inform the participants of a potential threat. B. To maintain a naturalistic environment for interviews, formal documents such as consent forms are not used. C. Because there are so few participants in a qualitative study, no participant can opt out of the study. D. Because the researcher and participant interact over a period of time, relationships developed between them may change the focus of the interaction
A. Because the study emerges over time, the researcher may not anticipate and inform the participants of a potential threat. D. Because the researcher and participant interact over a period of time, relationships developed between them may change the focus of the interaction
What does a critique of a research study always include? (Select all that apply.) A. Determining its strengths and weaknesses B. Researching similar studies C. Using critical reading skills D. Explaining your own personal opinions
A. Correct Determining its strengths and weaknesses C. Correct Using critical reading skills
What is a characteristic of a statistical hypothesis? A. It is a null hypothesis. B. It predicts a positive relationship among variables. C. It is a complex hypothesis. D. It describes data-analysis methods.
A. Correct It is a null hypothesis. Rationale (CORRECT): 1. Statistical hypotheses, called null hypotheses, state that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
What is a characteristic of an audio recording of an unpublished research study reported at a professional conference? A. Databased literature B. Secondary Sources C. Are more difficult to analyze than written reports. D. Are not useful because they are not published
A. Correct: Databased literature Rationale (CORRECT): 1. Audio and video recordings of research presentations are examples of databased literature.
Which beliefs guide the constructivist paradigm? (Select all that apply.) A. There are multiple realities. B. The truth is objective. C. Context does not matter as much as truth. D. The participant (subject) is an active part of the study
A. D.
What is the first step in the qualitative research process? A. Data analysis Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Data analysis is the sixth step in the qualitative research process. B. Sample C. Review of literature D. Study design
A. Data analysis: Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Data analysis is the sixth step in the qualitative research process. B. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Sampling is the third step in the qualitative research process. C. Review of literature is the 1st step in the qualitative research process. D. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. The study design is the second step in the qualitative research process.
Which question is helpful in determining the study's credibility? A. Do the participants recognize the experience as their own? B. What strategies were used to analyze the data? C. How were human subjects protected? D. Are the findings applicable outside the study situation?
A. Do the participants recognize the experience as their own?
What are the uses of qualitative research methods? (Select all that apply.) A. Guiding nursing practice B. Studying the effects of nursing care on an outcome variable C. Developing survey instruments D. Developing nursing theory
A. Guiding nursing practice C. Developing survey instruments D. Developing nursing theory
Which research process steps may be noted in an article's abstract? (Select all that apply.) A. Correct Identifying the phenomenon B. Correct Research question study purpose C. Literature review D. Correct Design E. Incorrect Sample F. Legal-ethical issues G. Data-collection procedure
A. Identifying the phenomenon B. Research question study purpose D. Design
Which question will critique the fittingness of a research project? A. Is the strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study? B. Does the researcher document the research process? C. Are the researcher's conceptualizations true to the data? D. Has adequate time been allowed to fully understand the phenomenon?
A. Is the strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study?
Which question will critique the method of a research project? A. Is the strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study? B. What is the projected significance of the work to nursing? C. Are the informants who were chosen appropriate to inform the research? D. What are the philosophic underpinnings of the research method?
A. Is the strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study?
What is a characteristic of an intrinsic case study? A. It yields a better understanding of each case. B. It provides a foundation to challenge a generalization. C. It does not include quantitative data. D. It can scrutinize only uncomplicated phenomena.
A. It yields a better understanding of each case. Rationale (CORRECT): 1. An intrinsic case study is undertaken to have a better understanding of the case.
A researcher studies the differences in IQ between girls and boys. She tests cohorts of girls and boys in the third grade and then tests the same girls and boys when they are in the sixth grade. Which of the following are threats to internal validity in this study? (Select all that apply.) A. Maturation B. History C. Testing D. Measurement effects
A. Maturation C. Testing Rationale (CORRECT): 1. Maturation refers to developmental processes within subjects over time. Rationale (CORRECT): 3. Testing refers to the influence on subjects' responses caused by taking the same test repeatedly. Incorrect Feedback: Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. History refers to events that occur outside the experimental setting. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Measurement effects refer to the effect of a pretest on the generalizability of the study findings.
13. What are the critiquing criteria used to judge the worth of a research study? (Select all that apply.) A. Measures B. Objectives C. Standards D. Effectiveness E. Evaluation guides F. Questions
A. Measures C. Standards E. Evaluation guides F. Questions
Which of the following are means of controlling extraneous variables? (Select all that apply.) A. Randomly selecting subjects B. Using a homogeneous sample C. Manipulating the dependent variable D. Conducting a pilot test
A. Randomly selecting subjects B. Using a homogeneous sample
Which statements are part of the criteria used to judge the soundness of a stated research question? (Select all that apply.) A. A relationship between two or more variables B. An operational definition of each variable C. The nature of the population being tested D. The possibility of empirical testing
A. Rationale (CORRECT): 1. The research question must seek to discover a relationship between two or more variables. C. Rationale (CORRECT): 3. The research question must include the nature of the population being tested. D. Rationale (CORRECT): 4. The research question must include the possibility of empirical testing. Incorrect Feedback:
Which of the following phrases would be found in a report of a quantitative study? A. "A convenience sample was chosen ? ." B. "The phenomenon studied was ? ." C. "Data were analyzed and interpreted ? ." D. "Researchers sought to explore the meaning of the hospital experience ? ."
A. Rationale (CORRECT): 1. When a sample of convenience is chosen, the study is a quantitative study. B. "The phenomenon studied was ? ." Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Qualitative studies explore phenomena. C. "Data were analyzed and interpreted ? ." Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. Data collected in qualitative studies are "interpreted." D. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Qualitative studies explore the meaning of human experience.
Which mode of clinical application for qualitative research is considered to be the sharing of qualitative findings with the patient? A. Insight or empathy B. Anticipatory guidance C. Assessment of status or progress D. Coaching
A. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Insight or empathy is not considered to be the sharing of qualitative findings with the patient. B. Correct: Anticipatory guidance is the sharing of qualitative findings with the patient C. Incorrect: Assessment of status or progress is not considered to be the sharing of qualitative findings with the patient. D. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Coaching is not considered to be the sharing of qualitative findings with the patient.
Which one of the following statements about hypotheses is most accurate? A. Hypotheses represent the main idea to be studied and are the foundations of research studies. B. Hypotheses help frame a test of the validity of a theory. C. Hypotheses provide the means to test nursing theory. D. A hypothesis can also be called a problem statement.
A. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. It is the research question that represents the main idea to be studied. B. B. Correct Hypotheses help frame a test of the validity of a theory. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. Although theories cannot be tested directly, hypotheses provide a bridge between theory and the real world. C. Hypotheses provide the means to test nursing theory. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. Theories cannot be tested directly. D. A hypothesis can also be called a problem statement. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. The research question is also called the problem statement.
Which reliability measure is considered to be a test of homogeneity? (Select all that apply). A. Split-half reliability B. Test-retest reliability C. Parallel, or alternate-form, reliability D. Cronbach's alpha
A. Split-half reliability D. Cronbach's alpha
15 . Which statement best describes qualitative research? (Select all that apply.) A. Studies are conducted in natural settings. B. Data are collected from a large number of subjects. C. Data collected tend to be numeric. D. The research design is systematic and subjective.
A. Studies are conducted in natural settings. D. The research design is systematic and subjective.
What should be included as part of an informed consent? A. Study procedures B. Benefits of the study C. Any alternative procedures or treatments D. A waiver of rights in case of injury.
A. Study procedures B.Benefits of the study C. Any alternative procedures or treatments
What are the advantages to using directional hypotheses? (Select all that apply.) A. The indication of the use of a theory base to derive the hypothesis B. The provision of a specific theoretical frame of reference C. Ensurance that findings will be generalizable D. The indication of a nonbiased selection of subjects
A. The indication of the use of a theory base to derive the hypothesis B. The provision of a specific theoretical frame of reference
The ____________ instrument is a generic tool that provides a framework for evaluating, developing, and implementing clinical practice guidelines based on six quality domains.
AGREE
Test that tests the difference between more than two means
ANOVA
Validity
Ability of a test to measure what it is supposed to measure and to predict what it is supposed to predict; A determination of how well the instrument reflects the abstract concept being examined.
Qualitative Research Data Collection 2
Adequate TIME, time intensive spend in the field; length of interviews noted; length for data collection noted
Masking
Also called blinding, the process of preventing those involved in a study from having information that could lead to a bias; knowledge of which treatment group a participant is in
Descriptive statistics
Also called summary statistics, it is where data analysis begins in a study in which data are numerical. They include frequency distributions, measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion, and standardized scores.
Theory
An abstract generalization that pressents a systematic explanation about relationships among phenomena
Construct
An abstraction or concept that is deliberately invented (constructed) by researchersfor a scientific purpose
Critical Reading
An active interpretation and objective assessment of an article during which the reader is looking for key concepts, ideas, and justifications.
Consensus Guidelines
An agreement.
Naturalistic paradigm
An alternative paradigm to the positivist paradigm that holds that there are multiple interpretations of reality and that the goal of research is to understand how individuals construct reality within their natural context; Associated with qualitative research
Research Problem
An area of concern in which there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for nursing practice
Variables
An attribute that varies, that is, takes on different values
Measurement error
An error that occurs when there is a difference between the information desired (true measure) by the researcher and the information provided by the measurement process.
Informed consent
An ethical principle that requires researchers to obtain people's voluntary participation ina study, after informing them of possible risks and benefits
Beneficence
An ethical principle that seeks to maximize benefits for study participants, and prevent harm
Translational research
An evolving concept that is defined by the NIH as the translation of basic scientific discoveries into practical applications
Problem statement
An expression of a dilemma or disturbing situation that needs investigation
Randomness
An important concept in quantitative research, involving having certain features of the study established by chance rather than by design or personal preference
Subject
An individual who participates and provides data for a study; term used in primarily quantitative research
Study Participant
An individual who participates and provides information in a study
Informants
An individual who provides information to researchers about a phenomenon under study, usually in qualitative studies
Manipulation
An intervention or treatment initiated in an experimental or quasi-experimental study to assess the independent variable's impact on the dependent variable.
Structured observational measurement
An observation period during which the observer arranges specific activities or gives specific instructions to the person being observed.
Phenomenon
An occurrence or a circumstance that is observed, something that impresses the observer as extraordinary or a thing appears to and is constructed by the mind.
Conduct of Research
Analysis of data collected from subjects who meet study inclusion and exclusion criteria for the purpose of answering research questions or testing hypotheses.
Phase 4 of Quantitative studies
Analytic phase: analyzing the data, interpreting the results
Burke's pentadic dramatism
Analyzes five elements of a story (example of narrative analysis) act, scene, agent, agency, purpose) meant to be analyzed in ratios
Which of the following is a true statement about anonymity or confidentiality? A. Anonymity means that the researcher agrees not to link the information collected with the subject when reporting study findings. B. Anonymity means that the subject's identity cannot be linked, even by the researcher, to data obtained. C. Confidentiality means that the subject has the right to determine the time and circumstances under which private information is shared. D. Confidentiality means that data obtained are known only to the researcher.
Anonymity means that the subject's identity cannot be linked, even by the researcher, to data obtained. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. To maintain anonymity, no one must be able to trace the data to the participant.
minimal risk
Anticipated risks that are no greater than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine tests or procedures
Sharing of qualitative findings with the pt. Ex: nurse is able to explain the phases of recovery from depression to her patient and to reassure her that is is not alone, that others have made it through a similar experience.
Anticipatory Guidance
Bias
Any influence that distorts the results of a study and undermines validity
Critical Appraisal
Appraisal by a nurse who is a knowledgable consumer of research, and who can appraise research evidence and use existing standards to determine the merit and readiness of research for use in clinical practice.
research problem
Area of concern in which there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for practice
What is the appropriate order for the five-step approach to analyzing research studies?
Ask, acquire, appraise, apply, assess
False negative
Assessment error in which no pathology is noted (that is, test results are negative) when one is actually present.
False positive
Assessment error in which pathology is reported (that is, test results are positive) when none is actually present.
Descriptions of trajectories of illness. Ex: Nurse is able to describe trajectory of recovery from depression, and can assess how her pt is moving through their trajectory.
Assessment of status or progress.
Demographic Variables
Attributes of subjects that are collected to describe the sample
The researcher should include enough information in the report to allow the reader to understand how the raw data lead to the interpretation. What does this demonstrate?
Auditability
What is the adequacy of information leading the reader from the research question and raw data to the interpretation of the findings?
Auditability-should be able to follow the reasoning of the researcher step-by-step.
In quantitative research, the purpose of control is to avoid: A. Duplication. B. Bias. C. Randomization. D. Homogeneity.
B. Bias. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. The researcher holds conditions of the study uniform to avoid possible impact of bias on the outcome. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Duplication is not a relevant term for describing rigor in the research process. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. Randomization is an aim of quantitative research, not something to be avoided. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Homogeneity of subjects is an aim of quantitative research, not something to be avoided.
When critiquing a qualitative study, which of the following questions are helpful in determining the study's auditability? (Select all that apply.) A. Has adequate time been allowed to understand the phenomenon fully? B. Can the reader follow the researcher's thinking? C. Are the results meaningful to individuals not involved in the research? D. Does the researcher document the research process?
B. Can the reader follow the researcher's thinking? C. Are the results meaningful to individuals not involved in the research?
What is the term used for the coding and clustering of data to form categories in the grounded-theory method? A. Theoretical sampling B. Constant-comparative method C. Emic method D. Metasynthesis
B. Constant-comparative method
Which paradigm provides the basis for qualitative research? A. Empirical analytical research B. Constructivism C. Postpositivism D. Naturalistic research
B. Constructivism. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. The paradigm that provides the basis for qualitative research is constructivism.
The nurse develops the following hypothesis: Elderly women receive less aggressive treatment for breast cancer than do younger women. Which variable would be considered to be the independent variable? A. Degree of treatment received B. Age of the patient C. Type of cancer being treated D. Incorrect Use of inpatient treatment
B. Correct Age of the patient Rationale (CORRECT): 2. The age of the patient would be the independent variable. Degree of treatment received Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. The degree of treatment rec
Which of the following hypotheses are indicative of an experimental research design? (Select all that apply.) A. Frequent irrigation of Foley catheters will be positively related to urinary tract infections. B. The incidence of urinary tract infections will be greater in patients whose Foley catheters are irrigated frequently than in those whose Foley catheters are irrigated less frequently. C. Frequent irrigation of Foley catheters is associated with urinary tract infections. D. The incidence of urinary tract infections will not differ between patients with or without Foley catheters.
B. Correct The incidence of urinary tract infections will be greater in patients whose Foley catheters are irrigated frequently than in those whose Foley catheters are irrigated less frequently. D. Correct The incidence of urinary tract infections will not differ between patients with or without Foley catheters.
What are characteristics of the literature review required for a quantitative research study? (Select all that apply.) A. The review is exhaustive and must include all studies conducted in the area B. Doctoral dissertations and masters' theses are excellent sources of information C. Computer-accessed materials are acceptable D. Primary sources are not as important as secondary sources
B. Doctoral dissertations and masters' theses are excellent sources of information C. Computer-accessed materials are acceptable
Which question will critique the auditability of a research project? A. Is the strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study? B. Does the researcher document the research process? C. Are the researcher's conceptualizations true to the data? D. Has adequate time been allowed to fully understand the phenomenon?
B. Does the researcher document the research process?
A researcher decides to use six people to help him collect data for a quantitative study. Which one of the following is potentially a threat to the internal validity of this study? A. History B. Instrumentation C. Maturation D. Selection effects
B. Instrumentation Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. History refers to events that occur outside the experimental setting. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. Maturation refers to developmental processes within subjects over time. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Selection bias occurs if precautions are not used to gain a representative sample.
What is a characteristic of metasynthesis? A. It is useful for triangulating research. B. It synthesizes critical masses of qualitative findings. C. It leads to a higher reliability of research findings. D. It cannot be conducted on historical or case study findings.
B. It synthesizes critical masses of qualitative findings.
Administration of an intervention to one group of subjects and not another is an example of: (Select all that apply.) A. Homogeneity of subjects. B. Manipulation of the independent variable. C. An experimental study. D. The introduction of bias.
B. Manipulation of the independent variable. C. An experimental study.
A nurse wants to study the effectiveness of meditation on people with anxiety disorder. Which variable would be most relevant to explore in the literature on this topic? A. Use of meditation during childbirth B. Meditation techniques found to be effective C. Pain management for people with anxiety disorders D. Outcomes of meditation when used by elderly populations
B. Meditation techniques found to be effective
What does a level-of-evidence model use to evaluate the strength of a research study and its findings? (Select all that apply.) A. Creativity B. Quality C. Quantity D. Consistency E. Efficiency
B. Quality C. Quantity D. Consistency
When should a hypothesis be developed by the researcher during the research process? A. Before development of the research question B. Correct After development of the research question C. After a research design is determined D. Before any statistical analysis
B. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. The hypothesis is developed after development of the research question.
A nurse, conducting a clinical trial, administers a pain medication to an experimental group and a placebo (sugar pill) to the control group. To her surprise, both groups experienced a significant reduction in pain. This may be due to: A. Maturation B. Reactivity C. Measurement effects D. Instrumentation
B. Reactivity
Why is it important to understand the philosophy underlying each type of research? A. Conclusions reached should be congruent with the research question. B. The research method that best meets intended purpose of the study should be used. C. The paradigm of the method should be the same as that of the researcher. D. The reader should understand the level of abstraction of the study.
B. The research method that best meets intended purpose of the study should be used. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. Different research methods accomplish different goals and offer different types and levels of evidence that inform practice.
How can qualitative outcome analysis be used? (Select all that apply.) A. To determine the reliability of intervention outcomes in a study B. To confirm the applicability of clinical strategies C. To develop interventions and then test those selected D. To build theory
B. To confirm the applicability of clinical strategies C. To develop interventions and then test those selected D. To build theory
What is the purpose of grounded theory? A. To support theoretical frameworks B. To generate theory from data C. To develop explanatory models D. To find significant differences among groups of people
B. To generate theory from data 1. The grounded theory method refers to a qualitative approach of building theory about a phenomenon about which little is known.
17. For which of the following research questions would qualitative methods be most appropriate? A. Which pain medications decrease the need for sleep medication in elderly patients? B. What is the meaning of health for migrant farm-worker women? C. Under what conditions does a decubitus ulcer heal most quickly? D. How does frequency of medication administration impact the degree of pain experienced following knee replacement surgery?
B. What is the meaning of health for migrant farm-worker women? Rationale (CORRECT): 2. This question seeks to explore a phenomenon (health) for a specific population.
Which question will critique the purpose of a research project? A. Is the strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study? B. What is the projected significance of the work to nursing? C. Are the informants who were chosen appropriate to inform the research? D. What are the philosophic underpinnings of the research method?
B. What is the projected significance of the work to nursing?
statistical significance
B/P: 160/90-150/90 significant but not clinically significant because B/P is 120/80
Reviews of the literature are conducted for PURPOSES OF RESEARCH as well as for the CONSUMER OF RESEARCH. How are these reviews similar? (Select all that apply.) A. Amount of literature required to be reviewed B. Degree of critical reading required C. Importance of conceptual literature D. Purpose of the review
B: Degree of critical reading required C: Importance of conceptual literature
Cause and effect relationship
BEST established with a randomized control trial
Which ethical principle is an obligation to do no harm and maximize possible benefits?
Beneficence
Which ethical principle specifies that persons must be respected and protected from harm?
Beneficence
Different people are compared (ex: men vs. women). This uses the Independent T-Test
Between Subjects Design
Which of the following would be classified as an in vivo biophysiologic measure
Body Temp
Way of reducing the impact of the researcher's biases on the themes. Journals the biases & discusses them w/ the co-researcher
Bracketing
2 Phenomenology Processes
Bracketing & Intuiting
Background for a Problem
Briefly identifies what we know about the problem area
What is a characteristic of an independent variable? A. It is the variable that is predicted to change. B. It varies with a change in the dependent variable. C. Correct It is manipulated by the researcher. D. It can be identified only by changes in the dependent variable.
C. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. It is the dependent variable that is predicted to change. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. The independent variable is presumed to change the dependent variable. Rationale (CORRECT): 3. The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher and has a presumed effect on the dependent variable. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher and is identified at the beginning of the study.
Which conceptual analysis point of the framework for rigor used for interpretive phenomenology refers to how the study findings will continue to have meaning for the reader? A. Resonance B. Concreteness C. Actualization D. Openness
C. Actualization
Which question will critique the sampling of a research project? A. Is the strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study? B. What is the projected significance of the work to nursing? C. Are the informants who were chosen appropriate to inform the research? D. What are the philosophic underpinnings of the research method?
C. Are the informants who were chosen appropriate to inform the research?
Subjects should demonstrate homogeneity with respect to which variables? A. Independent B. Dependent C. Extraneous D. Outcome
C. Extraneous
What is meant by the "fittingness" of a research study? A. Truth of findings as judged by the participants B. The appropriateness of the interview questions posed C. Faithfulness to everyday reality of the participants D. The adequacy of the coding system used
C. Faithfulness to everyday reality of the participants Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Credibility is the truth of findings as judged by the participants. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Auditability assists the reader to judge the appropriateness of the interview questions posed. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Auditability assists the reader to judge the adequacy of the coding system used.
For large experimental studies, conducting a pilot study helps the researcher determine the: A. Degree of internal control over dependent variables. B. Accuracy and objectivity of the design. C. Feasibility of the research design. D. Constancy of data collection.
C. Feasibility of the research design.
Which level is characteristic of the strength of the evidence provided by the results of a quasi-experimental study? A. Level I B. Level II C. Level III D. Level IV
C. Level III Rationale (CORRECT): 3. Evidence provided by quasi-experimental studies is level III. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Level I evidence is obtained from a systematic review of all randomized, controlled trials. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Level II evidence is obtained from at least one well-designed randomized, controlled trial. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Level IV evidence is obtained from nonexperimental studies.
What should be included in "scholarly literature"? (Select all that apply.) A. Research reports reported in primary sources only B. Conceptual and theoretical literature from primary sources only C. Published and unpublished reports of research D. Primary and secondary sources
C. Published and unpublished reports of research D. Primary and secondary sources
Which type of research allows researchers to be neutral observers? A. Qualitative research B. Ethnographic research C. Quantitative research D. Case studies
C. Quantitative research Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. In qualitative research, researchers are never considered neutral. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. In ethnography, a type of qualitative research, researchers are never considered neutral. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. In case studies, a type of qualitative research, researchers are never considered neutral.
When will a null hypothesis be rejected? A. There is no association among variables. B. There is evidence of significance. C. The independent and dependent variables are related. D. The research hypothesis is rejected.
C. Rationale (CORRECT): 3. Because the null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables, it is rejected if they are related.
What is the best source to use when conducting a level I systematic meta-analysis of the literature? A. An electronic database B. Doctoral dissertations C. The Cochrane Statistical Methods
C. The Cochrane Statistical Methods Group
Which one of the following statements is true about informed consent? A. This requirement is satisfied by giving a research participant a consent form. B. Data from patients' records can be used regardless of the willingness of the patient to participate if the data are kept confidential. C. The consent form must be written at an eighth-grade level. D. The presence of a witness is mandatory.
C. The consent form must be written at an eighth-grade level.
Objectivity in the conceptualization of the research question is derived from: A. A random sample of subjects. B. A control group. C. The review of literature. D. The selection of instruments to be used.
C. The review of literature. Rationale (CORRECT): 3. The review of the literature, as well as the theoretical framework, informs the researcher of the breadth and depth of available knowledge in the area. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Conceptualization of the research question occurs before sample selection. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Conceptualization of the research question occurs before sample selection. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Conceptualization of the research question occurs before instrument selection.
Internal validity asks: A. If the study is generalizable to the larger population B. If the Hawthorne effect affected the findings. C. Whether the independent variable really made the change in the dependent variable. D. Whether study findings are a result of measurement effects.
C. Whether the independent variable really made the change in the dependent variable.
Which EBP model offered insight into how and why nurses embrace research in clinical practice?
CURN model
Qualitative Writing Style
Can be personal, intimate, engaging, warm and clear / May write in 1st person / use rich, thick description, writing should be believable, realistic, ethically sound, and provide evidence for the "themes" identified / give participants their own voice
Intervention
Can be physiologic, psychosocial, educational, or combination of these.
Non-Experimental Research Disadvantages
Can't demonstrate cause/effect relationships
Indirect measures
Capturing elements of an abstract idea in order to partially measure it.
Simplest descriptive study
Case
Using the pyramid framework to organize various levels of healthcare information, which are on the bottom layer or base of the pyramid?
Case studies
These studies compare cases (like a pt w/ an injury) with/ a control (pt w/o the injury), comparison is made of the exposure to something suspected of causing the cases (like high-intensity training). Aka retrospective because they focus on conditions in the past that may have caused the subjects to become cases rather than controls
Case-Control Studies
Most quantitative research questions are about _____ & _____
Cause & Effect
Index of "typicalness" of a set of scores that comes from the center of the distribution
Central Tendency
Test that tests the difference in proportions in categories w/n a contingency table
Chi-Squared
Convenience sampling
Chooses individuals easiest to reach. Also called accidental sampling, it is a weak approach because it provides little opportunity to control for biases; subjects are included in the study merely because they happen to be in the right place at the right time.
In the systematic review, what must the author do at the beginning of the process?
Clarify the problem and the questions to be answered. Decide on inclusion and exclusion criteria for studies. Define the variables or concepts that are important to answering the questions.
Which type of theory systematically explains relationships among phenomena
Classical
An abstract generalization that systematically explains relationships among phenomena
Classical Theory
Algorithms
Clinical decison-making trees or figures nurses use when implementing research evidence in practice
5 sources of research problems?
Clinical experience, nursing literature, social issues, theories, external sources
Factor
Closely related variables that are grouped together.
Advising patients of the steps they can take to reduce distress or improve adjustment to an illness, according to the evidence in the study. Ex: nurse describes the 6 stages of recovery from depression to her pt, and in ongoing contact, points out how the pt is moving through the stages.
Coaching
When looking for systematic reviews what search engine should you use?
Cochrane review
Best research evidence
Comes from the conduct and synthesis of numerous, high quality studies in a health related area
Qualitative Research Findings
Communicate the findings!!! proud of findings so disseminate, publish, speak "get it out there"
In planning a change related to a potential safety concern for a patient, which phase of Kotter's change model would occur first?
Communicating a sense of urgency
Debreifing
Communicationg with study participants after participation is complete regarding aspects of the study
A nurse researcher develops the following research question: Do menopausal women who received daily doses of an herbal hormone treatment report a lesser number of hot flashes than women who did not receive the treatment? Which type of research question format is this considered to be?
Comparative
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Compare 3 or more samples to avoid error from multiple t-tests (each accepts 5% error). Enables detection of significant differences as a whole
One type of study's weakness is the other type's strength. Using this allows for a stronger study
Complementary
Conclusions
Complete a report and identify the outcome of the study
An image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea.
Concept
A study based on conceptual model (what is the framework called)
Conceptual Framework
Phase 1 of Quantitative studies
Conceptual Phase: Formulating the problem, reviewing literature, defining concepts, formulating hyptheses
This type of definition includes general meaning of a concept. Ex: To walk from place-to-place
Conceptual definition
Structure of concepts and/or theories that provides the basis for development of research questions or hypotheses
Conceptual or theoretical framework -For example in a study investigating the effect of a psychoeducational telephone counseling intervention on the quality of life (QoL) for breast cancer survivors, QOL was the conceptual framework used ot guide the identification and development of the study. -QOL was conceptually defined as "a multidimensional construct consisting of four domains: physical, psychosocial, social and spiritual well-being." -Each domain contributes to overall quality of life and was operationally defined as the score on the Quality of Life-Breast cancer survivors measurement instrument.
Researchers used an instrument to measure self-esteem in adolescent mothers. To measure the validity of this instrument, they used a second instrument known to measure self-esteem in women. What type of validity were they measuring?
Concurrent validity Rationale (CORRECT): 3. Concurrent validity refers to the degree of correlation of two measures of the same concept administered at the same time. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Predictive validity refers to the degree of correlation between the measure of the concept and some future measure of the same concept. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Face validity refers to expert verification that the instrument measures what it purports to measure. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Construct validity refers to the extent to which a test measures a theoretical construct or trait.
Indicate the upper & lower confidence limits & the probability that the population value is between those limits
Confidence Intervals
Evidence Based Practice
Conscientious and judicious use of current Best Evidence in conjunction with Clinical Expertise and Patient Values to guide health care decisions.
implied consent
Consent to participate in a study that a researcher assumes has been given based on participants actions, such as returning a completed questionnaire
Systematic variation (systematic bias)
Consequence of selecting subjects whose measurement values differ in some way from those of the population.
Theory Base
Consistent with existing theory and research findings.
Data-based literature
Consists of reports of research and includes published studies, usually in journals or books, and unpublished studies, such as master theses and doctoral dissertations.
What does validity concern?
Constant error
Sometimes two or more tools that theoretically measure the same construct are administered to the same subjects and a correlational analysis is performed. This is a strategy to test what type of validity?
Construct validity
Qualitative research is based on which paradigm
Constructivist / Naturalist
Complex Hypothesis
Contains more than one dependent or independent variable. Difficult for the findings to indicate unequivocally that the hypothesis is supported or not supported.
Types of variables (6)
Continuous Discrete Categorical Dichotomous Attribute Active
Fifty RN-to-BSN students attending the same nursing school is an example of which sampling method?
Convenience
Which type of sampling is most vulnerable to bias?
Convenience
Which measurement would a researcher use to test for reliability when the data are in Likert-scale response format?
Correct Chronbach's alpha Rationale (CORRECT): 1. Cronbach's alpha measures the homogeneity of an instrument with a Likert-type format.
In one study, the KR-20 coefficient was 0.01. What did this indicate?
Correct No correlation between the error variance, true variance, and observed score Rationale (CORRECT): 1. The lower the coefficient, the lower the correlation.
Why is nursing research valuable to the consumers of health care?
Correct Research provides evidence that nursing care makes a difference.
Guidelines for protection of human rights apply to all subjects involved in research activities. This is which one of the ANA Human Rights Guidelines? A. Responsibilities to support knowledge development. B. Informed consent C. Right to freedom from risk or harm D. Scope of application
Correct Scope of application Rationale (CORRECT): 4. The scope of application guideline states that the rights of all people involved in research must be protected.
Non-Experimental Ex-post facto Research (Correlational)
Correlation Research/ looks at relationships between variables after they've already occurred naturally / non manipulation, control, or randomization / do not show cause & effect
A nurse researcher develops the following research question: Is there a relationship between anxiety and body weight in premenopausal and postmenopausal women? Which type of research question format is this considered to be?
Correlational
What is the truth of findings as judged by participants and others within the discipline?
Credibility--the researcher returns to the participants to share interpretation of findings.
Literature Review
Critical examination of individual studies and systematic reviews to refine and focus the research question.
Research with Ideological Perspectives
Critical theory research: concerned with the critique of existing social structures / Feminist research: focuses on how gender domination shape women's lives / Participatory action research (PAR) knowledge through close collaboration with groups/communities
In what design are variables assessed once & the relationships between them are determined. The Data is collected @ a single point in time
Cross-Sectional Design
Design & Time Dimension
Cross-sectional studies and Longitudinal studies
Which of the following is an example of a primary source in a research study? A. A published commentary on the findings of another study B. A doctoral dissertation that critiques all research in the area of attention deficit disorder C. A textbook of medical-surgical nursing D. A journal article about a study that used large, previously unpublished databases generated by the United States census
D. A journal article about a study that used large, previously unpublished databases generated by the United States census Rationale (CORRECT): 4. This is a report of an original study, so it is the primary source of the study.
Which of the following phrases would be found in a report of a qualitative study? A. "The hypothesis of this study is ? ." Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. A study with a hypothesis is a quantitative study. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. A study that collects numeric data is a quantitative study. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. A study with a control group is a quantitative study. B. "Perceived pain was measured using the Abbott pain scale? ." C. "The control group received no instruction ? ." D. Correct "Subjects were asked to relate their perceptions of pain ? ." Rationale (CORRECT): 4. Data collected were perceptions of pain, not numeric data.
D. Correct "Subjects were asked to relate their perceptions of pain ? ." 4. Data collected were perceptions of pain, not numeric data. (INCORRECT): A."The hypothesis of this study is ? ." 1. A study with a hypothesis is a quantitative study. (INCORRECT): B."Perceived pain was measured using the Abbott pain scale? ." 2. A study that collects numeric data is a quantitative study. (INCORRECT): C."The control group received no instruction ? ." 3. A study with a control group is a quantitative study.
Which question will critique the credibility of a research project? A. Is the strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study? B. Does the researcher document the research process? C. Are the researcher's conceptualizations true to the data? D. Has adequate time been allowed to understand fully the phenomenon?
D. Has adequate time been allowed to understand fully the phenomenon?
A research study was underway looking at the frequency of mammograms in perimenopausal women. During the study a celebrity was diagnosed with breast cancer. The effect of this event on the research findings is called: A. Maturation B. Reactivity C. Constancy D. History
D. History This event occurred outside the experimental setting and may have had an effect on the dependent variable.
Control is defined as: A. Having a large sample size. B. Manipulating the dependent variable. C. Having a basis of comparison for each experimental group of subjects. D. Holding conditions of the study constant.
D. Holding conditions of the study constant.
Which of the following is most accurate regarding the grounded-theory method? A. Data are collected using an etic perspective. B. It is a process of constructing human experience. C. Secondary sources are sometimes used. D. It is an inductive approach.
D. It is an inductive approach. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Data are collected using the emic perspective. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. The grounded-theory method is a process of constructing theory from human experience. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. In grounded-theory only primary sources (the participants) are used.
Which research hypothesis is most testable? A. There is a relationship between meditation and anxiety disorders. B. Patients with anxiety disorders who learn meditation techniques have less anxiety than those who do not. C. Teaching one meditation technique to patients with anxiety disorders will be better than teaching multiple techniques. D. The ability to meditate causes lower anxiety in patients with anxiety disorder than those who do not meditate.
D. The ability to meditate causes lower anxiety in patients with anxiety disorder than those who do not meditate. Rationale (CORRECT): 4. This hypothesis meets the criteria of testability.
A researcher wants to discover why patients of certain ethnic backgrounds are reluctant to ask for pain medication. Because there are little data in the literature on this topic, the researcher designs a study to explore the relationships between cultural belief systems, the experience of pain, and the effective use of medication to relieve pain. The researcher plans to use the findings of this study to formulate hypotheses for a future study. What is a characteristic of this study? A. It is a quasi-experimental study. B. It will lead to level II data. C. It has a directional hypothesis. D. Correct It is a hypothesis-generating study.
D; Rationale (CORRECT): 4. Not enough is known in this area at this time to formulate hypotheses, so the researcher will conduct this qualitative study and use the findings to generate hypotheses for future studies. Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. This is a qualitative study, not a quasi-experimental study. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Level II evidence is obtained from at least one well-designed randomized, controlled trial. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. This study has no hypothesis.
Which type of research study can be affected by detracting values of the researcher? A. Qualitative B. Naturalistic C. Ethnographic D. Quantitative
D; quantitative Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. The values of the researcher must be acknowledged in qualitative research. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2.The values of the researcher must be acknowledged in naturalistic research. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. The values of the researcher must be acknowledged in qualitative research.
Electronic Index
Databases where literature is organized.
Probability Theory
Deductive, used to explain the extent of a relationship, the probability that an event will occur in a given situation, or the probability that an event can be accurately predicted.
Sampling plan/method
Defines the selection process
trustworthiness
Demonstration that the evidence for the results reported is sound and when the argument made based on the results is strong (qualitative research)
Rich, situated understanding of a multifaceted and varied human phenomenon in a unique situation; portray the full range and depth of complex influences; densely woven structure to findings.
Dense explanatory description
Variable that depends on other factors
Dependent Variable
Is often referred to as the consequence or the presumed effect that varies.
Dependent variable
Described the main sequence of an experience, but also shows how the experience varies, depending on the individual or context
Depiction of experimental variation
Operational Definition
Derived from a set of procedures or progressive acts that a researcher performs to receive sensory imoressions (such as sound, visual, or tactile impressions) that indicate the existence or degree of existence of a variable
Descriptive Phenomenology
Describes Human Experience: Questions "what is this experience like?" what were the lived experiences???
2 kinds of Phenomenology
Descriptive & Interpretive
Two Major kinds of Non-Experimental Research
Descriptive Research Ex-post facto (correlation) research
Theory that thoroughly describes a phenomenon based on rich observations of it
Descriptive Theory
Phenomenon is vividly portrayed from a new perspective; provides a map into previously uncharted territory in the human experience of health and illness.
Descriptive categories
Phase 2 of Quantitative studies
Design and Planning Phase: selecting research design, developing intervention protocols, identifying the population, specifying methods to measure and collect data
Qualitative Research Method 2
Design is emergent & interactive / NO IV, NO DV, NO hypotheses, no manipulation, control, or randomization Must be done with high ethical standards/ Process consent; confidentiality, etc. Must gain entrée (official entrance, unofficial acceptance / choose participants carefully, not randomly
Qualitative Sample Size (?)
Determine after the study is begun by data saturation / participants or interviewees, usually not called subjects, Usually don't have N or n
Simple Random Sampling
Determine eligibility criteria (for inclusion criteria), obtain/create a sampling frame / number the elements / selected the sample randomly by using a table of random numbers, pull names from a hat, or computer-generated random numbers
Power analysis
Determines the risk of a Type II error, and has four parameters: the level of significance, sample size, power, and effect size. Minimum acceptable power level is 0.80.
Evidence Based Practice Guidelines
Developed using a scientific process. Usually reflect research and non research evidence.
Regression analysis
Developing an equation that estimates the value of a dependent variable based on the value of an independent variable. Used to predict the value of one variable when the value of one or more other variables is known.
Nurses practicing on a unit have identified that they are uncomfortable with interpreting results of published research findings. What would be an approach to this problem?
Dissemination of findings in a more understandable manner
Phase 5 of Quantitative studies
Dissemination phase: communicating the findings, using them in practice
Range
Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.
Researchers administered one tool that measured the concept of hope and another that measured the concept of anxiety to the same group of subjects. The scores on the first instrument were negatively related to the scores on the second instrument. This is a measure of what type of validity?
Divergent validity
Descriptive Qualitative Studies
Do not claim any specific type of approach or disciplinary tradition, seek to holistically describe phenomena as they are perceived by the people who experience them.
In this type of study the experimenter also doesn't know which tx the subjects receive until all measures are taken
Double-Blind
Cluster Multistage Sample Advantage
Economical, can get a large sample at a relatively low cost
What is the Independent Variable
Effect
Phase 3 of Quantitative studies
Empirical Phase: collecting data, preparing data for analysis
What type of study focuses on scientific description and interpretation of cultural or social groups and systems? Ex: A nurse studied the culture of how elderly citizens used a senior center in North Philadelphia to access healthcare. She observed and interviewed 50 elders and focused especially on key informants.
Ethnographic studies
Explores cultural patterns & issues in a holistic fashion (cultural behavior)
Ethnography
Probability sampling
Every member (element) of the population has a probability higher than zero of being selected for the sample. To achieve this probability, the sample is obtained randomly.
Pre filtered Evidence
Evidence in which the editorial team has already read and summarized articles on a topic and appraised its relevance in clinical care.
Emperical evidence
Evidence rooted in objective reality and gathered using one's senses as the basis for generating knowledge
What helps minimize ethical dilemmas that arise when considering changes to healthcare practices, process, or policies?
Examining the cost-benefit ratio
According to Kotter's change model, which of the following provides the best example of a short-term win?
Exhibiting behaviors of the desired practice change
Extraneous Variables
Exist in all studies and can affect the measurement of study variables and the relationships among these variables
This is a broad design experiment w/ a randomized control trial
Experimental
Quantitative Design 3 Major Categories
Experimental Research, Quasi-Experimental Research, Non-Experimental Research
Which level of data is considered to be the "gold standard" in qualitative data?
Explanation of a complex human phenomenon
Negative Predictive Value
Expresses the proportion of those with negative test results who truly do not have disease.
Positive Predictive Value
Expresses the proportion of those with positive test results who truly have disease.
Generalization
Extends the findings from the sample under study to the larger population.
Construct validity
Extent to which a selection device measures the theoretical construct or trait (e.g., intelligence or mechanical comprehension).
Research misconduct
Fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, or other practices that deviate from those that are commonly accepted within the scientific community for conducting or reporting research
True or False; Reed's Self-Transcendence Theory is an example of a non-nursing model used by nurse researchers
False
True or False; Stratified sampling is assc w/ larger sampling error but is more efficient
False (it enhances representativeness)
Preliminary
Familiarizing yourself with the content-skimming the content.
Primary source
First hand reports of facts or findings; in research, the original report prepared by the investigator who conducted the study
The researcher provides enough detail in a qualitative research report for the reader to evaluate the relevance of the data to nursing practice. What is the researcher demonstrating?
Fittingness
What is the faithfulness to everyday reality of the participants, described in enough detail so that other disciplines can evaluate importance?
Fittingness
What is this an example of?: Are the findings applicable to other, similar situations? Are the results meaningful to nursing? IS that strategy used for analysis compatible with the purpose of the study? It is the faithfulness to everyday reality of the participants described in enough detail so that others in the discipline can evaluate importance for their own practice, research, and theory development.
Fittingness
Who was the first Nursing Theorist
Florence Nightingale
Integrative review
Focused review and synthesis of the literature on a specific area that follows specific steps of literature integration and synthesis without statistical analysis.
Outcomes research
Focuses on the end results of patient care with the purpose of appraising quality. The theory on which outcomes research is based was developed by Donabedian in 1987, with quality being the overriding construct of the theory.
Qualitative Research Method
Framed with the assumptions of the naturalistic paradigm - a holistic approach / NOT every study that uses interviews is qualitative / researcher explains & justifies his/her particular approach
A study based on theory (what is the framework called)
Framework Theory
How is evidence-based practice derived?
From research on patient outcomes
Opinion Leaders
From the local peer group, viewed as respected source of influence, considered by associates as technically competent, and trusted to judge the fit between innovation and the local situation.
An international effort to develop a universal evidence evaluation system is known as ____________; it ranks the strength and quality of evidence into four levels.
GRADE
Data Collection
Gathering information/ numbers, words / done in both quantitative and qualitative studies/ Methods vary in amount of structure and quantifiability
Conceptual Definition
General meaning of a concept.
Grounded Theorists
Glaser & Straus, also Straus & Corbin "new type of research"
What is the researcher's perspective in a case study?
Goes from Etic (researcher's perspective) to emic (insider's perspective)
A theory that attempts to explain large aspects of human experiences
Grand Theory
Frequencies can be illustrated using various types of ____________.
Graphs
Seeks to describe & understand key social & psychological & structural processes in social settings. The data is analyzed AS it's being collected, it uses the constant comparison method (ex: Glaser & Strauss)
Grounded Theory
Research traditions in Qualitative research
Grounded theory Phenomenological ethnographic
What is an inductive approach involving a systematic set of procedures to arrive at a theory about basic social processes? The emergent theory is based on observations and perceptions of the social scene and evolves during data collection and analysis as a product of the actual research process. Used to construct theory where no theory exists or in situations where existing theory fails to provide evidence to explain a set of circumstances.
Grounded theory method
Scatterplot
Has axis scales of horizontal (X axis) and vertical (Y axis).
Quality
Has three dimensions which include health, subjects of care, and providers of care.
Control
Having the power to direct or manipulate factors to achieve a desired outcome.
subjects may behave in a particular manner because they are aware of their participation in a study
Hawthorne Effect
Threats to Internal Validity
History threat, Selection threat, Maturation threat, Mortality threat
All items in a tool should measure the same concept or characteristic. What is this called?
Homogeneity
All of the items in an instrument measure the same concept or characteristic?
Homogeneity
What attribute of an instrument is the KR-20 coefficient measuring?
Homogeneity Rationale (CORRECT): 3. The Kuder-Richardson (KR-20) coefficient is used to estimate the homogeneity of instruments with a dichotomous response format.
4 Concepts central to models of Nursing;
Humans, Environment, Health, Nursing
formal statement of the expected relationship(s) between two or more variables in a specified population
Hypothesis
Directional Hypothesis
Hypothesis that specifies the expected direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
problem statement
ID the specific gap in knowledge needed for practice
Knowledge Focused Triggers
Ideas generated when staff read research, listen to scientific papers at research conferences, or encounter evidence based practice guidelines published by federal agencies or specialty organizations.
Problem Focused Triggers
Identified by staff through quality improvement, risk surveillance, benchmarking data, financial data, or recurrent clinical problems.
Problem Statement
Identifies the specific gap in the knowledge needed for practice
Degrees of freedom
Important for calculating statistical procedures and interpreting the results using statistical tables.
Performed outside the organism's body (ex: UA)
In Vitro
Performed directly on living organisms (ex: BP)
In Vivo
Biophyysiologic Measures
In Vivo Measures and In Vitro Measures
process concent
In a qualitative study, an ongoing, transactional process of negotiating consent with participants, allowing them to collaborate in the decision making about their continued participation
Respondants
In a self report study, the person responding to questions posted by the researcher
Dependent Variable
In experimental studies, the presumed effect of the independent or experimental variable on the outcome.
Reflexivity
In qualitative studies, critical self reflection about one's own biases, preferences, and preconceptions
Inference
In research, a conclusion drawn from the study evidence, taking into account the methods used to generate that evidence
Research Concepts
Include the ideas, experiences, situations, or events that are investigated in qualitative research
Stetler Model: Phase 3 (Comparative Evaluation)
Includes 4 parts: 1) substantiation of the evidence, 2) fit of the evidence with the healthcare setting, 3) feasibility of using research findings, 4) concerns with current practice
Health
Includes aspects of physical-physiological function, psychological function, and social function.
Theoretical literature
Includes concept analyses, models, theories, and conceptual frameworks that support a selected research problem and purpose.
Integrative review of research
Includes the identification, analysis, and synthesis of research findings from independent quantitative and sometimes qualitative studies to determine the current knowledge (what is known and not known) in a particular area
Variable that stands alone & doesn't change by other variables you're trying to measure
Independent Variable
Identify the independent/dependent variable: It might be assumed that the perception of pain intensity will vary in relation to a person's gender.
Independent Variable: Gender Dependent Variable: The perception of pain intensity
Which variable has the presumed effect on the other variable?
Independent variable
Nondirectional Hypothesis
Indicates the existence of a relationship between variables but does not specify the anticipated direction of the relationship.
Significance of a Research Problem
Indicates the importance of the problem to nursing and healthcare and the health of individuals, families, and communities
Percentage distribution:
Indicates the percentage of subjects in a sample whose scores fall into a specific group. They are useful for comparing the present data with findings from other studies that have difference sample sizes.
Decision theory
Inductive, assumes that all the groups in the study used to test a particular hypotheses are components of the same population relative to the variables under study. This expectation is traditionally expressed as a null hypothesis.
Research Design
Information about the research design usually appears early in the method section of a research article
Meta Synthesis
Integrates qualitative research findings on a topic and is based on comparative analysis and interpretive synthesis.
Case study design
Intensive exploration of a single unit of study, such as a person, family, group, community, or institution.
Does Invalid measures that produce unreliable or invalid estimates of the relationship between variables affect internal or external validity?
Internal validity
Which reliability measures are considered to be tests of equivalence?
Interrater reliability Parallel, or alternate form, reliability
Conceptual model
Interrelated concepts or abstractions assembled together ina rational scheme by virtue of their relevance to a common theme; sometimes called conceptual framework
A nurse educator has conducted a study regarding test scores. This data represents which type of measurement?
Interval
Which level of measurement uses a continuum of numeric values that have meaning and are spaced equally apart?
Interval
The ____________ is often the key source of data in qualitative research.
Interview
Analysis phase
Involves a critical appraisal of the logical links connecting one study element with another.
Stetler Model: Phase 1 (Preparation)
Involves determining the purpose, focus, and potential outcomes of making an evidence based change in a clinical agency
Evaluation phase
Involves examination of the meaning and significance of the study findings, building on the conclusions reached during the first three phases.
Stetler Model: Phase 4 (Translation/Application)
Involves planning for and actual use of the research evidence in practice. Involves determining exactly what knowledge will be used and how that knowledge will be applied to practice.
Sampling
Involves selecting a group of people, events, behaviors or other elements with which to conduct a study
Which EBP model explains how organizations change practice?
Iowa model
Experimental research question
Is there a difference in Y (dependent variable) between group A who received X (independent variable) and group B who did not receive X?
Comparative research question
Is there a difference in Y (dependent variable) between people who have X characteristic and those who did not have X characteristic?
Correlational research question
Is there a relationship between X (independent variable) and y (dependent variable) in the specified population?
By whom was the historical origin of the first code of ethics developed?
Isabel Hampton Robb. Rationale (CORRECT): 4. In 1900 Isabel Hampton Robb wrote Nursing Ethics: For Hospital and Private Use to describe moral laws by which people must abide.
The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research identified three ethical principles relevant to the conduct of research involving human subjects. Which principle is included along with respect for person and beneficence?
Justice
Which ethical principle is the requirement to treat human subjects fairly?
Justice
Which ethical principle is violated when a benefit to which a person is entitled is denied without good reason or when a burden is imposed unduly?
Justice
Which measurement would a researcher use to test for reliability when the data are in dichotomous ("yes/no") format?
KR-20 coefficient Rationale (CORRECT): 2. The KR-20 coefficient is used to estimate the homogeneity of instruments.
Data collected from an experimental study where subjects were randomly selected are an example of what level of study?
Level II
Consists of several declarative statements (items) expressing viewpoints Responses are on a agree/disagree continuum (w/ usually 5-7 response options). The responses to items are summed to compute a total scale score
Likert Scale
Sampling criteria
List of characteristics essential for eligibility or membership in the target population. Can include inclusion sampling criteria or Exclusion sampling criteria, and can be homogenous (similar samples) or heterogeneous (range of values on the variables being studies).
Systematic and critical appraisal of the most important literature on a topic, is a key step in the research process that provides the basis of a research study.
Literature Review
Experimental studies where data is collected two or more times over an extended period (ex: before & after a tx)
Longitudinal (or Repeated-Measures)
Which of the following would be an advantage of using a questionnaire
Lower Cost
Nominal-scale measurement
Lowest of the levels; categories that are not more or less than each other, just different; mutually exclusive, exhaustive categories (options cover every possibility) EX: Gender, Ethnic Background, Race etc
3 Hallmarks (Requirements) of Experimental Research
MUST HAVE Manipulation, Control or a Control Group, and Randomization of Subjects/Participants
Qualitative Research Data Collection
MUST be rigorous / multiple forms of data, individual interviews, focus group interviews, observation, documents / adequate detailed explanation of data: words, may find a few tables with numbers
2 Types of Ethnographies
Macro-ethnography & Micro-ethnography
Recommendations for further study
May include replications or repeating the design with a different or larger sample, using different measurement methods, or testing a new treatment.
Equals the sum of all scores divided by the total number of scores
Mean
What is the most stable & widely used indicator of Central Tendency
Mean
Mode
Measure of central tendency that uses most frequently occurring score.
Ordinal-scale measurement
Measurement yielding data that can be ranked, but the intervals between the ranked data are not necessarily equal, such as levels of coping.
Point in a distribution above which & below which 50% of cases fall
Median
What is the Confounding Variable
Mediator
Where can you find individual original (RCTs) studies?
Medline and CINAHL (lower level of the information resource pyramid) Randomized clinical trials
Which type of literature review combines the results of studies into a measurable format and statistically estimates the effects of proposed interventions?
Meta-analysis
A theory that focuses on a specific aspect of human experience. Reed's Self-Transcendence Theory
Middle Range Theory
Most frequently occurring score in a distribution
Mode
Nursing educators are reviewing scores from an examination to determine what score occurred most frequently. Which measure of central tendency are they seeking?
Mode
What does most qualitative research start with
Model
Translation of Research into Practice TRIP
Multifaceted, systemic process of promoting adoption of evidence based practices in delivery of health care services that goes beyond dissemination of evidence based guideline.
Qualitative Research Designs: Other Types
Narrative analysis, Case studies, Historical Research, Research with Ideological perspectives (critical theory, feminist research, participatory action research (PAR)
Forms of integrative reviews
Narrative, qualitative integration Meta-analysis Metasynthesis
One variable increases in value as the other decreases (ex: amount of exercise & wt) 0.00 to -1.00
Negative Relationship
Non-experimental study
No manipulation of independent variables
Drake Inspirational Quote
No new friends, no new friends, no new friends, no no new. I still ride with my day one *****s, I don't really need no new friends, no new friends, no new friends, no no new.
Which level of measurement is the weakest?
Nominal
Marital Status
Nominal data
What are the four categories (levels) used to describe measurements?
Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
An observational study aka Descriptive (researchers do not intervene by controlling the independent variable)
Non-Experimental
Is this directional or non-directional? A relation exists between women's reproductive, nutritional, and body composition, and activity factors and the amount of C-reactive protein in NAF.
Non-directional --indicates the presence of a relationship between variables, but it does not specify the anticipated direction of the relationship.
Placing the tubing of an indwelling urinary catheter in a coil on the bed is knowledge derived mainly from which type of knowledge?
Nonpropostitional
States there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Null hypothesis
Retrospective
Observance of independent and dependent variables Study begins with dependent variable and looks backwards for cause or influence
Prospective
Observance of independent and dependent variables Study begins with dependent variable and looks forward for the effect
As part of a study on sodium intake, a nurse researcher at a fast food restaurant counts the number of people who salt their food. Which data collection method is being used?
Observation
Type II error
Occurs when the null hypothesis is regarded as true but is in fact false (False-Negative). There is greater risk of a Type II error when the level of significance is higher (Ex. 0.01 instead of 0.05). They are often caused by flaws in research methods.
Qualitative Research Questions
Often limited in number, broadly focused, and inclusive of variables or concepts that are more complex and abstract than those of quantative studies.
Testable Hypothesis
One that clearly predicts the relationships among variables and contains variables that are measurable or able to be manipulated in a study
Qualitative Research Question
Open- Broad usually refined during the study "emergent design" result will be about the question that evolved ...not the broad question that started the investigation / things evolve
This type of definition includes the method used to measure the concept. Ex: Taking 4 steps w/out assistance
Operational definition
Level 7
Opinion of authorities and/or reports of expert committees.
In a study that examines the amount of empathy communicated by participants, which level of measurement would be used?
Ordinal
Which level of measurement uses a continuum of numeric values running from low to high at inequal intervals
Ordinal
What is the Dependent Variable
Outcome
What does PICOT stand for?
P- patient population I- Intervention of issue C- Comparison intervention O- Outcome T- time frame
PICO format to generate research questions for EBP
P: Problem/pt populations; specifically defined group I: Intervention; what interventions or event will be studied? C: Comparison of intervention: with what will the intervention be compared? O: Outcome; what is the effect of the intervention?
Philosophical beliefs, a world view
Paradigm-all research is based off a paradigm.
Which reliability measure is considered to be a test of equivalence?
Parallel, or alternate-form, reliability
Which reliability measures are considered to be tests of stability? (Select all that apply).
Parallel, or alternate-form, reliability CorrectTest-retest reliability
What does it mean that the sampling is purposive?
Participants are chosen b/c they are experiencing the phenomena.
What occurs when no decision is made regarding adopting an innovation and old practices are continued?
Passive rejection
Tests the relationship between the two variables is NOT zero (Deals w/ Correlation)
Pearson's R
Ethnography Data Collection seeks 3 things
People's behavior - what is DONE / Artifacts - what is MADE & USED / Speech- what is SAID
Explores everyday lived experiences w/ humans. Seeks essence of phenomenon
Phenomenology
Saturation of information
Phenomenon that occurs when additional sampling provides no new information, or there is redundancy of previously collected data. Sample size in a qualitative study is determined when saturation of data occurs.
A nurse researcher measures participants' blood pressure readings early in the morning and late evening and compares the two readings. Which data collection method is being used?
Physiological measurement
Both variables increase (ex: calorie consumption & wt) 0.00 to +1.00
Positive Relationship
What is the philosophy underlying quantitative research?
Positivism and postpositivism
Clinical practice guidelines
Practice guidelines that are evidence based, combinging a synthesis and appraisal of research evidence with specific recommendations for clinical decisions
Predictive correlational design
Predicts value of one variable (dependent) based on values obtained for other (independent) variable.
Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research
Principle of respect for human dignity (right to self-determination, right to full disclosure) / Principle of Justice (right to fair treatment, right to privacy)
What should be your first choice when looking for theoretical, clinical or research articles?
Print resources-Refereed or peer-review journals. Means that the journal has been submitted and reviewed by a panel of internal/external experts on the topic for possible publication.
Random selection of the sample is a primary characteristic of which sampling method?
Probability
Involves random selection of elements from a population. Random sample where each has the same chance of being selected
Probability Sampling
Representative Samples are more easily achieved by...
Probability sampling, homogeneous populations, & larger samples
Systematic Review
Process where investigators find all relevant studies, published and unpublished, on the topic or question, at least two members of the review team independently assess the quality of each study, include or exclude studies based on preestablished criteria, statistically combine the results of individual studies, and present a balanced and impartial evidence summary of findings that represents a "state of science" conclusion about evidence supporting benefits and risk of a given health care practice.
Control Event Rate
Proportion of patients in a control group in which an event was observed.
Experimental Event Rate
Proportion of patients in experimental treatment groups in which an event is observed.
Causal Hypothesis
Proposes a cause-and-effect interaction between 2 or more variables, which are referred to as independent and dependent variables
Associative Hypothesis
Proposes relationships among variables that occur or exist together in the real world, so that when one variable changes, the other changes
A nurse newly assigned to work in a coronary step-down unit seeks evidence for best practice in assisting clients and families with coping strategies post-MI. Which type of knowledge would be obtained from findings reported in published research studies?
Propositional
In what design are variables assessed @ the start of the study (like dietary habits), then after a period of time the outcomes are determined (like incidence of heart dz). Another label of this is Longitudinal
Prospective/Cohort Design
anonymity
Protection of participants confidentiality such that even the researcher cannot lnk individuals with the data they provided
Confidentiality
Protection of study participants so that the data provided are never publicly divulged
Qualitative metasynthesis
Provides a fully integrated, novel description or explanation of a target event or experience versus a summary view of that event or experience
Evaluation
Provides an opportunity to collect and analyze data with the regard to use of a new evidence based practice and then to modify the practice as necessary.
Iowa Model of EBP
Provides direction for development of EBP
Negative Likelihood Ratio
Provides the clinician with a high degree of certainty that the patient does not have the disease.
Positive Likelihood Ratio
Provides the clinician with a high degree of certainty that the patient has the suspected disorder.
Stetler Model of Research Utilization to Facilitate EBP
Provides the comorehensive framework to enhance EBP
Conceptual Definition
Provides the theoretical meaning of a variable and often is derived from a theorist's definition of a related concept
Review of literature
Provides you with the current theoretical and scientific knowledge about a particular problem, enabling you to synthesize what is known and not known.
No or limited exposure to research in basic nursing programs is a barrier to connecting research to practice. What actions can help in overcoming this barrier?
Providing educational opportunities for nurses to learn about EBP
Historical Research
Purpose & Questions: clear research questions, clear aim of study, appropriate for qualitative research / Must be relevant to nursing, Immersion into historiography
concise, clear statement of the specific goal or aim of the study that is generated from the research problem
Purpose statement
A qualitative study investigating the lived experience of women under the age of 25 who survived a liver transplant is an example of which sampling method?
Purposive
Guided by research questions and data are collected from a small number of subjects allowing an in depth study of phenomenon
Qualitative
Naturalism is _______
Qualitative
Self Report: Semi-structured interviews
Qualitative- list of topics to cover, written topic guide / may be done 1-on-1 or in focus groups
Self Report: Unstructured Interviews
Qualitative- used in unexplored areas, a purposeful conversation, researcher as instrument (ethnography & phenomenology
Variables
Qualities, properties, or characteristics of persons, things, or situations that change or vary
Describes phenomena seeks to test hypothesis/ answer research questions using statistical methods
Quantitative
Positivism is _______
Quantitative
Self Report: Structured Methods
Quantitative- Surveys, interview schedule, questionnaires, Scales (Likert, Semantic differential scales, Visual analog scales, Q Sorts)
Broad design experiment that is a controlled trail w/o randomization
Quasi-Experimental
Level 3
Quasiexperimental study -Controlled trial WITHOUT randomization
Qualitative Research Literature Review
Question: do you do it before the study? some say yes- it will give direction/ some say no- will bias you / Researcher wants to avoid bias / knowledge screens the sound the third ear hears, so we hear only what we know (Kurtz 1989) Seeks EMIC perspective
Test that tests difference between two means w/n subjects (ex: faculty salary vs. RN rank salary)
RM-ANOVA
An example of an accessible population is
RN-to-BSN students at one university.
3 criteria for Experimental Design
Randomization, Control, & Manipulation
A type of study nurses are likely to appraise is the ____________, which is often found in the nursing literature and is important to the advancement of EBP.
Randomized controlled trial
Systematic Sampling
Randomly order sampling frame
Confidence Interval
Range of values, based on random sample of the population that often accompanies measures of central tendency and measures of association and provides you with a measure of precision or uncertainty about sample findings.
What is a characteristic of a hypothesis? A. It flows from interpretation of the data collected. B. It operationally defines the variable to be studied. C. It eliminates the need to designate a dependent variable. D. It implies a causative or associative relationship.
Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. A hypothesis guides the research design and collection of data. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Operational definitions are not included in the hypothesis. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. The hypothesis indicates the dependent variable. D. Correct It implies a causative or associative relationship. Rationale (CORRECT): 4. A hypothesis implies a causative or associative relationship.
Which statement is most accurate regarding hypotheses? A. Hypotheses operationally define the dependent variables. B. Hypotheses are statements about the relationships among variables. C. Hypotheses describe the effect of the dependent variable on the independent variable. D. Hypotheses must include a definition of the treatment or intervention used.
Rationale (INCORRECT): 1. Hypotheses are not concerned with operationally defining the variables involved in the study. B. Correct Hypotheses are statements about the relationships among variables. Rationale (CORRECT): 2. Hypotheses are statements about the relationships between two or more variables that suggest an answer to the research question. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. The independent variable is not affected or changed by the dependent variable. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Hypotheses are not concerned with operationally defining the variables involved in the study, including treatments or interventions.
Which of the following influences the decision to adopt a specific innovation in practice?
Reduction of uncertainty
Refereed or peer-reviewed journals
Refeered or peer-reviewed journals have a panel of internal and external reviewers who review submitted manuscripts for possible publication. The external reviewers are drawn from a pool of nurse scholars, and possibly scholars from other related disciplines who are experts in various specialties. In most cases, the reviews are "blind"; that is, the manuscript to be reviewed does not include the name of the author(s).
As students what should be our first choice when looking for theoretical, clinical, or research articles?
Refereed or peer-reviewed journals
Sample whose key characteristics closely approximate those of the population- a sampling goal in quantitative research
Representative Sample
Basic research
Research designed to extend the base of knowledge in a discipline for the sake of knowledge production or theory consturction, rather than for solving an immediate problem
Applied research
Research designed to find a solution to an immediate practical problem
Clinical Nursing Research
Research designed to generate knowledge to guide health care practice
Inervention research
Research involving the development, implementation, and testing of an intervention
Quasi-experimental design
Research method similar to an experimental design except that it makes use of naturally occurring groups rather than randomly assigning subjects to groups.
A statement about the expected relationship of the variables
Research or scientific hypothesis
Purposive Sampling
Researcher consciously and purposefully selects certain subjects because they are the most information / most representative of the group being studies / often used in qualitative research
Manipulation
Researcher introduces an intervention or treatment (IV), he does something / manipulates the IV to assess its impact on the DV
Which ethical principle states that people have the right to self-determination and to treatment as autonomous agents?
Respect for persons
Which ethical principle would be violated if a person was not given the freedom to participate or not participate in research?
Respect for persons
Which ethical principle would be violated if a person with diminished autonomy was not given protection?
Respect for persons
Discovery has aborted because the researcher has obscured the findings with an existing theory.
Restricted by a priori (existing theory) frameworks
Which basic human right states that individual identities of subjects will not be linked to the information they provide and will not be publicly divulged?
Right to anonymity and confidentiality
When research participation is a condition of employment, nurses must be informed in writing about the nature of the activity involved in advance of employment. This is which one of the ANA Human Rights Guidelines?
Right to self-determination
Which basic human right states that justification for use of vulnerable subjects must be provided?
Right to self-determination
Relative Risk
Risk of event after experimental treatment as a percentage of original risk.
Qualitative Research Designs - Phenomenology
Roots: philosophy & psychology / "lived experience" Assumes there is an essence Goal: To describe & uncover the meaning "the essence" & illuminate everyday living
Qualitative Research - Grounded Theory
Roots: sociology/symbolic interactions- people & their actions cannot be separated Assumes: it is possible to find patterns in all of social life. Goal: to research social processes & develop theory / Theory development that is grounded in the data
Non-Probability Sampling 2
Sample may not be representative of the population/ Allows for the possibility that something other than chance is affecting the representativeness of your sample (used in Quantitative and Qualitative studies
Non-Probability Sampling
Samples are selected by non-random methods / if used in an experimental design must be random assignment / elements in the population do not have an equal chance (probability) of being selected
The systematic over-or-underrepresentation of segments of the population on key variables when the sample is NOT representative
Sampling Bias
Applied Research
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Secondary source
Second hand accouns of events or facts; in research , a description of a study prepared by someone other than the original researcher
Sampling
Selecting a group of people, events, behaviours, or other elements with which to conduct a study.
Data Collection Methods include ......
Self Reports, Observation, and Biophysiologic Measures
Theory
Set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena for the purpose of explaining and making predictions about those phenomena.
6 Elements of Research Design include
Setting (where), Subjects (who, characteristics, inclusion criteria), sampling (how selected), Treatments/intervention (yes or no), Data collection (measure how, what), Analysis of the data (how)
In the phemenological approach, what does it mean for the researcher's persepctive to be bracketed?
Setting aside own biases to prevent the leading the participants to issues deemed important to the researcher.
Synthesis of a shared experience of process; integration of concepts that provides a complex picture of a phenomenon.
Shared pathway or meaning
Quota Sampling
Similar to STRATEFIED RANDOM SAMPLING but subjects are chosen by convenience, not randomly / population divided into strata groups/ convenience samples (as opposed to random samples) are chosen from each stratum
Chi square test of independence
Similar to correlation, but can be used to examine nominal and ordinal scaled data. Tests the likelihood that the scores came from 2 independent (unrelated variables) the higher the chi squared (x^2) the less likely that are independent and the more likely they are related.
Standardized scores
Simply represents the number of standard deviations the observed value or score falls from the mean.A common standardized score is a Z-score, which expresses deviations from the mean.
Grounded Theory - Data Analysis
Simultaneous data collection, coding & analysis / Themes suggest additional data needed (causing themes to emerge), Constant comparison method, an emerging (inductive) process
Qualitative Analysis/Interpretation
Simultaneous with data collection / documents your thought process, stop collection/analysis/interpretation at data saturation Trustworthiness of the data and interpretation of the data
Level 6
Single descriptive or QUALITATIVE studies
Level 4
Single non-experimental study (case-control, correlational, cohort studies.
Subjects are blind/masked to the identity of the tx
Single-Blind
Setting
Site or location used to conduct a study, can be natural, partially controlled, and highly controlled.
Phenomenology Data Collection 2
Small # of participants (usually 10 or less), researcher as instrument, continue to data saturation
Response set biases with Scales
Social Desirability (say what's politically correct, not what they really think), Extreme (always say SA or SD), Acquiescence: tend to agree with everything
Variable
Something that varies. Example age, weight, height, religion, and ethnicity.
Operational Definition
Specifies how the concept will be measured.
Assumptions
Statements that are taken for granted or considered true, even though they have not been scientifically tested.
Nondirectional Hypothesis
States that a relationship exists but does not predict the nature of the relationship
Statistical Hypothesis
States that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables also known as the Null Hypothesis.
Directional Hypothesis
States the nature (positive or negative) of the interaction between 2 or more variables
Simple Hypothesis
States the relationship (associative or causal) between 2 variables
Complex Hypothesis
States the relationships (associative or causal) among 3 or more variables
Meta-analysis
Statistically pools the results from previous studies into a single quantitative analysis that provides the highest level of evidence for an interventions efficacy
Which EBP model provides individual practitioners with step-by-step instructions for integrating research into practice?
Stetler model
Sixteen health policy interest groups in the state of Alabama is an example of which sampling method?
Stratified
Research based protocols
Structured guidelines for implementing nursing interventions in practice that are based on current research evidence
When nurses appraise evidence, what do they review and evaluate to ensure that a study was sound?
Study design, how the research was conducted, and the data analysis
Which one of the following situations is an example of coercion? A. People become research subjects and are exposed to research treatments without being aware of it. B. Subjects are misinformed about the purpose of the research. C. Subjects feel that their case will be adversely affected if they refuse to participate in a research study. D. Subject responses can be linked with their identity.
Subjects feel that their case will be adversely affected if they refuse to participate in a research study.
Research Utilization
Subset of evidence based practice that focuses on the application of research findings.
Sample
Subset of the population
Meta-analysis
Summarizes a number of studies focused on a topic using a specific statistical methodology to synthesize the findings in order to draw conclusions about the area of focus.
Integrative Review
Synthesis review of the literature on a specific concept or topic.
Nursing Research
Systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession
Research
Systematic inquiry that uses orderly methods to answer questions or solve problems
Level 1
Systematic review or meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
Level 5
Systematic reviews of descriptive and QUALITATIVE studies
Clinical Guidelines
Systematically developed practice statements designed to assist clinicians about health care decisions for specific conditions or situations.
Test that tests the difference between two means
T-Test
Which reliability measure is considered to be a test of stability?
Test-retest reliability
Which tests are used to estimate the stability of an instrument? (Select all that apply):
Test-retest reliability Parallel reliability
Purpose
That which encompasses the aims or objectives the investigator hopes to achieve with the research, not the question to be answered.
Concepts/phenomena
The abstract concept under study; a term sometimes used by qualitative researchers in lieu of the term variable
Conceptual definition
The abstract or theoretical meaning of a concept under study
Citation
The act of quoting a source, using it as an example, or presenting it as support for a position taken.
Dissemination
The act of spreading something. Example publications, conferences, consultations, and training programs.
Fieldwork
The activities undertaken by qualitative researchers to collect data out in the field, i.e., in natural settings
Assent
The affirmative agreement of members of a vulnerable group to participate in a study
Research Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis to the null hypothesis and states that a relationship exists between 2 or more variables
Symmetrical
The analysis gives no indication of the direction of the relationship.
Independent Variable
The antecedent of the variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable.
The art of nursing based on informal sources and practical experience is ____________ knowledge.
The art of nursing based on informal sources and practical experience is ____________ knowledge.
Determinism
The belief that phenomena are not haphazard or random, but rather have antecedent causes; an assumption in the positivist paradigm
Sample size
The broader the scope of the research question, the more participants will likely be needed If participants are good informants, less people are needed for data collection if longitudinal data, less participants are needed because more information can be provided from every participant
Power
The capacity of the study to detect differences or relationships that actually exist in the population, and the capacity to correctly reject a null hypothesis.
Hawthorne Effect
The central idea behind the Hawthorne effect is that changes in participants' behavior during the course of a study may be "related only to the special social situation and social treatment they received."
Full disclosure
The communication of complete, accurate information to potential study participants
Equivalence
The comparison of two versions of the same paper and pencil instrument or of two observers measuring the same event.
Framework
The conceptual underpinnings of a study
Evidence based practice (EBP)
The conscientious integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values and needs in the delivery of quality, cost-effective health care
Interrater reliability
The consistency of repeated measurements of the same observation by different raters.
Stability
The consistency of repeated measures of the same attribute with the use of the same scale or instrument. Often referred to as test-retest reliability.
Trustworthiness
The degree of confidence qualitative researchers have in their data and analyses, assessed using the criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, and authenticity
Precision
The degree of consistency or reproducibility of measurements made with physiological instruments. Comparable to reliability.
reliability
The degree to which a measurement is free from measurement error; its accuracy and consistencey
Consistency
The degree to which other studies, with similar or different designs, investigating the same research question report similar findings.
Effect size
The degree to which the phenomenon is present in the population, or the degree to which the null hypothesis is false.
Generalizability
The degree to which the research methods justify the inference that the findings are true for a broader group than study participants; in particular, the inference that the findings can be generalized from the sample to the population
deception
The deliberate witholding of information, or the provision of false information, to study participants usually to reduce potential biases
Structures of care
The elements of organization and administration that guide the processes of care.
Kuder-Richardson (KR-20) coefficient (Dichotomous Response)
The estimate of homogeneity used for instruments that have dichotomous response format. (One in which the question asks for a yes/no or T/F response.
Random variation
The expected difference in values that occurs when different subjects from the same sample are examined. As sample size increases, random variation decreases which improves representativeness.
Quality
The extent to which a study's design, implementation, and analysis minimizes bias.
Implementation potential
The extent to which an innovation is amenable to implementation in a new setting, an assessment of which is often made in an evidence based practice project
Confounding Variables
The extraneous variables that are not recognized until the study is in process, or are recognized before the study is initiated but cannot be controlled
independent variable
The factor that is manipulated. variable whose effect is being studied
Clinical Question
The first step in development of an evidence based practice project. Have four components that consist of Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome.
What is the goal of community-based research methods?
The goal is to identify a problem (often in an oppressed group), collect and analyze data, and then formulate solutions to effect social or political transformation.
What are the "aims of inquiry"?
The goals of the research study
Metasynthesis
The grand narratives or interpretive translations produced from the integration or comparison of findings from qualitative studies.
What attempts to answer the research question
The hypothesis
Probability
The likelihood that a particular event will occur. A cause may not produce a specific effect each time that a particular cause occurs, therefore need to address relative rather than absolute causality.
A researcher is attempting to reduce error so nurses can have confidence in inferring findings to another practice setting by avoiding a type I error. What occurs in a type I error?
The null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted
Quantity
The number of studies that have evaluated the research question, including overall sample size across studies, as well as the strength of the findings from data analyses.
Dependent Variable
The outcome or response that the researcher wants to predict or explain
Site
The overall location where a study is undertaken
What is the overall purpose of the literature review?
The overall purpose of the literature review is to present a strong knowledge base for the conduct of the research study.
Setting
The physical location and conditions in which data collection takes place in a study
data/data set
The pieces of information obtained in a study
Sampling plan
The plan for selection of the study participants proposed prior to the beginning of the study; it specifies the eligibility criteria, the sample selection process, and, in the case of quantitative studies, the number of subjects to be used.
Accessible population
The portion of the target population to which the researcher has reasonable access
Power:
The probability that a statistical test will detect a significant difference that exists.
Qualitative research synthesis
The process and product of systematically reviewing and formally integrating the findings from quakitative studies
Measurement
The process of assigning numbers or values to individuals' health status, objects, events, or situations using a set of rules.
Critique
The process of critical appraisal that objectively and critically evaluates a research report's content for scientific merit and application to practice.
Deductive reasoning
The process of developing specific predictions from general principles.
Inductive reasoning
The process of reasoning from specific observation to more general rules
Quantitative Research
The process of testing relationships, differences, and cause and effect interactions among and between variables. These processes are tested with either hypotheses and or research questions.
Sensitivity
The proportion of patients with the disease who have a positive test result or true positive.
Sensitivity
The proportion of those with disease who test positive. Highly sensitive test that has few false negatives.
Specificity
The proportion of those without disease who test negative. Specific test that has few false positives.
The aims or objectives the investigator hopes to achieve with the research, not the question to be answered.
The purpose
Double-blind study purpose
The purpose of a double-blind study is to eliminate the risk of prejudgment by the participants, which could distort the results
Research Variables
The qualities, properties, or characteristics identified in the research purpose and objectives or questions that are observed or measured in a study
What is the relationship between the error variance, the true variance, and the observed score called?
The reliability coefficient Rationale (CORRECT): 4. The reliability coefficient measures the relationship among the error variance, the true variance, and the observed score.
What presents the idea that is to be examined in the study and is the foundation of the research study
The research question
Stetler Model: Phase 2 (Validation)
The research reports are critically appraised to determine their scientific soundness
Purposeful sampling (Judgemental or selective sampling)
The researcher consciously selects certain participants, elements, events, or incidents to include in the study.
Sample Characteristics
The results of the data collected from the study subjects on demographic variables and their analysis
Blind review
The review of a manuscript or a research proposal such that neither the aurhor nor the reviewer is identified to the other party
Levels of measurement
The rules for assigning numbers to objects so that a hierarchy in measurement was established. Developed by Stevens in 1946.
Representativeness
The sample, the accessible population, and the target population are alike in as many ways as possible.
Sample
The selected group of people or elements. Should represent a population of people
Information Literacy
The skills needed to consult the literature and answer a clinical question.
Standard deviation
The square root of the variance, the average difference value. A measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean
The greater the absolute value of the coefficient...
The stronger the relationship
Qualitative Research
The study of research questions about human experiences. It is often conducted in natural settings, and uses data that are words or text, rather than numerical, in order to describe the experiences that are being studied.
Qualitative metasummary
The synthesis or summing of the findings across qualitative reports to determine the current knowledge in an area
Research
The systematic, logical, and empirical inquiry into the possible relationships among particular phenomena to produce verifiable knowledge.
Quality Improvement
The systemic use of data to monitor the outcomes of care processes as well as the use of improvement methods to design and test changes in practice for the purpose of continuously improving the quality and safety of health care systems.
Research methods
The techniques used to structure a study and to gather and analyze information in a systematic fashion
Target Population
The total group to be studied or described and from whom samples may be drawn and meet the sampling criteria.
Triangulation
The use of multiple methods to collect and interpret data about phenomenon, so as to converge on an accurate representation of reality
Research utilization
The use of some aspect of a study in an application unrelated to the original research
What is it called when researchers direct activities in the field by pursuing hunches?
Theoretical sampling
Set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena of the purpose of explaining and making predictions about those phenomena.
Theory
Tentative explanation of the way we think the world works
Theory
Research links
Theory, education, and practice
Case-control studies
These occur when there are case studies vs. controls.
Meta-synthesis
This is a qualitative thing. It helps to identify metaphors and concepts - interprets and translates findings.
Meta-analysis
This is a quantitative thing. It analyzes through summary statistics resulting from experimental and quasi-experimental studies.
Cohort
This is a subset of people, and data is taken over time.
What is this an example of?: Can the reader follow the researcher's reasoning? Does the researcher document the research process? It is judged by the adequacy of information leading the reader from the research question and raw data through various steps of analysis to the interpretation of findings.
This is auditability
What is this an example of?: Do the participants recognize the experience as their own? Has adequate time been allowed to understand the phenomenon fully? "Truth of findings as judged by participants and others within the discipline/
This is credibility
Scientific plus experiential
This is what EBP requires
Research findings, clinician expertise, and patient preference
This is what a clinical practice guideline is made from.
Cross-sectional
This is when data is taken @ one point in time.
Research utilization
This is when the nurse uses ONLY research - nothing else.
Inter-rater reliability
This occurs when during qualitative data 2 people listen to the information and make their own inferences
Data Saturation
This occurs when there are no new results, only repeats of the same information.
Visual analog scale
This scale uses a straight line exactly 100 mm with end anchors that are extremes in feelings (pain, anxiety, depression) and the subject marks a point on the line that represents the sensation - then measure the line
background question
This type of question is a general best practice question that is broad and produces a wide-range of evidence for review
Experimental
This type of research requires...a hypothesis, randomization, a control, and interventions.
Likelihood Ratio
This value tells us how many more times a positive test or negative test distinguished between those who have the disorder and those who do not have the disorder.
Current sources
Those published within 5 years before acceptance of the manuscript for publication.
Relevant studies
Those with a direct bearing on the problem of concern.
Decision-making aspect of Phase 3 Stetler Model
Three decisons are possible: 1) to use the research evidence, 2) to consider using the evidence, 3) to not use the research evidence.
Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling
Time consuming, hard to get a complete sampling frame
Stetler Model: Phase 5 (Evaluation)
To evaluate the impact of the research based change on the healthcare agency, personnel, and patients
What is the purpose of the World Health Organization (WHO)'s designated Collaborating Centers throughout the United States?
To provide research and clinical training in nursing to colleagues around the globe
In which type of review could an author include only literature that supports a particular point and exclude reports with conflicting findings?
Traditional literature review
Goals of Evidence-Based Practice
Treatment Therapy Intervention Assessment and diagnosis Prognosis Harm and etiology Meaning and process
True or False; Conceptual models & theories are similar in that both can be represented by a schematic model
True
Comprehensive
Understanding the parts of the researcher's purpose or intent.
Analysis
Understanding the parts of the study.
Synthesis
Understanding the whole article and each step of the research process in a study.
Elements
Units about which data are collected (Quantitative= subjects, Qualitative= participants, interviewees)
A nurse is using a practice guideline in caring for older adults and is concerned about possible bias. What can this nurse do?
Use an appraisal instrument to evaluate the guideline
Interval-scale measurement
Use of interval scales or methods of measurement with equal numerical distances between intervals of the scale; follows the rules of mutually exclusive categories, exhaustive categories, and rank ordering, such as temperature.
Qualitative Writing Style 2
Use pseudonyms / Ethical considerations must adequate disguise the few participants, researcher serves as "instrument" manes that he/she chooses what to report/not report , integrity of the researcher is important even in the writing of the report
Ethnography Data Collection
Use supplemental data sources: P7P manuals, newspapers, photos, diaries, etc, records field notes, observations, quotes, rituals, communication patterns, etc.
Quasi-Experimental Research
Use the experimental manipulation to assess the impact of the IV on the DV but these studies lack control or a control group, OR lack randomization, OR lack both control & randomization
Null (or Statistical) Hypothesis
Used for statistical testing and for interpreting statistical outcomes
Comparative descriptive design
Used to describe variables and to examine differences in variables in two or more groups that occur naturally in a setting.
Power analysis
Used to estimate the samples size needed to obtain a significant result & allows the researcher to conclude that the research hypothesis is supported.
Snowball Sampling
Used when it's hard to find subjects with the trait being studied / start with 1-2 subject then ask them for referrals to other potential subjects
Number Needed to Treat Odds Ratio
Useful measure for determining the effectiveness of the intervention and its application to individual patients.
Quota sampling
Uses a convenience sampling technique with an added strategy to ensure the inclusion of subject types likely to be underrepresented in the convenience sample, such as females, minority groups, elderly, poor, rich, and undereducated. Slightly better than convenience sampling and tends to decrease potential biases.
Quantitative Research Questions
Usually concisely and narrowly focused and inclusive of the study variables and population.
Qualitative outcome analysis yields evidence at what level?
V.
Used to measure subjective experiences (pain/nausea). The measurements are on a straight line measuring 100mm. The end points are labeled as extreme limits of sensation
VAS
Testable
Variables can be observed or measured.
Testability
Variables of proposed study that lend themselves to observation, measurement, and analysis.
demographic variables
Vital statistical info of human beings in a specific study
To study the effects of a new antiviral drug on people with AIDS, a researcher conducts a study on a prison population. Which of the following ethical concerns is of immediate concern? A. Vulnerable populations may not be selected for the sake of convenience. B. The study must be approved by an IRB panel. C. The language of the consent form must be understandable. D. The confidentiality of data collected must be protected.
Vulnerable populations may not be selected for the sake of convenience. Rationale (CORRECT): 1. Prison populations are considered vulnerable populations and may not be selected unless this population is clearly appropriate for the study. Vulnerable populations may not be chosen simply for the sake of convenience. Rationale (INCORRECT): 2. Although the study must be approved by an IRB panel, there is an ethical concern that must be addressed before the proposal is submitted to the IRB. Rationale (INCORRECT): 3. Although the language of the consent form must be understandable, there is an ethical concern that must be addressed before potential subjects are recruited. Rationale (INCORRECT): 4. Although the confidentiality of the data collected must be protected, there is an ethical concern that must be addressed before data are collected.
Practice education research
What are the 3 corners of the triangle?
Practice question, evidence, translation
What does PET stand for?
Patient, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes
What does PICO stand for?
Interpretive Phenomenology
What does the experience mean to people? Questions: What does it mean to live with??? Explore the meaning of something
device that is used to collect data in a structured manner; e.g. self report, observation, biophysiologic
What is instrumentation?
Key Question for Comparisons;
What type of comparison will be made to illuminate relationships
When should a literature review be conducted after data are collected?
When a qualitative research design was used
Multiple regression
When more than one predictor variable (independent variable) is used.
Key Questions for Interventions;
Will there be an intervention & what specific design will be used
Same people are compared @ different times or under different conditions. This uses the Dependent T-Test
Within Subjects Design
IRB
a board of individuals from the community and research organizations who are charged with the protection of human subjects during research
Variable
a characteristic or quality that takes on different values, that is, something that varies from one person to the next
checklists
a checklist is most appropriate to be utilized for data collection in quantitative studies. a specific number is assignment to any answer choice. statistics van then be easily completed through data analysis
research topic
a clinical problem of interest
Abstract
a comprehensive synopsis or summary of a study which focuses the reader of the main points
research topic
a concept or broad issue important to nursing
theoretical definition
a definition that describes something conceptually
theoretical definition
a definition that describes something conceptually (stress, sadness)
operational definition
a definition that describes something concretely, usually in terms of measurement (sadness on the Likert-type scales)
case studies
a description of a single or novel event
skewed curve
a distribution where the middle os the distribution is not the exact center, middle or peak of the distribution is the the right or left of the center
Research problem
a disturbing or preplexing condition that can be investigated through disciplinary inquiry
Cluster sampling
a form of sampling in which large groupings are selected first with successive sub-samplings of smaller units starts with volunteers. efficient. good beginning. helps for getting referrals, too
Ungrouped frequency distribution
a frequency distribution that can be constructed using single data values for each class. This is used when the range of data values are relatively small.
CONSTRUCT
a highly abstract phenomena that must be inferred by certain concrete or less abstract indicators
simple hypothesis
a hypothesis describing the relationship between two variables
null hypothesis
a hypothesis stating that there is no relationship between the variables
Directional hypothesis
a hypothesis that makes a specific prediction about the direction of the relationship between two variables
If LARGE differences are expected
a large sample is not required to ensure differences will be revealed in a statistical analysis
Interval measurement
a level of measurement in which an attribute of a variable is rank-ordered on a scale that has equal distances between points on that scale
Ratio measurement
a level of measurement with equal distances between scores and a true meaningful zero point
Sampling Frame
a list of all elements in a population
Reliability testing
a measure of the amount of random error in the measurement technique.
central tendency
a measure or statistic that indicates the center of a distribution or the center of the spread of the values for the variable
Purposive sampling
a non-probability sampling method in which the researcher selects participants based on personal judgment about which ones will be most representative or informative. hand picked by researcher to see which cases will best meet information needs of the study
A qualitative research report written as a confessional tale is
a personalized account written from the researcher's viewpoint.
null hyopthesis
a predication that there will not be a relationship or difference
cluster sample
a process of sampling in stages starting with groups within the population and then individuals within the groups
cluster sampling
a process of sampling in stages starting with groups within the population and then individuals within the groups
data analysis
a process that pulls information together or examines connection between pieces of information to make a clearer picture of all the information collected
ethnography
a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena
meta synthesis
a quantitative approach to knowledge development that applies statistic to numerical results from different studies that assessed the same research problem
control group
a randomly assigned group of subjects that is not exposed to the independent variable of interest to be able to compare that group to a group that is exposed to the independent variable; inclusion of a control group is a hallmark of an experimental design.
non-directional hypothesis
a relationship exists but does not state the nature of the relationship
systematic reviews
a rigorous and systematic synthesis of research findings about a clinical problem
The difference between a population and a sample is
a sample is a representative group of a defined population.
convenience sample
a sample that includes members of the population who can be readily found and recruited
quota sampling
a sample that is selected based on a goal of having an established number of subjects who represent one or more important characteristics
Research problem
a situation that is to be investigated through disciplined inquiry
pilot study
a small research study that is implemented to develop and demonstrate the effectiveness of selected measures and methods
pilot
a small study to test a new intervention before testing with larger samples
Problem statement
a statement articulating the research problem and indicating the need for a study
purpose statement
a statement indicating the aim of the study
Hypothesis
a statement prediction the relationships or effects of selected factor on other factors
research hypothesis
a statement that describes the expected relationship b/t two or more variables in a study
map or model
a strategy for expressing a theory or study framework that graphically shows the interrelationships of the concepts and relational statements
Quasi-experimental study
a study involving an intervention in which subjects are NOT randomly assigned to treatment conditions researcher still exercises certain controls to enhance the study's internal validity. - manipulation of independent variable - control group OR randomization (but something to compensation for this lack)
sample
a subset of the group of interest in a study
abstract
a summary or a condensed version of the research report, often available online as part of a citation
model
a symbolic of concepts or variables and interrelationships among them
Control group
a term used only in studies using random sampling methods. If non-random methods are used for sample selection, the term Comparison group is used.
conceptual definition
a theoretical meaning of a variable within a study
mortality
a threat to interbal validity that refers to the loss of subjects from a study due to a consistent factor that is related to the dependent variable
Observational measurement
a variable measured by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors.
Confounding variables
a variable that is extraneous to the research question and that confounds understanding of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
operational definition
a variables specific attributes that render it measurable in a study
Paradigm
a world view; a general perspective on the complexities of the real world, with certain assumptions about reality
theory
a written description of how a number of abstract factors may relate to or affect one another
research concept
abstract idea or term conceived to describe and name a phenomena
propositions
abstract statements that further clarify the relationship between two concepts in theories
framework
abstract, logical structure of meaning, such as a portion of a theory, that guides the development of the study, is tested in the study, and enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing';s body of knowledge
Concepts
abstraction of observable phenomena, and researchers' world view shapes how those concepts are defined
concept
abstractly describes and names an object, idea, or phenomenon, thus providing it with a separate identity or meaning
Qualitative researchers
accept that research is subjective and ideologically driven
Snowball sampling in qualitative research refers to
accumulation of participants based on word-of-mouth
Reliability of measurement refers to the ___________ of an instrument.
accuracy and consistency
Reliability
accuracy and consistency of information obtained
To calculate the mean in a group of values you must
add all the values and divide by the total number of values.
Intraproject sampling
additional sampling that is done during data collection and analysis to promote the development of quality study findings.
Emergent design
adjusts to what is being learned during data collection
In weighing the evidence related to an innovative treatment, medical professionals can choose to ____________ the innovation.
adopt or reject
pilot
adopting an innovation on a trial basis
interrater reliability
agreement between two or more independent data collectors on the results of their data collection
Quantitative Design
all strive for RIGOR, excellence, high standards, accuracy, ethical treatment
The ____________ is the probability of making a type I error; it is designated at the end of the tail in a distribution.
alpha level
CONCEPT
an abstract description that names a phenomena that is more specific/concrete than constructs
Constructivist Paradigm
an alternative paradigm (also called naturalistic paradigm) to the positivist paradigm that holds that there are multiple interpretations of reality and that the goal of research is to understand how individuals construct reality within their context; associated with qualitative research
Literature review
an appraisal of the current studies associated with the research study presents the main concepts investigated within the research study a summary of research on a topic of interest. often prepared to put a research problem in context Two types: - critical - theoretical
Qualitative research is richly descriptive
an attempt to organize and present an accurate picture of the lives of the participants
Research problem
an enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling condition
Random measurement error
an error unrelated to the concept being measured that is the result of temporary, chance factors. Random errors are inconsistent across measurements (unpredictably varying in extent and direction) and affect reliability
Double-blind purpose
an experiment designed to test the effect of a treatment or substance by using groups of experimental and control subjects in which neither the subjects nor the investigators know which treatment or substance is being administered to which group
Randomized control trial
an experiment involving random assignment to treatment groups + large and diverse samples - manipulation of independent variable - control group - randomization
Bias
an influence that distorts study results may be eliminated in - quantitative research by randomness - qualitative research by reflexivity
Qualitative research uses the researcher as....
an instrument. There is a high level of researcher involvement, participant observation, in-depth interviews (verbal & non-verbal), takes TIME
research question
an interrogatory statement describing the variables and population of the research study
phenomenon (phenomena)
an occurrence or a circumstance that is observed, something that impresses the observer as extraordinary, or a thing that appears to and is constructed by the mind
dependant variable
an outcome that is predicted or explained in research
adoption
applying an innovation to practice
generalize
applying findings from a sample to a wider population
probability sampling
approaches to sampling that ensure that every member of a population has an equal opportunity to be in the study.
Systematic measurement error
are factors that systematically influence either the process of measurement or the concept being measures and is consistently biased in one/same direction.
Middle range theories
are less abstract and narrower in scope than conceptual models, they focus on answering particular practice questions and often specify such factors as health conditions, family situations and nursing actions. more closely related to clinical practice
Most nursing studies
are studies of convenience are based on samples that are too small to adequately test the hypothesis offer no justification for the size of the sample used
Significant and unpredicted results
are the opposite of those predicted by the researcher and indicate that flaws are present in the logic of both the researcher and the theory being tested
Randomization
assigning subjects to treatment/control groups in a random manner / random assignment
statements that are taken for granted or are considered true, even though they have not been scientifically tested
assumption
Coding is a data analysis method used by qualitative researchers that involves
attaching labels to each line of a transcript.
variables
attributes that take on different values and are manipulated or measured in research
Measures of central tendency describe the
average or typical case found in the data.
Advantages of Simple Random Sampling
avoid researcher bias, guarantees that differences between population and sample are purely a matter of chance
An advanced form of coding is ____________, which takes the analysis process further by generating categories, themes, and patterns.
axial coding
Components of qualitative problem statement?
background, scope of problem, information needed to address problem
Trustworthiness
based on credibility
Grounded theory
based on reality AN APPROACH TO GENERATING A THEORY to explain pattern of behaviour that is problematic and relevant to participants strive to generate comprehensive explanations of phenomenon seeks to describe and understand the key social-psychological and structural processes that occur in a social setting focuses on an evolving social experience helps discover basic social psychological problems that a group of people experience. aim is to generate a theory that explains a pattern of behaviour that is problematic and relevant to study participants Key Words: Process, social structures, social interactions sometimes studies done on groups of 20-30
Evidence-based practice
basing clinical decisions on best possible evidence
In qualitative research, confirmability refers to rigorous efforts by the researcher to
be objective and maintain an audit trail to document the research process.
Dependent variable
behaviour, characteristic, or outcome the researcher is interested in explaining, predicting or affecting
3 ethical principles from Belmont Report
beneficence, autonomy, justice
Sampling ____________ is present when the sample includes elements that over- or underrepresent characteristics of the target population.
bias
any influence or action in a study that distorts the findings or slants them away from the true or expected
bias
May lower the risk of a type 2 error
by increasing the sample size
Non-Experimental Research Advantages
can be used in situations where manipulation isn't possible or ethical/ can provide information around which further studies can be built
Experimental Research Disadvantages
can't usually randomly assign people to experimental & control groups as r/t health, can't ethically assign people to some treatment/control groups.
causal hypothesis
cause-and-effect relationship exists between independent and dependent variables
maturation factors
changes in a variable that occur as a result of the passage of time.
Many healthcare facilities are increasing their support for EBP because of ____________ that link payment to positive patient outcomes.
changing reimbursement policies
Relational statement
clarifies the type of relationship that exists between or among concepts.
Critique of hypothesis:
clear and concise; testable; theoretical foundation
research objective
clear concise declarative statement that is expressed in the present tense
research purpose
clear concise statement of the specific goal or focus of the study
In reviewing research, nurses can carefully examine the sample size, attributes, and sampling methods in making decisions about the applicability of findings to
clinical practice
Representative Sample
closely approximates the population studied
The purpose of ____________ qualitative data is to categorize it into groups.
coding
Cross-sectional Studies
collect data at one point in time or over a short time period
Longitudinal Studies
collect data over a long period of time. (ie; Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging , 52 years)
Accuracy
comparable to validity, in that it addresses the extent to which the instrument measures what it is supposed to in a study.
Case Control Studies
compare 2 groups,with/without condition,fewer subjects;potential for bias &confounding variables
The cost-benefit ratio must be considered in implementing proposed changes in patient care. This is done by
comparing the benefits of the proposed change to any potential cost that may result from the change.
cost-benefit ratio
comparison of benefits to potential costs that might result from change
Content validity is established when researchers know that the instrument measures the ____________ it was intended to measure.
concept
constructs
concepts at very high levels of abstraction that have general meanings
set of highly abstracted, related to constructs that broadly explains the phenomena of interest, expresses assumptions, and reflects a philosophical stance
conceptual framework
Quantitative research
concerned with measuring attributes, relationships, and uncovering multiple realities in a population
One of the first steps nurses can take to begin engaging others in transitioning to EBP is to ____________ the practice environment.
conduct an assessment of
Due to the potential for inappropriate disclosure of personal information in qualitative studies, protecting the ____________ of participants is especially important.
confidentiality and anonymity
Qualitative Research Ethical Considerations
consider your intrusion in the lives of others; prevent participant's disappointment , perceived betrayal, feelings of desertion, acknowledge possible consequences to self, participants may experience + benefits, Participants may not share info or may retract info already shared, participants may use pseudonyms, therapeutic imperative rules
Alternate forms reliability
constructing different forms of the same test from a common pool of measurement items, giving them to a group of people, and determining the degree of consistency between them.
examines the extent to which the method of measurement includes all the major elements relevent to the construct being measured
content related validity
Reliability estimates are shown in the form of a
correlation coefficient
Evidence of validity from convergence
correlational studies are perfomed with the measures of the two concepts. if the divergent measure is negatively correlated with the other instrument, validity for each of the instruments is strengthened.
The four essential elements for evaluation of qualitative research are
credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability
To avoid ethical dilemmas, nurses must be familiar with the various types of literature review and _______________ read those sources to determine the usefulness of the findings for their own practice.
critically
conducted to reduce, organize, and give meaning to data
data analysis
precise, systematic gathering of information relevent to the research purpose on specific objectives, questions, or hypotheses of a study.
data collection
Data saturation is a situation that occurs in qualitative research when
data collection stops when no new information is obtained and data collected has become repetitive
Longitudinal
data is collected at more than one point in time stronger than cross-sectional time frame
Cross-sectional
data is collected at one point in time data is then collected at a later AGE or Developmental Group used to infer change over time weaker than longitudinal time frame
When a qualitative researcher selects, focuses, simplifies, and transforms data from field notes and/or transcripts, this is known as
data reduction
rejection
decision not to adopt an innovation
existence statement
declaration that a given concept or relationship exists
Existence statement
declaration that a given concept or relationship exists.
relational statement
declaration that a relationship of some kind exists between two or more concepts
Establishing clear criteria for sample eligibility is done to
decrease the sample size.
Validity of measurement refers to the ___________ an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.
degree
uncertainty
degree to which alternative are preceived as potentially successful
the response, behavior, or outcome that is predicted and measured in research
dependant variable
directional hypothesis
describes the direction of a relationship between two or more variables
problem statement
describes the problem addressed in the study
complex hypothesis
describes the relationships among three or more variables
Which type of statistics explains characteristics of variables found in a sample and describes, summarizes, and synthesizes collected data?
descriptive
demographic data
descriptive information about the characteristics of the people studied;fairly concrete and commonly understood
Model testing design
designed to test the accuracy of a hypothesized causal model. requires all variables relevant to the model be measured and a large heterogenous sample.
Instruments (used to collect data)
develop your own, use one already developed, "researcher as the instrument"
instrument
devices that specify and objectify the data collection process.
logs
diary of what you life is like (qualitative)
Measures of variability show how ____________ the data are within a set.
different
movement or regression of extreme scores toward the man in studies with a pre/post test design
differential statistical regression
Interview
direct questioning, questions asked verbally, response rate high, time consuming, aren't anonymous, uses closed or open-ended questions
journal club
disseminating research among nurses by discussing articles in a small group
Stratified Random Sampling
divide population into homogeneous groups (strata), use simple random sampling within each group
Large samples
do not assure accuracy
Control
doing something to eliminate possible outside influences on the DV so that TRUE relationship between the IV and DV can be understood (use as a basis to compare)
Phenomenology Data Analysis
done as part of data collection / uses inductive reasoning & synthesis, researcher dwells in the data / extracts themes: categorizes ideas / tries to make sense of the phenomenon
In Qualitative research the participants
drive the study (NOT the researcher). The researcher must have tolerance for ambiguity
Threats to Internal Validity - Maturation Threat
due to normal changes over time
replication study
duplication of an earlier study
conduct and utilization of research in nursing (CURN)
early study conducted about how nurses transition research findings into practice
0.50 is considered medium; concerned with the magnitude of the relationship between the variables
effect size
change phases model
eight-phased process to describe organizational change
Kotter's change model outlines a(n) ____________ process for implementing change.
eight-step
Representativeness refers to
elements of the sample possess similar characteristics to elements of the target population.
Qualitative research design is ......
emergent & flexible, researcher often start with a "grand tour question", process is fluid (constantly changes)
focused on comparing two versions of the same instrument
equivalence
Sampling ____________ is present when subjects in a study do not adequately represent the target population.
error
principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice relevent to the conduct of research
ethical principles
The research method based on making collective observations and that is used to study a particular culture is
ethnography
Accuracy of a screening test
evaluated in terms of its ability to correctly assess the presence or absence of a disease or condition as compared with a gold standard.
The process in which nurses make clinical decisions based on the best available research integrated with patient preferences, values, and circumstances is
evidence-based practice
validity
examines how accurate the measure is or how true results are using the measure
Content related validity
examines the extent to which the method of measurement includes all the major elements relevent to the construct being measured
must be eliminated or excluded from an element or subject from being in a sample
exclusion criteria
randomization, comparison groups, manipulation of the treatment are present
experimental design
performance of the subjects may be affected by characteristics of the researcher
experimenter effect
The process used to establish content validity is to give an instrument to a panel of ____________, who rate its effectiveness; researchers then make adjustments to the instrument based on that feedback.
experts
When sample criteria are ____________, nurses can determine if the study results are applicable to the clinical practice topic under consideration.
explicit
Qualitative research is ____________, in contrast to quantitative studies
exploratory and inductive
Qualitative Research Designs
exploratory, and it is used when we don't know what to expect, to define the problem or develop an approach to the problem. It's also used to go deeper into issues of interest and explore nuances (themes) related to the problem at hand
statements
express claims that compute to a theory; theories include existence and relational statements
Simple hypothesis
expresses a predicted relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable
Null hypothesis
expresses the absence of a relationship
Basic Research
extend information for the sake of knowledge
concerned with the extent to which study findings can be generalized beyond the sample used in the study
external validity
exists in all studies and can affect the measurement of the study variables and the relationship among these variables
extraneous variable
A nurse researcher asks several colleagues to evaluate a data collection tool to determine if the tool appears to measure the concept under study. This is an example of
face validity.
The strategy for generating meaning from qualitative data that involves identifying general themes to determine which go together is
factoring
Error in physiological measures
factors in environment, user, subject, machine and/or interpretation that cause error in measurements.
confounding or extraneous variable
factors that interfere with the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
barriers
factors that limit or prevent change
Type 2 error
false negative an error created by accepting the null hypothesis when it is false. no relationship exists when it does
Type 1 error
false positive an error created by rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. when the researcher concludes that a relationship exists when it does not
Randomness
features of the study established by chance rather than by design or preference
Researchers using qualitative methods conduct ___________, which is the time they spend interacting with participants through interviews, observations, and maintaining detailed records.
fieldwork
Qualitative research usually involves .....
fieldwork. The field is where participants normally spend their time (a "real world" setting).
Qualitative research design
flexible & elastic emergent design: adjusts to what is being learned during data collection researchers intensely involved in field for long time periods ongoing data analysis holistic, striving for understanding of the whole involves a merging of various data collection strategies bricolage: array of data from various sources not value free
hypotheses
formal statements of the expected or predicted relationship between two or more variables
research problem
gap in knowledge that requires a solution
In deciding how to apply evidence to practice, _____________ is a concern for nurses because individual patients may not have the same characteristics as the study subjects.
generalizability
The more representative the sample, the more confidence there is ______________ the results of studies to the target population.
generalizing
Qualitative Sample Size - Grounded
generally 25-50
Theoretical definitions
giving meaning to a term in context of a theory
Qualitative Research - Grounded Theory Data Collection
goes into the field to study interaction / 3 main sources of data 1) in-depth interview 2) participant observations 3) existing documents (25-50 participants)
The research method used when the goal is to discover a process is
grounded theory
Qualitative data analysis software is used by researchers to
group and link concepts within the data.
cohort
group within the study (nursing class of 2015)
Frequencies can be represented as
grouped or ungrouped data.
Stratified Random Sampling Proportionate sampling
has the same proportions in groups in the sample as groups in the population
Evidence ranking systems, known as evidence ____________ rank studies based on scientific rigor and levels of evidence; they are used by nurses in examining evidence on a given practice question.
hierarchies
Stratified Random Sampling Advantages
higher likelihood that sample is representative of the population
The research method based on documentation of sources used to retroactively study events or people is
historical
event not related to the study but occurs during the study
history
addresses the correlation of various items within the instrument or internal consistency; determined by split-half reliability
homogeneity
assumptions
ideas that are taken for granted or viewed as truth without conscious or explicit testing
Purpose of Qualitative Studies include .....
identify/name/describe and explore/explain ONLY - Qualitative studies DO NOT predict/control
Quota Sample Proportionate
if it has the same proportion in the population (ie; men to women)
Theoretical sampling
in qualitative studies, selection of sample members based on emerging findings to ensure adequate representation of important theoretical categories.
Fieldwork
in the field / culture
Phenomenology Data Collection
in-depth conversations / seeks interviewee's perspective / researcher= profound listener / What was it like? Tell me more
Threat to External Validity -
inappropriate sample selection
must be identified as requirments for an element or subject to be included in a sample
inclusion criteria
purposive sample
inclusion in a study of participants who are intentionally selected because they have certain characteristics that are related to the purpose of the research
Random sampling
increases the extent to which the sample is representative of the target population.
Lowering the risk of a type 1 error
increases the risk of a type 2 error
an intervention or activity that is manipulated by the researcher to create an effect on the dependent variable
independent variable
P Value
indicate the percentage of time that the results reported would have occurred by chance
research hypothesis
indicates that a relationship between two or more variables exists
Coefficient of multiple determination
indicates the amount of variance explained by the other variables, called R^2
Qualitative research is primarily
inductive research strategy- builds ideas/concepts/theory rather than tests them
dependent variable
influenced by the independent variable
Descriptive Studies
info about a phenomenon,nonexperiemental design, lack IV, lg or sm samples;report means,SD,frequencies
Sample size in qualitative studies is generally smaller than in quantitative research and depends on
information being provided by participants
Data
information collected during the course of a study - narrative information in qualitative - numeric values in quantitative
change in instruments between the pre and posttest rather than actual results of a treatment
instrumentation (threat to validity)
theory
integrated set of defined concepts, existence statements, and relational statements that present a view of a phenomenon and can be used to describe, explain, predict, and control that phenomenon
The ____________ review is more rigorous than a traditional literature review but less rigorous than the systematic review since it includes only published reports.
integrative review
Qualitative inquiry
intensely personal nature of data collection and analysis
2 outcomes of Declaration of Helsinki
interest of subjects has higher priority than society; every subject must receive best known treatment
the extent to which the effects detected in the study are a true reflection of reality, rather than the result of extraneous variables
internal validity
GRADE
international, universal system for evaluating evidence
AGREE II
internationally developed instrument to evaluate clinical practice guidelines
A nurse researcher participated in a qualitative study regarding perception of arthritic pain in relation to functional abilities required for the role of parent. Findings revealed the theme of planning activities at pain-limited times of the day as a coping strategy. Use of this information in practice is an example of the
interpretation of research findings.
Critical appraisal
interpreting evidence by systematically considering evidence's validity, results, relevance, strengths, weaknesses, meaning, credibility, and significance for practice.
Conceptual model
interrelated concepts or abstractions assembled together in a rational scheme by virtue of their relevance to a common theme
interviews
interviews that include questions in an informal and open fashion, without a preciously established set of categories or assumed answers, to gain knowledge about a phenomenon or variable of interest.
Direct measures
involve determining the value of concrete things such as height, weight, temperature, heart rate, BP, and respiration.
Critical appraisal of qualitative studies
involves careful examination of all aspects of a study to judge its strengths, limitations, meaning, and significance.
research problem
is a knowledge gap that warrants filling and can be addressed through systemic study
informed consent
is the legal principle that an individual or an authorized representative only makes a decision to participate in research after receiving all relevant information about the research and having a reasonable amount of time to condor the decision
triangulation
is the process of using more than one approach or source to include efferent views and can ensure credibility
A qualitative research report written as a realist tale
is written in a third-person voice incorporates many details about the group studied.
clinical significance
it it actually will affect the patients in clinical practice.
Quantitative statements of purpose identify...
key variables and their relationships; population of interest
In Vitro Measures
lab analysis of something biophysiologic from the subject (ie; WBC's, bacterial counts, tissue biopsy)
Stratified Random Sampling Disadvantages
labor intensive, come up with multiple sampling frames instead of 1
passive rejection
lack of consideration given to adopting an innovation, hence old practices continued
Barriers of evidence-based practice
lack of knowledge information overload lack of role models lack of time or money resistance to change misperceptions
Sample sizes in randomized controlled trials are typically ____________, and participants may be recruited at multiple sites.
large
Randomized Controlled Trials
large sample sites,blinded designs, controlled interventions, 2 groups
If SMALL differences are expected
large sample sizes are needed to ensure differences will be revealed in a statistical analysis
Qualitative Sample Size - Phenomenology
less than 10 participants
Ordinal measurement
level of measurement that rank-orders phenomena or attributes along some dimension
alpha--an index of how probable it is that the findings are reliable, alpha of 0.05 means that 5 out of 100 times the researcher makes a type I error (rejecting a true null hypothesis)
level of significance
The major disadvantage of nonprobability sampling compared with probability sampling is
limited generalizibility
Hermeneutics
lived experiences of people as tools to better understand the social, political, and historical context in which these experiences occur
Experimental Research
looks at cause & effect, the "gold standard" - the "true experiment, Examines relationship IV & DV in tightly controlled situations
Multi causality
many variables are tied together to produce particular outcomes. (Ex. Diagnosis, patient age, complications after surgery all affect length of hospital stay)
A qualitative research report written as an impressionist tale
may have a storytelling aspect and allows the researcher to present his/her experiences as a participant observer.
Cluster Multistage Sample Disadvantage
may not be very representative of the population
The average of a group of values is the
mean
Physiological measures
measures of bodily responses, such as blood pressure or heart rate, used to determine changes in psychological state
Qualitative Sample Size - Ethnography
members of the culture
Substantive theory
middle range theories that have clearly identified concepts, definitions of concepts and relational concepts/statements.
disciplined clinical inquiry model
model developed to empower nurses to transition evidence to practice
Validity
more complex concept that concerns the soundness of the study's evidence
Quasi-Experimental Research in Nursing
more often practical and do-able than Experimental Designs
# of subjects that fall out of a study before its completion
mortality
Qualitative statements of purpose identify...
nature of inquiry; key concept/phenomenon; group, setting, or community being studied; research tradition
Representative sample
needed to ensure that the measurement accurately reflect and can be generalized to the population
A null hypothesis states that there is ____________ relationship between two variables.
no
Non-Experimental Research
no manipulation of IV / no treatments/interventions / uses naturally occurring groups
statistical hypothesis
no relationship among the variables; null hypothesis
Threats to Internal Validity - Selection Threat
non-random assignment to of subjects to group
occurs when not every member of the population has an opportunity to be selected such as in convenience sampling
nonprobability sampling
The art of nursing based on informal sources and practical experience is ____________ knowledge.
nonpropositional
In a __________ distribution, the mean, median, and mode are equal and the distribution is shown as bell-shaped curve.
normal
Case Studies
not all qualitative studies are conducted within a disciplinary tradition / focus on a thorough description & explanation of a single case or small number of cases (individually, family, organizations, community) Data often collected over an extended period of time
Abstract concepts
not clearly observable directly, will need to be defined in terms of observable measures, they are independent of time and space
Non-Probability Sampling Review
not everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen / lack representativeness so you can't make inferences beyond your study group / are convenient and often feasible in terms of time & money
Random sampling
not the best way to select people who will be good informants (knowledgeable, articulate, reflective, and willing to talk)
field notes
notes about the participant's tone, expressions, and associated actions
subjects may alter their behavior because the treatment is new
novelty effect
Quantitative Sample Size (N)
number set before starting the study / subjects (N or n), always consult a statistician before beginning a study, power analysis, generally as large as possible to be most representative of the population but without wasting resources, but bigger is not always better
Measures of central tendency
numbers that are used to describe the center of a set of data. These measures include the mean median and mode
Qualitative Topics
numerous choices & opportunities / an idea/concept not well understood
Nursing research metaparadigm includes .....
nursing, health, person, & environment
hypothesis or empirical testing
objectively measurable data gathered through the five senses to confirm or refute a hypothesis
The primary methods for data collection in quantitative studies are
observations, scales, questionnaires, and physiological measures
Verification of information
occurs when researchers are able to further confirm hunches, relationships, or theoretical models.
hawthorne effect
occurs when subjects experience changes in physiological or behavioral measures simply because they are aware of being observed-reactivity effect
A nurse involved in discussions to determine the clinical significance of a study's findings examines the odds ratio, which is the
odds of an experimental patient suffering an event compared to a patient in the control group.
Experimental Research Advantages
offers the best answer to questions involving the effect of the IV on the DV, can have fairly high confidence that the treatment/intervention caused the effect
Qualitative research focus is .....
on human experience and its meaning, holistic approach, life is more than facts & numbers NO hypotheses or variables
What is a simple hypothesis?
one independent variable and one dependent variable
Probability Sampling Review
one reliable way to guarantee that the difference between your population & sample is purely a matter of chance / allows all elements in the population to have an equal chance of being selected / Maximized the likelihood of drawing a representative sample / avoid researcher bias / is expensive
audit trail
ongoing documentation regarding the researcher's decisions about both the data analysis and the collection process
The most basic coding is ____________, which is the first step taken to group data into logical categories.
open coding
description of how variables or concepts will be measured or manipulated in a study
operational definition
To ensure a quality study must have .....
optimize Internal validity & External validity
assigned to categories of an attribute that can be ranked; categories must be exclusive and exhaustive; cannot be demonstrated the the intervals between categories are equal--use Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient
ordinal scale measurement
Nursing Quality Indicators developed by the American Nurses Association address
outcomes of nursing care focused on patient safety and quality.
nursing quality indicators
outcomes of nursing care that address patient safety and quality of care
Research design
overall plan for answering the research question
research design
overall plan for the study
In attempting to minimize type I error, which of the following alpha levels can be interpreted as the most highly statistically significant result?
p = 0.10
Non-significant results
p>0.05, result that fails to support alternative hypothesis.
Positivist Paradigm
paradigm underlying the traditional scientific approach, which assumes that there is an orderly reality that can be objectively studied; often associated with quantitative research
Volunteers in qualitative research studies are called
participants
PICO model
patient population, intervention of interest, comparison of interest, and outcome of interest used to formulate EBP
A ____________ is a rank in a set of data that represents the percentage of cases that a given value exceeds.
percentile
What strategies are used to establish the credibility of qualitative research findings?
persistent observation, peer debriefing, referential adequacy, and member checks
The research method used to study participants' lived experience is
phenomenology
Researchers often conduct a ____________ study using a scaled-back data collection method to evaluate the instruments and process to head off any potential problems.
pilot
When an innovative treatment or process is implemented on a trial basis, this is known as a(n)
pilot
Target Population
population for which the study outcomes are intended
A distribution in which the mean is greater than the median and mode indicates that the data are
positively skewed
the capacity of the study to detect differences, minimum power is 80%
power
A ____________ is a statistical method used to determine the minimal acceptable sample size to detect the true effect in a quantitative study.
power analysis
method of decreasing a type II error (accepting a false null hypothesis--minimum acceptable power is 0.80
power analysis
Quasi-Experimental Research Advantages
practical, gives some control when full control & randomization are not practical
evidence hierarchies
predetermined scales that guide decisions for ranking evidence
levels of evidence
predetermined scales that guide decisions for ranking evidence
Inferential statistics involve the analysis of data as the basis for ____________ related to the phenomenon of interest.
predictions
What is a nondirectional hypothesis?
predicts existence of relationship
Directional hypothesis
predicts the direction of a relationship
What is a directional hypothesis?
predicts the direction of the relationship
non-directional hypothesis
predicts the existence of a relationship, not its direction
Conceptual definitions
presents the abstract of theoretical meaning of the concepts being studied
Independent variable
presumed cause of, antecedent to, or influence on the dependent variable
primary reseach vs secondary research
primary= sources of information as originally written; secondary=are someone else's description and are more prone to error in presentation
The type of sampling typically used in quantitative studies is
probability
random sampling techniques
probability sampling
Components of a quantitative problem statement?
problem identification, background, scope of problem, consequences, knowledge gaps, solution to problem
Power analysis
procedure for estimating either the likelihood of committing a type 2 error or sample size requirements estimating how large sample should be to test research hypothesis adequately. estimate may be based on previous research, personal experience, etc.
Reflexivity
process of reflecting critically on the self and noting personal values that could affect data collection and interpretation
change
process that creates an alteration in a person or environment
Specificity
proportion of patients without the disease who have a negative test result or true negative.
The science of nursing based on research and scholarship is ____________ knowledge.
propositional
Literature Review
provides a summary of published knowledge about the problem of interest
conceptual definition
provides a variable or concept with connotative (abstract, comprehensive, theoretical) meaning; established through concept analysis, concept derivation, or concept synthesis
Research tradition
provides an underpinning for qualitative studies anthropology, psychology, and sociology
active rejection
purposefully deciding not to adopt an innovation
An organizing framework that explains the importance of five levels of information to EBP healthcare delivery is a ____________ known as the 5Ss.
pyramid
informants
qualitative
members
qualitative
participants
qualitative
Read the following description of a research study to determine its ranking on the evidence hierarchy: The purpose of this research was to examine whether there are resultant behavioral changes in professionalism for returning adult RN to BSN students, and to identify teaching-learning activities that stimulate transformative learning. (Morris & Faulk, 2007, Perspective transformation: Enhancing the development of professionalism in RN-to-BSN students. Journal of Nursing Education, 46(10), 447). This is an example of a
qualitative report.
qualitative research vs. quantitative research
qualitative:attitudes towards mama grams of post partum women. ; sampling plan followed quantitative:quota sampling, objective info, structured questionnaires
variables
qualities, properties, or characteristics of persons, things, or situations that change or vary and are manipulated or measured in research
subjects
quantitative
The difference between quantitative and qualitative research designs is that
quantitative designs use numbers to give meaning to a phenomenon or an event, and qualitative designs rely on words
Generalizability
quantitative study criterion used to assess the extent to which the findings can be applied to other groups and settings
Cohort Studies
quasi-experimental , less rigorous than RCT, no random assignment, retrospective or prospective
designs with limited control that were developed to provide alternative means for examining causality in situations not conducive to experimental controls
quasi-experimental design
A researcher who wants to implement a less costly method of data collection and one that offers the greatest possibility of anonymity would likely use
questionnaires.
Ethnography Data Collection
quite labor intensive and time consuming (can take years), Ideally researcher lives in culture, is crucial to gain entrée to the culture or you won't get invited "backstage" in-depth interviews
The two types of measurement error are
random and systematic.
Nonprobability sampling carries more risk of selection bias than probability sampling because ____________ is not used.
randomization
test for ordinal data
rank sum test
philosophies
rational, intellectual explorations of truths; principles of being, knowledge, or conduct
To apply research findings to EBP, nurses must learn to understand the difference between statistical and clinical significance and be able to
read and interpret statistical tables and appraise data analysis.
clinical practice guidelines
recommendations based on evidence that serve as useful tools to direct clinical practice
Clinical practice guidelines provide
recommendations from a panel of experts for best practice.
concrete
refers to realities or actual instances-it focuses on the particular, rather than the general
Conceptual utilization
refers to the use of findings to enhance one's understanding of a problem or issue
content validity
reflects how comprehensive and appropriate the items in a scale are to the concept they are intended to measure
represents the consistency of the measure obtained
reliability
replication
repeated studies to obtain similar results
A way for qualitative findings to be confirmed or enhanced is through
replication
When nurses consider research studies for EBP, they must review them critically to determine if the sample is truly ____________ the target population.
representative of
In reading conclusions drawn from qualitative research, nurses should check for potential researcher effects or bias. They should also confirm that study participants had the same characteristics as the target population, which is known as
representativeness.
Accessible Population
represents the target as closely as possible; group who is readily available to the researcher
Comparison phase
requires knowledge of what each step of the research process should be like, and then the ideal is compared with the real.
overall plan for collecting and analyzing data
research design
area of concern where there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for practice.
research problem
concise interrogative statements that are worded in the present tense and includes one or more variables
research question
The most important data collection instrument in qualitative studies is the
researcher
Experimental research
researchers actively introdue an intervention or treatment
Non-experimental research
researchers collect data without intervening or introducing treatments
If sample sizes are too small
researchers run the risk of gathering data that will not support their hypothesis, even when the hypotheses are correct. this threatens the study's statistical conclusion validity
theme
results in qualitative reattach that are ideas or concepts that are implicit in the data and are recurrent throughout the data; abstractions that reflect phrases, words or ideas that appear repeatedly as a researcher analyzes what people have said about a particular experience, feeling or situations. A theme summaries and synthesis discrete ideas or phrases to create a picture out of the words that were collected in the research study
Integrative review of research
review conducted to id, analyze and synthesize the results from independent quantitative and qualitative studies and theoretical and methodological literature to determine the current knowldege for a particular concept , measurement methods, or practice topic
Phenomenology
rooted in both philosophy and psychology describes the nature or meaning of humans' lived experiences understand the meaning and essence of phenomenon Key Words: Experience, lived experience, meaning, essence sometimes studies done on groups of -10
Implicit frameworks
rudimentary ideas for the framework are expressed in the introduction or literature review, in which linkages among variables found in previous studies are discussed, but then the researcher stops without fully developing the ideas as a framework.
implicit framework
rudimentary ideas for the framework of a theory or portions of a theory expressed in an introduction or in a literature review in which linkages among variables found in previous studies are discussed
A select group of subjects that is representative of all eligible subjects constitutes the
sample
portion of the population that represents the entire population
sample
Nonprobability sampling
sampling that does not follow guidelines of mathematical probability; does not involve random selection. Not every element of the population has an opportunity for selection to be included in the sample. Commonly used in nursing studies.
Data saturation
sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained
research
scientifically exploring a practical concern to validate existing knowledge or create new knowledge
Descriptive correlational design
seeking to describe relationships among variables, without attempting to infer causal connections.
Apply observational systems by: Event Sampling
select specific events for observation to be done (ie; every central line dressing change, every endotracheal suctioning)
Apply observational systems by: Time Sampling
select specific time periods for observation to be done (ie; every 1 minute for 15 minutes X 4 hours, or randomly)
Sampling
selecting a portion of the population to represent the population/ process of selecting cases to represent
individual differences that exist in the subjects before they are chosen to participate in a study
selection bias
sample growing older, wiser, stronger,hungrier, more tired and its influence on the results
selection maturity
Convenience sampling
selection of the most readily available persons as participants in a study.
The ____________ range is the range of the middle 50% of the data.
semiquartile
conceptual model
set of highly abstract, related constructs that broadly explains phenomena of interest, expresses assumptions, and reflects a philosophical stance
Purposive sample sizes
should be judged on the basis of the purpose and rationale of each study
Landmark Studies
significant research projects that generate knowledge that influences a discipline and sometimes society as a whole
Concrete concepts
simple, can be seen, felt or heard; they are observable in reality, limited by time and space
In contrast to quantitative methods, qualitative data analysis is completed ____________
simultaneously with data collection
3 key elements of a research question?
situation; intervention; outcome/effect
Data that do not fit a normal distribution are considered to be asymmetrical or
skewed
bias
some unintended factor that confuses or changes the results of the study and can lead to incorrect conclusions
philosophical stance
specific philosophical view held by an individual person or group of persons
Sampling Plan
specifies how a researcher will select research elements
Operational definitions
specifies the operations that researchers must perform to measure it
In a data set, the ____________ deviation is the measure of the average deviations of a value from the mean.
standard
simple hypothesis
statement of causality b/t TWO variables.
hypothesis
statement of the expected relationship b/t two or more variables
nondirectional hypothesis
statement of the relationship between two variables that does not predict the direction of the relationship
Research question
statement of the specific query the researcher wants to answer to address a research problem
null hypothesis
statement that is the inverse of the research hypothesis. provides no relationship.
assumptions
statements that are taken for granted or considered true, even though they have not been scientifically tested
complex hypothesis
states a predicted relationship between two or more independent varialbea and/or two or more dependent variables
What is a null/statistical hypothesis?
states absence of relationship
What is a research hypothesis?
states actual prediction of relationship
research hypothesis
states the acutal prediction of a relationship, stated in the positive
directional hypothesis
states the nature (+) or (-) of the interaction b/t two or more variables
inferential statistics
statistics that are most commonly used in quantitative studies allowing the researcher to draw conclusion based on evidence obtained from a sample population.
Stetler model
step-by-step instructions for integrating research into practice
Replication studies
studies that are reproduced or repeated to determine whether similar findings will be obtained.
Correlational design
studies that measure two or more variables and their relationship to one another; not designed to show causation.
external validity
studies with problems in internal validity automatically have problems with external validity ++
Descriptive design
study designs in which the researcher defines a problem and a variable of interest but makes no prediction and does not control or manipulate anything, do not involve testing hypotheses.
Experiment
study in which the researcher controls/manipulates the independent variable. Also has randomization and/or a control group - randomized control trial - quasi experimental study
Macro-ethnography
study of broadly defined cultural groups (such as New Yorkers or "the English")
Micro-ethnography
study of narrowly defined cultural groups such as "local government GIS specialists" or "members of Congress"
Mixed results
study results that include both significant and insignificant findings, most common
quality, properties or characteristics of person, things, or situations that change or vary and are manipulated, measured, or controlled in research
study variables
Qualitative research approach is .....
subjective, more flexible, purpose is to seek understanding
Qualitative studies must be conducted with extreme rigor because of the potential for ____________ inherent in this form of research.
subjectivity
Questionnaire
subjects complete form independently, questions in written form, response rate often low, time efficient, can be anonymous, uses closed or open-ended questions
Sample
subset of members from a population large non probability is preferable to a small one
Cluster/Multistage Sample
successive random sampling of clusters / start with the largest cluster in which elements are involved ie; states, then nursing programs, then random nursing students
If the facility does not have an electronic decision support system in place, the next step nurses seeking answers to clinical questions should take is to locate integrative ____________ of evidence.
summaries
Likelihood ratios
summarizes relationship between specificity and sensitivity in a single number, want high LR +, and low LR -
Descriptive data is valuable to the nurse researcher in
summarizing data to identify salient features about a group of data.
Population census
survey covering an entire population must be describing something using numbers
Nurses seeking answers to clinical questions who do not have access to research summaries can locate ____________ of evidence in print and online evidence-based journals and online databases.
synopses
The ____________ review is a type of synthesis that involves a rigorously conducted process of obtaining and reviewing relevant literature to answer theoretical or practice questions.
systematic
Iowa model for EBP to promote quality care
systematic method explaining how organizations change practice
Resources for Evidence-based practice
systematic reviews clinical practice guidelines care bundles preappraised evidence
Nurses seeking answers to clinical questions should begin at the top of the pyramid, the ____________ level, and work down the various levels.
systems
used to compare control to experimental group to determine if statistically significant
t-test
The entire group of elements (can be people, events, experiences, or behaviors) that meet study criteria is the
target population
a group of individuals who meet the sampling criteria and to which the study findings will be generalized
target population
The entire group of elements (can be people, events, experiences, or behaviors) that meet study criteria is the
target population.
Methods
techniques used to structure a study and to gather and analyze information in a systematic fashion
VARIABLES
terms with narrow definitions that are more specific/concrete than a concept
responses change due to the number of times tested with the same test due to previous known incorrect responses, and change of experience due to previous testing
testing effect
ANOVA
tests for differences in the means for three or more groups on a variable
Narrative Analysis
texts that provide detailed stories are sometimes analyzed through narrative analysis/ numerous approaches
Population
the ENTIRE set of individuals or objects having some common characteristics. an aggregate of ALL cases.
Quota sampling
the NON-RANDOM selection of participants in which the researcher pre-specifies characteristics of the sample to increase its representativeness
reliability
the ability of a measure to consistently yield the same results if there has truly been no change(three approaches: interrupter, test-retest, internal consistency)
Statistical Conclusion Validity
the ability to detect true relationship statistically
Conceptual definition
the abstract or theoretical meaning of a concept being studied
Effect size
the amount of variance among scores in a study accounted for by the independent variable, and the extent to which the null hypothesis is false.
Unexplained variance
the amount of variation in the dependent construct that cannot be accounted for by the combination of independent variables
Limitations
the aspects of how the study was conducted that create uncertainty concerning the conclusion that can be derived from the study as well as the decisions that can be based on it.
Human ethology
the biology of human behaviour studies behaviour as it evolves in its natural context
Descriptive Phenomenology
the careful description of lived experience/every day life - bracketing - intuiting - analyzing - describing
Interpretive Phenomenology
the careful description of lived experience/every day life (WITHOUT BRACKETING) - intuiting - analyzing - describing
Independent variable
the cause
Accuracy
the closeness of measurements to the truth or the true value
Reliability
the consistency of measurement; the extent to which repeated measurement of the same event yields the same values.
Rating scales
the crudest form of measure involving scaling techniques, listing an ordered series of categories of a variable that are assumed to be based on an underlying continuum.
Level of statistical significance
the cut off point. is the probability level at which the results of statistical analysis are judged to indicate a statistically significant difference between the groups. p is <0.05
Operational definition
the definition of a concept or variable in terms of the procedures by which i is to be measured
Construct Validity
the degree to which key constructs are adequately captured in the study
Sampling Error
the difference between the population value & the sample value on the variables being studied
Instrumental utilization
the direct, explicit application of knowledge gained from research to change practice
Dependent variable
the effect
Hawthorne Effect
the effect on the DV just because subjects know that they are being studied
Population
the entire set of subjects to be studied (target)
External Validity
the extent to which it is possible to generalize the research findings to other samples & settings (threat to external validity - inappropriate sample selection
Internal Validity
the extent to which it is possible to make an inference that the IV (the treatment) really did influence the DV (the outcome)
Transferferability
the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings or groups; analogous to generalizability
Transferability
the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings. Promoted through the use of a thick, rich description.
Credibility
the extent to which the researchers methods engender confidence in the truth of the data and research interpretation; based on training, qualifications, and experience
internal validity
the extent to which we can be sure of the accuracy or correctness of the findings of a study; how accurate the results are within the rudy itself or internally
Ratio-scale measurement
the highest form of measurement and meets all of the rules of other forms of measurement: mutually exclusive categories, exhaustive categories, ordered ranks, equally spaced intervals, and a continuum of values. Can be added, subtracted, multiplied, divided, and analyzed with statistical techniques.
One-tailed test of significance
the hypothesis is directional, and extreme statistical values that occur in a single tail of the curve are of interest
Type I error
the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis.; a "false positive" ;There is greater risk of a Type 1 Error when level of significance is higher (Ex. 0.05 instead of 0.01).
peer review
the information or manuscript is read and critiqued by two or more qualified peers of the researcher to ensure the quality of the work
One of the most effective techniques for engaging nurses in the transition to an EBP model of providing health care is
the journal club
populations
the larger defined group about whom the researcher in interested in gaining knowledge
Nominal measurement
the lowest level of measurement involving assignment of characteristics into categories
Implications for nursing
the meanings of conclusions from scientific research for the body of nursing knowledge, theory, and nursing practice.
Operational definition
the measurements a researcher must perform to collect the desired information
Gold standard
the most accurate means of currently diagnosing a particular disease and serves as a basis for comparison with newly developed diagnostic or screening tests.
Simple random sampling
the most basic of probability sampling plans, and is achieved by randomly selecting elements from the sampling frame. Researchers can write names on slips of paper and draw them randomly, or they can use a computer program to randomly select participants.
Select a research design by
the overall plan for the study, how are you going to obtain answers to the research questions, test hypothesis
Positivist paradigm
the paradigm underlying the traditional scientific approach, which assumes that there is an orderly reality that can be objectively studied. Often associated with quantitative research
data saturation
the point where information from the participants is repetitive of previous information and no new information is being acquired
Ethnography
the primary research tradition within anthropology description and interpretation of cultural behaviour provides a framework for studying the meanings, patterns, and experiences of a defined cultural group learn from members of a cultural group - what members of culture do - what members of culture make and use - what members of culture say collect rich and holistic descriptions of a culture by - participating with - learning from & - understanding culture Key Words: Culture, roles, myths, cultural behaviour sometimes studies done on groups of 50+
p-value
the probability that the obtained results are due to chance alone; the probability of committing a type 1 error
Data collection
the process of acquiring the subjects and collecting the data for the study. Consists of selecting subjects, collecting data in a consistent way, maintaining research controls as indicated in the study design, protecting the integrity and validity of the study, and solving problems that threaten to disrupt the study.
Bracketing
the process of identifying and distancing yourself from preconceived beliefs about the phenomenon under study. can never be achieved totally. done by researchers to attempt to confront the data in pure form.
systematic review
the product of a process that includes asking clinical questions, doing a structured and organized search for theory-based information and research related to the question, reviewing and synthesizing the results from that search, and reaching conclusions about the implications for practice
Quota Sample Disproportionate
the quota sample is disproportionate if it doesn't have the same proportion as the population
confidence intervals
the range of likely values from different samples for a test statistic given values fond in the particular study, usually the range for 95% of the likely values.
Causality
the relationship between a cause and its effect.
Bracketing
the researcher acknowledges and lays aside his/her preconceived ideas about what is being studied "an unknowing"
Hypotheses
the researchers' predictions about relationships among variables
Statement of purpose
the researchers' summary of the overall study goal
When evaluating a concept analysis, one of the most important criteria for a nurse to consider is
the rigor of the author's approach.
Adequate sample size is important because
the sample has to be representative of the target population for results to be valid.
snowball sampling
the sample is built by unsung contacts from the first couple of participants to identify other members of the population who might be part of the study
Network sampling
the sampling of participants based on referrals from others already in the sample
Theoretical sampling
the selection of sample members based on emerging findings as the study progresses to ensure adequate representation of important themes. Used in qualitative studies
Probability sampling
the selection of sampling units from a population using random procedures, such as simple random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling
Systematic sampling
the selection of study participants such that every k*th person or element on the sampling list is chosen
Research questions
the specific queries the researcher wants to answer in addressing the research problem
Dissemination
the spreading or sharing of new knowledge
correlation
the statistical test used to examine how much two variables covert: measure of the relationship between two variables.
Nursing Research
the systematic inquiry to develope knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession
Research
the systematic inquiry using disciplined methods to solve a problem
abstract
the theory is the expression of an idea, apart from any specific instance; focuses on more general things
Symbolic utilization
the use of evidence to change minds of other people, usually decision makers
Research Utilization
the use of study findings in a practical application unrelated to the original research
Construct validity is the degree to which an instrument measures the ____________ it was intended to measure.
theoretical concept
tests the relationship of two concepts making the study more specific
theoretical framework
Practice theories
theories that are more specific than middle-range theories and that produce specific directions or guidelines for practice
middle range theories
theories that are relatively concrete and specific in focus and include a limited number of concepts and propositions. These theories are tested by empirical research
substantive theory
theory recognized within a discipline as useful for explaining important phenomena
scientific theory
theory that has been repeatedly tested through research with valid and reliable methods of measuring each concept and relational statement
tentative theory
theory that is newly proposed, has had minimal exposure to critique by scholars in the discipline, and has undergone little testing
foreground question
this is a focused question that includes specific comparisons.
predictor variable
those factors in a study that are expected to affect the dependent variable in a specified manner; independent variables
In Vivo Measures
those performed on/within the living organism (ie; vital signs, sonogram, x-ray, etc)
Experimental Group
those who get the experimental treatment
Control Group
those who get the regular, or alternative treatment or no treatment
The rule of 68-95-99.7 states that in a normal distribution, 99.7% of the data will fall within ____________ standard deviation(s) of the mean.
three
Discussion
ties together all the pieces of the study and gives a picture of the study as a whole
Ethnography Data Analysis
tries to identify meanings of things, events, practices, etc./ Uses rich descriptions that help reader to understand the culture
Qualitative studies are deemed ____________ when strategies have been implemented to meet credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability criteria.
trustworthy
Intuiting
trying to comprehend the phenomenon from the interviewee's perspective
What is a complex hypothesis?
two or more independent variables and/or two or more dependent variables
When researchers accept the null hypothesis when it should have been rejected, this is an occurrence of
type II error.
conceptual framework
underlying structure made up of concepts and indication the relationships among the concepts
Purpose of Qualitative Studies
understanding a phenomenon, understanding new options & new perspectives, a change in nursing and/or patient care
Threats to Internal Validity - Mortality Threat
unequal attrition from the groups
Triangulation
use of multiple sources or references to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth (ex: multiple means of data collection). Can also integrate quantitative and qualitative approaches to offset the limitations of each.
Convenience Sampling
use those available & convenient / advantage= easy in terms of time & money / disadvantage= usually not very representative, subject self select, limits your external validity (your ability to generate results
Theoretical Sampling
used in qualitative research (in grounded theory studies) involves decisions about what data to collect next, where to find those data to develop an emerging theory / different than purposive sampling / Goal= discover categories & their properties / to offer new insights into interrelationships that occur
Confirmatory analysis
used to confirm expectations regarding data that are expressed as hypotheses, questions, or objectives.
Exploratory analysis
used to examine all of the data descriptively
T-test
used to examine group differences when the variables are measured at the interval or ratio level of measurement.
Stratified Random Sampling Disproportionate sampling
used when comparing groups of very different sizes in the sample, equivalent size groups for nonequivalent size strata
Non-Experimental Descriptive Research
used when little is known about the subject/ used to observe, describe & document aspects of a phenomenon (not to look for cause & effect relationships / foundational for further studies
Grouped frequency distribution
used when the range of the data is large, and must be grouped into classes that are more than one unit in width.
Qualitative research findings/results
usually in the form of words that make up theme, categories, concepts
the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
validity (instrument)
the strength of a design to produce accurate results. Threats to validity are classified as internal and external.
validity (study)
independent variable
variable that influences the dependent variable or outcome
independent variable
variables are used to explain or predict
dependent variable
variables depend on other variable tin the study; terry are what we want to predict or understand
practice theories
very specific theories that are developed to explain a particular element of practice. These theories can be generated through research and also tested by research
In nursing, ____________ scales are often used to collect data about patient pain, fatigue, quality of life, and health status.
visual analog
3 outcomes of Nuremberg code
voluntary consent; research should benefit society; benefits outweigh risk
Meta Analyses
well designed, fit the research question,use published & nonpublished studies, adequate lit. search
Hypothesis
what the researcher wants to tests states the relationship between two or more variables
covary
when change in one variable is associated with change in another variable
associative relationship
when one variable changes, the other variable changes
causal relationship
when one variable determines the presence or change in another variable
Validity Tradeoff
when you increase efforts to protect one type of validity, you lose a little of the other
Probability Sampling
where every element in the population has an equal and known chance (probability) of being selected for inclusion in the sample/ some kind of random selection is used / needed for an experimental study, used ONLY in quantitative studies
Threats to Internal Validity - History Threat
where outside events confound the study (ie; flu epidemic)
Sample attrition
withdraw or loss of subjects from a study that can be expressed as a number or subjects withdrawing or a percentage.
Quasi-Experimental Research Disadvantages
without full control, it is much harder to show cause-effect relationships / is almost always at least 1 alternative explanation of the results than the treatment/intervention caused the effect
Qualitative data collection is based on collecting
words
Evidence of validity from contrasting groups
would be having participants complete TWO contrasting scales, like hope and despair. And the despair scale should be negatively correlated with the other instrument (hope)