Nutrition

What two hormones can increase or decrease blood glucose levels?

1. Insulin 2. Glucagon

GERD

A condition causing a backflow of stomach acid through an incompetent esophageal sphincter is called

anemia

A condition in which the blood is deficient in red blood cells, in hemoglobin, or in total volume.

diabetes

A condition in which the body is unable to produce enough insulin, the hormone required for the metabolism of sugar

food group plan

A diet - planning tool that sorts foods into groups based on nutrient content and then specifies that people should eat certain amounts of food from each group

epiglottis

A flab of tissue that prevents food from entering the trachea, or windpipe, during swallowing

fiber

A form of complex carbohydrates from plants that humans cannot digest

fat

A large lipid molecule made from an alcohol called glycerol and three fatty acids; a triglyceride. Most fats function as energy-storage molecules.

glyceride

A lipid which consists of a glycerol molecule with one, two, or three fatty acids attached to it

dehydration

A serious reduction in the body's water content

glucose

A simple sugar that is an important source of energy.

lymph

A usually clear fluid that passes from intercellular spaces of body tissue into the lymphatic vessels, is discharged into the blood by way of the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct, and resembles blood plasma in containing white blood cells and especially lymphocytes but normally few red blood cells and no platelets.

xerosis

Abnormal drying of the skin and mucous membranes; a sign of Vitamin A deficiency.

glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

obese

BMI 30+

inflammation

Body's local response to injury or infection

hypothalmus

Brain structure that acts as a control center for recognition and analysis of hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger and body temperature

retinoids

Chemically related compounds with biological activity similar to that of retinol; metabolites of retinol.

carbonic acid

Compound that results from the combination of carbon dioxide and water

osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

villi

Fingerlike extensions of the intestinal mucosa that increase the surface area for absorption.

duodenum

First part of the small intestine.

interstitial fluid

Fluid between cells

esophagus

Food tube connecting the mouth to the stomach

salivary glands

Glands of the mouth that produce saliva, a digestive secretion

glycolysis

Glucose is split into smaller molecules during a biochemical pathway called ____________________.

disaccharide

Made up of two monosaccharides, double sugars.

microvilli

Microscopic outward folds of the cells lining the small intestine; microvilli serve to increase the surface area of the small intestine for absorption.

jejunum

Middle portion of the small intestine

esophageal sphincter

Opening from the esophagus into the stomach, and it keeps food from going back into the esophagus once it enters the stomach.

carotenoids

Pigment materials in fruits and vegetables that can be turned into vitamin A in the body

enzyme

Proteins that speed up chemical reactions

energy density

The amount of energy (calories) in a food per unit of weight.

pancreatic juice

The exocrine gland of the pancreas secretes:

intracellular fluid

The fluid contained within the body cells is called

saliva

The fluid released when the mouth waters that plays an important role in both mechanical and chemical digestion

lactose intolerant

The inability to completely digest the milk sugar lactose

gastrointestinal (GI) tract

The principal organs that are the stomach and intestines

energy balance

The relationship between the amount of calories consumed in food and the amount of calories expended through metabolism and physical activity is known as

calories

Units of heat that measure the energy used by the body and the energy that foods supply to the body

rickets

Vitamin D deficiency in children

bomb calorimeter

What instrument is used to measure the energy content of foods?

thirst

What is the driving force for water intake?

retinoic acid

______ is the acid form of preformed vitamin A

small intestine

a 10-foot length of small-diameter intestine that is the major site of digestion of food and absorption of nutrients. It's segments are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

acetyl CoA

a 2-carbon compound [acetate or acetic acid] to which a molecule of CoA is attached.

lactate

a 3-carbon compound produced from the pyruvate during anaerobic metabolism.

biotin

a B vitamin that functions as a coenzyme in metabolism.

thiamin

a B vitamin. The coenzyme form is TPP.

riboflavin

a B vitamin. The coenzyme forms are FMN (Flavin mononucleotide) and FAD (Flavin ademine dinucleatide)

niacin

a B vitamin. The coenzyme forms are NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleatide) and NADP (the phosphate form of NAD). Niacin can be eaten performed or made in the body from its precursor, tryptophan, an essential amino acid.

pantothenic

a B vitamin. The principal active form is part of coenzyme A, called "CoA" throughout chapter 7.

folate

a B vitamin; also known as folic acid, folacin, or pteroglutamic acid (PGA). The coenzyme forms are DHF and THF (tetrahydrofolate).

vitamin B12

a B-vitamin characterized by the presence of cobalt. The active forms of coenzyme B12 are methylcobalamin and deoxyadenosylcobalamin.

reflux

a backward flow

pernicious anemia

a blood disorder that reflects a vitamin B12 deficiency caused by lack of intrinsic factor and characterized by abnormally large and immature red blood cells. Other symptoms include muscle weakness and irreversible neurological damage.

peptide bond

a bond that connects the acid end of one amino acid with the amino end of another, forming a link in a protein chain.

hypothalamus

a brain center that controls activities such as maintenance of water balance, regulation of body temperature, and control of appetite.

whey protein

a by-product of cheese production; falsely promoted as increasing muscle mass. Whey is the watery part of milk that separated from the curds.

osteocalcin

a calcium-binding protein in bones, essential for normal mineralization.

calmudulin

a calcium-binding protein that regulates such cell activities as muscle contractions.

calbindin

a calcium-binding transport protein that requires vitamin D for its synthesis.

oxaloacetate

a carbohydrate intermediate of the TCA cycle.

magnesium

a cation within the body's cells, active in may enzyme systems.

salt sensitivity

a characteristic of individuals who respond to a high salt intake with an increase in blood pressure or to a low salt intake with a decrease in blood pressure.

hydrogenation

a chemical process by which hydrogens are added to monosaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids to reduce the number of double bonds, making the fats more saturated (solid) and more resistant to oxidation (protecting against rancidity). Hydrogenation produces trans-fatty acid.

neuropeptide Y

a chemical produced in the brain that stimulates appetite; diminished energy expenditure, and increases fat storage.

hydrolysis

a chemical reaction in which one molecule is split into two molecules, with hydrogen (H) added to one and a hydroxyl group (OH) to the from water (H20)

condensation

a chemical reaction in which water is released as two molecules combine to form one larger product.

acne

a chronic inflammation of the skin's follicles and oil-producing glands, which leads to an accumulation of oils inside the ducts that surround hairs; usually associated with the maturation of young adults.

sphincter

a circular muscle surrounding, and able to close a body opening. Sphincters are found at specific points along the GI tract and regulate flow of food particles.

ATP or adenosine triphosphate

a common high-energy compound composed of a purine (adenine), a sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups.

antagonist

a competing factor that counteracts the action of another factor. When a drug displaces a vitamin from its site of action, the drug renders the vitamin ineffective and thus acts as a vitamin antagonist.

salt

a compound composed of a positive ion other than H+ and a negative ion other than OH-. An example is sodium chloride.

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

a compound similar to DNA, but RNA is a single strand with a ribose sugar instead of a deoxyribose sugar and uracil instead of thymine as one of its bases.

phospholipids

a compound similar to a triglyceride but having a phosphate group (a phosphorus-containing salt) and choline (or another nitrogen-containing compound) in place of one of the fatty acids.

ammonia

a compound with the chemical formula NH3, produced during the deamination of amino acids.

nutrition assessment

a comprehensive analysis of a person's nutrition status that uses health, socioeconomic, drug and diet histories; anthropogenic measurements; physical examinations, and laboratory tests.

pre-diabetes

a condition in which a person's blood glucose levels are above normal but not high enough for a diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes.

oxidative stress

a condition in which the production of oxidants and free radicals exceeds the body's ability to handle them and prevent damage.

risk factor

a condition or behavior associated with an elevated frequency of a disease but not yet proved to be casual. Leading risk factors for chronic diseases include obesity, cigarette smoking, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, physical inactivity, and a diet high in saturated fats and low in vegetables, and whole grains.

cretinism

a congenital disease characterized by mental and physical retardation commonly caused by maternal iodine deficiency during pregnancy.

pica

a craving for and consumption of nonfood substances. Pica is known as geophagia when referring to eating clay, baby powderm calk, ash, ceramics, paper, paint chips, or charcoal.

hyponatremia

a decreased concentration of sodium in the blood

subclinical deficiency

a deficiency in the early stages before the outward signs have appeared

peptidase

a digestive enzyme that hydrolyzes peptide bonds. Tripeptidases cleave tripeptides; dipeptidases cleave dipeptides. Endopeptidases cleave peptide bonds within the chain to create small fragments, whereas exopeptidases cleave bonds at the ends to release free amino acids.

hemorrgagic disease

a disease characterized by excessive bleeding.

osteoporosis

a disease in which the bones become more porous and fragile due to loss of minerals; also called adult bone loss.

vitamin B6

a family of compounds---pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and pyridoxamine. The primary active coenzyme form is PLP (pyridoxal phosphate)

saturated fatty acid

a fatty acid carrying the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms---for example, stearic acid. A saturated fatty acid is composed of triglycerides in which most of the fatty acids are saturated.

polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)

a fatty acid that lacks four or more hydrogen atoms and has two or more double bonds between carbons---for example, linoleic acid (two double bonds) and linolenic acid (three double bonds). A polyunsaturated fat is composed of triglycerides in which most of the fatty acids are polyunsaturated.

unsaturated fatty acid

a fatty acid that lacks hydrogen atoms and has at least one double bond between carbons (includes monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids). An unsaturated fatty acid is composed of triglycerides in which most of the fatty acids are unsaturated.

monosaturated fatty acid (MUFA)

a fatty acid that lacks two hydrogen atoms and has on double bond between carbons---for example, oleic acid. A monosaturated fat is composed of triglycerides in which most of the fatty acids are monosaturated.

pepsin

a gastric enzyme that hydrolyzes protein. Pepsin is secreted in an inactive form, pepsinogen, which is activated by hydrochloric acid in the stomach.

tocopherol

a general term for several chemically related compounds, one of which has vitamin E activity.

Wilson's disease

a genetic disorder of copper metabolism that creates a copper toxicity and results in neurologic symptoms such as tremors, impaired speech inappropriate behaviors, and personality changes.

Menkes disease

a genetic disorder of copper transport that creates a copper deficiency and results in metal retardation, poor muscle tone, seizures, brittle kinky hair, and failure to thrive.

hemochromatosis

a genetically determined failure to prevent absorption of unneeded dietary iron that is characterized by iron overload and tissue damage.

pancreas

a gland that secretes digestive enzymes and juices into the duodenum. (The pancreas also secretes hormones into the blood that help to maintain glucose homeostasis.)

intrinsic factor

a glycoprotein (a protein with short polysaccharide chains attached) secreted by the stomach cells that binds with vitamin B12 in the small intestine o aid in the absorption of vitamin B12.

whole grains

a grain that maintains the same relative proportions of starchy endosperm, germ, and bran as the original (all but the husk); not refined.

fibrocystic breast disease

a harmless condition in which breasts develop lumps, sometimes associated with caffeine consumption. In some, it responds to abstinence from caffeine; in others, it can be treated with vitamin E.

sickle-cell anemia

a hereditary form of anemia characterized by abnormal sickle-or crescent-shaped red blood cells. Sickled cells interfere with oxygen transport and blood flow. Symptoms are precipitated by dehydration and insufficient oxygen (as may occur at high altitudes) and include hemolytic anemia (red blood cells burst), fever, and severe pain in the joints and abdomen.

hempohilia

a heridetary disease in which the blood is unable to clot because it lacks the ability to synthesize certain clotting factors.

parathyroid hormone

a hormone from the parathyroid glands that regulates blood calcium by raising it when levels fall too low; also known as parahormone.

angiotension ll

a hormone involved in blood pressure regulation.

ephinephrine

a hormone of the adrenal gland that modulates the stress response; formally called adrenaline. When administered by injection, epinephrine counteracts anaphylactic shock by opening the airways and maintaining heartbeat and blood pressure.

secretin

a hormone produced by cells in the duodenum wall. Target organ: the pancreas. Response: secretion of bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice.

cholecystiokinin

a hormone produced by cells of the intestinal wall. Target organ: the gallbladder. Response: release of bile and slowing of GI motility.

hepcidin

a hormone produced by the liver that regulates iron balance.

antidiuretic hormone

a hormone produced by the pituitary gland in response to dehydration (or a high sodium concentration in the blood) that stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water and therefore to excrete less. In addition to its antidiuretic effect. ADH elevates blood pressure and so is also called vassopression.

gastrin

a hormone secreted by cells in the stomach wall. Target organ; the glands of the stomach. Response: secretion of gastric acid.

insulin

a hormone secreted by special cells in the pancreas in response to (among other things) elevated blood glucose concentration. Insulin controls the transport of glucose from the blood stream into the muscle and fat cells.

glucagon

a hormone secreted by special cells in the pancreas in response to low blood glucose concentration. Glucagon elicits release of glucose from liver glycogen stores.

aldosterone

a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland that regulates blood pressure by increasing the reabsorption of sodium by the kidney. Aldosterone also regulates chloride and potassium concentration.

calcitonin

a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland that regulates blood calcium by lowering it when levels rise too high.

lactase deficiency

a lack of the enzyme required to digest the disaccharide into its component monosaccharides (glucose and galactose).

rhodopsin

a light-sensitive pigment of the retina that contains the retinal form of vitamin A and the protein opsin.

lymphatic system

a loosely organized system of vessels and ducts that convey fluids toward the heart. The GI part of the lymphatic system that carries the products of fat digestion into the bloodstream.

phosphorous

a major mineral found mostly in the body's bone and teeth

BMI

a measure of body weight relative to height

protein digestibility

a measure of the amount of amino acids absorbed from a given protein intake.

nutrient density

a measure of the nutrients a food provides relative to the energy it provides. The more nutrients and the fewer kcalories, the higher the nutrient density.

retinol activity equivalents

a measure of vitamin A activity; the amount of retinol that the body will derive from a food containing preformed retinol of its precursor, beta-carotene.

Healthy Eating Index

a measure that assesses how well a diet meets the recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

glycemic index

a method of classifying foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose.

sulfur

a mineral present in the body as part of some protein.

pigment

a molecule capable of absorbing certain wavelengths of light so that it reflects only those that we perceive as a certain color.

stomach

a muscular, elastic, saclike portion of the digestive tract that grinds and churns swallowed food, mixing it with acid and enzymes to for chyme.

appendix

a narrow bind sac extending from the beginning of the colon that contains bacteria and lymph cells.

serotonin

a neurotransmitter important in sleep regulation, appetite control, and sensory perception, among other roles. Serotonin is synthesized in the body from the amino acid tryptophan with the help of vitamin B6.

choline

a nitrogen-containing compound found in foods and made in the body from the amino acid methionine. Choline is part of the phospholipid lecithin and the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

phytic acid

a non-nutrient component of plant seeds; also called phytate. Phytic acid occurs in the husks of grains, legumes, and seeds, and is capable of binding minerals such as zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, and copper in insoluble complexes in the intestine, which the body excretes unused.

inositol

a nonessential nutrient that can be made in the body from glucose. Inositol is part of cell membrane structures.

carnitine

a nonessential, nonprotein amino acid made in the body from lysine that helps transport fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane.

primary deficiency

a nutrient deficiency caused by inadequate dietary intakes of a nutrient.

secondary deficiency

a nutrient deficiency caused by something other than an inadequate intake such as a disease condition or drug interaction that reduces absorption, accelerates use, hastens excretion, or destroys the nutrient.

conditionally essential nutrient

a nutrient that is normally nonessential, but must be supplied by the diet in special circumstances when the need for it exceeds the body's ability to produce it.

MFP factor

a peptide released during digestion of meat, fish, and poultry that enhances non-heme iron absorption

segmentation

a periodic squeezing or partitioning of the intestines at intervals along its length by its circular muscles

omega-6 fatty acid

a polyunsaturated fatty acid in which the closest double bond to the methyl (CH3) end of the carbon chain is six carbons away.

omega-3 fatty acid

a polyunsaturated fatty acid in which the closest double bond to the methyl (CH3) end of the carbon chain is three carbons away.

empty-kcalorie foods

a popular term used to denote foods that contribute energy but lack protein, vitamins, and minerals.

bolus

a portion; with respect to food, the amount swallowed a one time.

erythrocyte protoporphrin

a precursor to hemoglobin

calcium-binding protein

a protein in the intestinal cells made with the help of vitamin D, that facilitates calcium absorption.

sulfate

a salt produces from the oxidation of sulfur.

TCA cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle

a series of metabolic reactions that break down molecules of acetyl CoA to carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms; also called the citric acid cycle or the Kreb's cycle after the biochemist who elucidated its reactions.

Dietary References Intake

a set of nutrient intake values for healthy people in the United States and Canada. These values are used for planning and addressing diets and include: -Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) -Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) -Adequate Intakes (Al) -Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL)

mucus

a slippery substance secreted by cells of the GI lining (an other body linings) that protects the cells from exposure to digestive juices (and other destructive agents). The lining of the GI tract with its coat of mucus is a mucuous membrane.

cofactor

a small, inorganic or organic substances that facilitates the action of an enzyme.

reference protein

a standard against which to measure the quality of other proteins.

histamine

a substance produced by cells of the immune system as part of a local immune reaction to an antigen.

chelate

a substance that can grasp the positive ions of a mineral.

teratogen

a substance that causes abnormal fetal development and birth defects

vascocontrictor

a substance that constructs or narrows the blood vessels.

goitrogen

a substance that enlarges the thyroid gland and causes toxic goiter. Gotrogen's occur naturally in such foods such as cabbage, kale, brussel sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli, and kohlrabi.

emulsifier

a substance with both water-soluble and fat-soluble portions that promotes the mixing of oils and fats in a watery solution.

metallothionein

a sulfur-rich protein that avidly binds with and transports metals such as zinc.

olestra

a synthetic fat made from sucrose and fatty acids that provide 0 kcalories per gram; also known as sucrose polyester.

niacin flush

a temporary burning, tingling, and itching sensation that occurs when a person takes a large dose of nicotine acid; often accompanied by a headache and reddened face, arms, and chest.

vitamin A activity

a term referring to both the active forms of vitamin A and the precursor forms in foods without distinguishing between them.

hydrophobic

a term referring to water-fearing, or non-water-soluble, substances; also known as lipophilic (fat loving)

hydropholic

a term referring to water-loving or water-soluble substances

hydrophillic

a term referring to water-loving, or water-soluble, substances

false negative

a test result indicating that a condition is not present (negative) when in fact it is present (therefore false)

false positive

a test result indicating that a condition is present (positive) when in fact it is not present (therefore false)

atherosclerosis

a type of artery disease characterized by plaques (accumulations of lipid-containing material) on the inner walls of the arteries.

keratin

a water-insoluble protein; the normal protein of hair and nails.

-are

a word ending denoting enzyme. The word beginning often identifies the compounds the enzyme works on. Examples include: -carbohydrase: an enzyme that hydrolyzes carbohydrates -lipase: an enzyme that hydrolyzes lipids (fats) -protease: an enzyme that hydrolyzes proteins

keratinization

accumulation of keratin in a tissue; a sign of vitamin A deficiency.

adaptive thermogenesis

adjustments in energy expenditure related to changes in environment such as extreme cold and to physiological events such as overfeeding, trauma, and changes in hormone status.

vitamin A

all naturally occurring compounds with the biological activity of retinal; the alcohol form of vitamin A.

proteome

all proteins in a cell. The study of al proteins produced by a species is called proteamics

digestive system

all the organs and glands associated with the ingestion and digestion of food.

nonessential amino acids

amino acids that the body can synthesize.

essential amino acids

amino acids that the body cannot synthesize in amounts sufficient to meet physiological needs.

sigmoid

an S-shaped structure that continues from the descending colon above and joins with the rectum below

hypoglycemia

an abnormally low blood glucose concentration.

plaque

an accumulation of fatty deposits, smooth muscle cells, and fibrous connective tissue that develops in the artery walls in atherosclerosis. Plaque associated with atheroscierosis is known as ateromatous.

hydrochloric acid

an acid composed of hydrogen and chloride atoms that is normally produced by the gastric glands.

glycerol

an alcohol composed of a three-carbon chain, which can serve as the backbone for a triglyceride.

bicarbonate

an alkaline compound with the formula HCO3 that is secreted from the pancreas as part of the pancreatic juice. (Bicarbonate is also produced in all cell fluids from the dissociation of carbonic acid to help maintain the body's acid-base balance.)

conditionally essential amino acids

an amino acid that is normally nonessential, but must be supplied by the diet in special circumstances when the need for it exceeds the body's ability to produce it.

waist circumference

an anthrometric measurement used to assess a person's abdominal fat.

bile

an emulsifier that prepares fats and oils for digestion; an exocrine secretion made by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine when needed.

goiter

an enlargement of the thyroid gland due to an iodine deficiency, malfunction of the gland, or overconsumption of a goitrogen. Goiter caused by iodine deficiency is sometimes called simple goiter.

renin

an enzyme from the kidneys that hydrolyzes the protein angiotensinogen.

hormone-sensitive lipase

an enzyme inside adipose cells that responds to the body's need for fuel by hydrolyzing triglycerides so that their so that their parts (glycerol and fatty acids) escape into the general circulation and thus become available to other cells for fuel. The signals to which this enzyme responds include epinephrine and glucagon, which oppose insulin.

amylase

an enzyme that hydrolyzes amylose. Amylase is a carbohydrase, an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates.

lactase

an enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose

maltase

an enzyme that hydrolyzes maltose

sucrase

an enzyme that hydrolyzes sucrose

lipoprotein lipase (LPL)

an enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides passing by in the bloodstream and directs their parts into the cells, where they can be metabolized for energy or reassembled for storage.

linolenic

an essential fatty acid with 18 carbons and three double bonds.

linoleic acid

an essential fatty acid with 18 carbons and two double bonds.

manganese

an essential trace mineral that acts as a cofactor for many enzymes.

molybdenum

an essential trace mineral that acts as a cofactor for many enzymes.

chromium

an essential trace mineral that enhances the activity of insulin

iodine

an essential trace mineral that is needed for the synthesis of thyroid function.

iron

an essential trace mineral that is needed for the transport of oxygen and the metabolism of energy nutrients.

selenium

an essential trace mineral that is part of an antioxidant enzyme.

copper

an essential trace mineral that is part of many enzymes

zinc

an essential trace mineral that is part of may coenzymes and a constituent of insulin.

fluoride

an essential trace mineral that makes teeth stronger and more resistant to decay.

angiotensin I

an inactive precursor that is converted by an enzyme to yield active angiotensin ll.

phenylketonuria

an inherited disorder characterized by failure to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine.

hemosiderin

an iron-storage protein primarily made in times of iron overload.

eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)

an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid with 20 carbons and five double bonds; present in fatty fish and synthesized in limited amounts in the body from linolenic acid.

docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty with 22 carbons and six double bonds; presented in fatty fish and synthesized in limited amounts in the body from linolenic acid.

arachidonic acid

an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid with 20 carbons and four double bonds; present in small amounts in meat and other animal products and synthesized in the body from linoleic acid.

keto acid

an organic acid that contains a carbonyl group

keto acid

an organic acid that contains a carbonyl group.

ketosis

an undesirably high concentration of ketone bodies in the blood and urine.

free radicals

an unstable molecule with one or more unpaired electrons.

malnutrition

any condition caused by excess or deficient food energy or nutrient intake or by an imbalance of nutrients.

antioxidants

as a food additive, preservatives that delay or prevent rancidity of fats in foods and other damage to food caused by oxygen.

ions

atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons and therefore have electrical charges. Examples include the positively charged sodium ion and the negatively charged chloride ion.

re

back

glottis

back of tongue

flora

bacteria in the intestines.

sphincter

band (binder)

underweight

below the standard weight range for your height

-lysis

breaking

sucrase

breaks down sucrose

amino acids

building blocks of protein. Each contains an amino group, an acid group, a hydrogen atom, and a distinctive side group, all attached to a central carbon atom.

goblet cells

cells of the GI tract that secrete mucus.

epithelial cells

cells on the surface of the skin and mucous membrane.

glands

cells or groups of cells that secrete materials for special uses in the body. Glands may be exocrine glands, secreting their materials "out", or endocrine glands, secreting materials "in" (into the blood).

binders

chemical compounds in foods that combine with nutrients (especially minerals) to form complexes the body cannot absorb. Examples include phytates (FYEtates) and oxalates (OCK-sa-lates).

hormones

chemical messengers. Hormones are secreted by a variety of glands in response to altered conditions in the body. Each hormone travels to one or more specific target tissues or organs, where it elicits a specific response to maintain homeostasis.

nutrients

chemical substances obtained from food and used in the body to provide energy, structural materials, and regulating agents to support growth, maintenance, and repair of the body's tissues. Nutrients may also reduce the risk of some diseases.

neurotransmitters

chemicals that are released at the end of a nerve impulse arrives there. They diffuse across the gap to the next cell and alter the membrane of that second cell to wither inhibit or excite it.

atrophic gastritis

chronic inflammation of the stomach accompanied by a diminished size and functioning of the mucous membrane and glands. This condition is also characterized by inadequate hpernicydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor---two substances needed for B12 absorption.

lipoproteins

clusters of lipids associated with proteins that serve as transport vehicles for lipids in the lymph and blood.

CoA

coenzyme A; the coenzyme derived from the B vitamin pantothenic acid and central to energy metabolism.

coenzymes

complex organic molecules that work with enzymes to facilitate the enzymes' activity. Many coenzymes have B vitamins as part of their structures.

coenzymes

complex organic molecules that work with enzymes to facilitate the enzymes' activity. Many have B vitamins as part of their structure.

proteins

compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms, arranged into amino acids linked in a chain. Some amino acids also contain sulfur atoms.

carbohydrates

compounds composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen arranged as monosaccharides or multiples of monosaccharides. Most, but not all, carbohydrates have a ratio of one carbon molecule to one water molecule.

sterols

compounds containing a four-ring carbon structure with any of a variety of side chains attached.

buffers

compounds hat keep a solution's pH constant when acids or bases are added

ketone bodies

compounds produced during the incomplete breakdown of fat when glucose is not available in the cells.

bases

compounds that accept hydrogen ions in a solution

fuel

compounds that cells can use for energy. The major fuels include glucose, fatty attention, and amino acids; other fuels include ketone bodies, lactate, glycerol, and alcohol.

buffer

compounds that keep a solution's pH constant when acids or bases are added.

acids

compounds that release hydrogen ions in a solution

Insulin resistant

condition in which body cells do not respond to insulin even though adequate amounts of insulin are present; may result in even higher levels of insulin being released, high blood glucose, and abnormal metabolism of body fuels

hydroxyapatite

crystals made of calcium and phosphorus,

eating patterns

customary intake of foods and beverages

dental caries

decay of teeth

under-nutrition

deficient energy of nutrients.

eicosanoids

derivatives of 20-carbon fatty acids; biologically active compounds that help to regulate blood pressure, blood clotting, and other body functions.

exchange lists

diet-planning tools that organize foods by their proportion to carbohydrates, fats, and protein. Foods on any single list can be used interchangeably.

food group plans

diet-planning tools that sort foods into groups based on nutrient content and then specify that people should eat certain amounts of foods from each group.

high-quality proteins

dietary proteins containing all the essential amino acids in relatively the same amounts that human beings require. They may also contain nonessential amino acids.

preformed vitamin A

dietary vitamin A in its active form

fluorosis

discoloration and piting of tooth enamel caused by excess fluoride during tooth development.

Chronic diseases

diseases characterized by slow progression and long duration. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and some cancers.

cardiovascular disease (CVD)

diseases of the heart and blood vessels throughout the body. Atherosclerpsos is the main cause of CVD. When the arteries that carry blood to the heart muscle become blocked, the heart suffers damage known as coronary heart disease (CHD)

solutes

dissolved substances

bottled water

drinking water sold in bottles

variety (dietary)

eating a wide selection of foods within and among the major food groups.

thermal effect of food (TEF)

energy used for digestion, absorption, and transport of nutrients

lactase

enzyme that breaks down lactose

metalloenzymes

enzymes that contain one or more minerals as part of their structure.

lipases

enzymes that hydrolyze lipids. Lingual lipase refers to the fat-digesting enzyme secreted from the salivary gland at the base of the tongue.

proteases

enzymes that hydrolyze protein.

major minerals

essential mineral nutrients the human body requires in relatively large amounts (greater than 100 miligrams per day); sometimes called macronutrients

trace minerals

essential mineral nutrients the human body requires in relatively small amount (less than 100 milligrams per day); sometimes called micronutrients.

over-nutrition

excess energy of nutrients.

central obesity

excess fat around the trunk of the body; also called abdominal fat or upper-body fat.

gastric glands

exocrine glands in the stomach wall that secrete gastric juice into the stomach.

subcutaneous fat

fat stored directly under the skin

visceral fat

fat stored within the abdominal cavity in association with the internal abdominal organs; also called intra-abdominal fat.

solid fats

fats that are not usually liquid at room temperature; commonly found in most foods derived from animals and vegetable oils that have been hydrogenated. Solid fats typically contain more saturated fats than most oils.

essential fatty acids

fatty acids made by the body but not made by it in sufficient amounts to meet physiological needs.

trans-fatty acids

fatty acids with hydrogens on opposite sides of the double bond.

flux

flow

intestinal ischemia

flow of the intestines that is characterized by abdominal pain forceful bowel movements, and blood in the stool.

extracellular fluid

fluid outside the cell

prebiotics

food components (such as fibers) that are not digested by the human body but are used as food by the GI bacteria to promote their growth and activity.

functional foods

foods that contain bioactive components that provide health benefits beyond their nutrient contribution.

processed foods

foods that have been treated to change their physical, chemical, microbiological, or sensory properties.

sterile

free of microorganisms, such as bacteria.

exogenous

from outside the body

endogenous

from within the body

viscous

gel-like consistency

adrenal glands

glands adjacent to and just above, each kidney.

calcium rigor

hardness or stiffness of the muscles caused by high blood concentrations.

overweight

heavier than the standard weight range for your height

covert

hidden, as if under covers

acidosis

higher-than-normal acidity in the blood and body fluids.

alkalosis

higher-than-normal alkalinity (base) in the blood and body fluids.

organic

in chemistry, a substance or molecule containing carbon-carbon bonds or carbon-hydrogen bonds. This definition excludes coal, diamonds, and a few carbon-containing compounds that contain only a single carbon and no hydrogen, such as carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and sodium cyanide.

dietary fibers

in plant foods, the non-starch polysaccharides that are not digested by human digestive enzymes, although some are digested by the GI tract bacteria.

antioxidants

in the body, substances that significantly decrease the adverse effects of free radicals on normal physiological functions.

fat replacers

ingredients that replace some or all of the functions of fat and may or may not provide energy.

minerals

inorganic elements. Some minerals are essential nutrients required in small amounts by the body for health.

calcium tetany

intermittent spasm of the extremities due to nervous and muscular excitability caused by low blood calcium concentration.

intestinalis

intestine

contamination iron

iron found in foods as the result of contamination by inorganic iron salts fro iron cookware, iron-containing soils, and the like.

chymos

juice

antibodies

large proteins of the blood and body fluids, produced by the immune system in response to the invasion of the body by foreign molecules (usually proteins called antigens). Antibodies combine with inactive the foreign invaders, thus protecting the body.

oils

lipids that are liquid at room temperature

fats

lipids that are solid at room temperature

hepatic

liver

probiotics

living microorganisms found in foods and dietary supplements that, when consumed in sufficient quantities are beneficial to health.

fluid balance

maintenance of the proper types and amounts of fluid in each compartment of the body fluids.

neural tube defects

malformation of the brain, spinal cord, or both during embryonic development that often result in lifelong disability or death.

kcalorie (energy) control

management of food energy intake

poly

many

polypeptide

many (10 or more) amino acids bonded together.

yogurt

milk product that results from the fermentation of lactic acid in milk by Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophiles.

heavy metals

mineral ions such as mercury and lead, so called because they are relatively high atomic weight. Many heavy metals are poisonous.

monoglycerides

molecules with one fatty acid attached. A molecule with two fatty acid attached is a diglyceride.

anions

negatively charged ions

Phytochemicals

non-nutrient compounds found in plants. Some phytochemicals have biological activity in the body.

soluble fibers

non-starch polysaccharides that dissolve in water to form a gel. An example is pectin from fruit, which is used to thicken jellies.

insoluble fibers

non-starch polysaccharides that do not dissolve in water. Examples include tough, fibrous structures found in strings of celery and the skins of corn kernels.

in

not

inorganic

not containing carbon or pertaining to living things.

anaerobic

not requiring oxygen

essential nutrients

nutrients a person must obtain from food because the body cannot make them for itself in sufficient quantity to meet physiological needs; also called indispensable nutrients. About 40 nutrients are currently known to be essential for human beings.

cis

on the near side of; refers to a chemical configuration in which the hydrogen atoms are located on the same side of a double bond.

trans

on the other side of, refers to a chemical configuration in which the hydrogen atoms are located on opposite sides of a double bond.

mono

one

beta-carotene

one of the carotenoids; an orange pigment and vitamin A precursor in plants.

lecithin

one of the phospholipids. Both nature and the food industry use lecithin as an emulsifier to combine water-soluble and fat-soluble ingredients that do not ordinarily mix, such as water and oil.

cholesterol

one of the sterols containing a four-ring carbon structure with a carbon side chain

ascorbic acid

one of the two active forms of vitamin C. Many people refer to vitamin C by this name.

fatty acids

organic compounds composed of a carbon chain with hydrogens attached and an acid group (COOH) at one end and a methyl group (CH3) at the other end.

vitamins

organic, essential nutrients required in small amounts by the body for health.

vitamins

organic, essential nutrients required in small amounts by the body for health. Vitamins regulate body processes that support growth maintain life.

overt

out in the open and easy to observe

coupled reactions

pairs of chemical reactions in which some of the energy released from the breakdown of one compound is used to create a bond in the formation of another compound.

pectins

pectins are considered soluble dietary fiber

mutations

permanent changes in the DNA that can be inherited.

dissociates

physically seperates

xanthophyllis

pigments found in plants responsible for the color changes seen in autumn leaves.

legumes

plants of the bean and pea family, with seeds that are rich in protein compared with other plant-derived foods.

cations

positively charged ions

osmotic pressure

pressure that must be applied to prevent osmotic movement across a selectively permeable membrane

Foods

products derived from plants or animals that can be taken into the body to yield energy and nutrients for the maintenance of life and growth and repair of tissues.

xerophthalmia

progressive blindness caused by inadequate production due to severe vitamin A deficiency.

digestive enzymes

proteins found in digestive juices that act on food substances; causing them to break down into simpler components.

adipokines

proteins synthesized and secreted by adipose cells.

enzymes

proteins that facilitate chemical reactions without being changed in the process; process catalysts.

adequacy (dietary)

providing all essential nutrients, fiber, and energy in amounts sufficient to maintain health.

moderation (dietary)

providing enough but not too much of a substance.

balance (dietary)

providing foods in proportion to one another an in proportion to the body's needs/

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges

ranges of intakes for the energy nutrients that provide adequate energy and nutrients and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

nutrient profiling

ranking foods based on their nutrient composition

catabolism

reactions in which large molecules are broken down to smaller ones. Catabolic reactions release energy.

anabolism

reactions in which small molecules are put together to build larger ones. Anabolic reactions require energy.

Daily Values (DV)

reference values developed by the FDA specifically for use on food labels.

anthropometric

relating to measure of the physical characteristics of the body, such as weight and height.

aerobic

requiring oxygen

microarray technology

research tools that analyze the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously and search for particular gene changes associated with a disease. DNA microarrays are also called DNA chips.

blood lipid profile

results of blood tests that reveal a person's total cholesterol, triglycerides, and various lipoproteins.

electrolytes

salts that dissolve in water and dissociate into charged particles called ions.

genes

sections of chromosomes tat contain the instructions needed to make one or more proteins.

conjugated linoleic acids

several fatty acids that have the same chemical formula as linoleic acid (18 carbons, two double bonds) but with different configurations (the double bonds occur on adjacent carbons).

intermittent claudication

severe calf pain caused by inadequate blood supply. It occurs when walking and subsides during rest.

iron-deficiency anemia

severe depletion of iron stores that result in low hemoglobin and small, pale red blood cells. Anemias that impair hemoglobin synthesis are microcytic (small cell_

resting metabolic rate (RMR)

similar to the basal metabolic rate (BMR), a measure of energy use for a person at rest in a comfortable setting, but with less stringent criteria for recent food intake and physical activity. Consequently, the RMR is slightly higher than the BMR)

slight blindness

slow recovery of vision after flashes of bright light at night or an inability to see in dim light, an early symptom of vitamin A deficiency.

capillaries

small vessels that branch from an artery. Capillaries connect arteries to veins. Exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste materials takes place across capillary walls.

osteomalacia

softening of bone

keratomalacia

softening of the cornea that leads to irreversible blindness; a sign of severe vitamin A deficiency.

electrolyte solutions

solutions that can conduct electricity.

complex carbohydrates

starches found in grains, potatoes, and vegetables

nutrient claim

statements that characterize the quantity of a nutrient in a food.

health claims

statements that characterize the relationship between a nutrient or other substance in a food and its role in the body.

structure-function claims

statements that characterize the relationship between a nutrient or other substances in a food and its role in the body.

gastro

stomach

chromosomes

structures within the nucleaus of a cell made of DNA and associated proteins. Human beings have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. Each chromosomes has many genes.

antigens

substances that elicit the formation of antibodies or an inflammation reaction from the immune system. A bacterium, a virus, a toxin, and a problem in food that causes allergy are all examples of antigens.

precursors

substances that precede others; with regard to vitamins, compounds that can be converted into active vitamins, known as provitamins.

emulsifiers

substances with both water-soluble and fat-soluble portions that promote the mixing of oils and fats in watery solutions.

absorb

suck in

added sugars

sugars and other kcalorie sweeteners that are added to foods during processing, preparation, or at the table. Added sugars do not include the naturally occurring sugars found in fruits and milk products.

simple carbohydrates

sugars in fruits, honey, & sugar cane

nutritive sweeteners

sweeteners that yield energy including both sugars and sugar alcohols.

Digest

take apart

protein-sparing action

the action of carbohydrates (and fat) in providing energy that allows protein to be used for other purposes.

alpha-tocopherol

the active vitamin E compound

methylation

the addition of a methyl group (CH3)

fortified

the addition to a food of nutrients that were either not originally present or present in insignificant amounts. Fortification can be used to correct or prevent widespread nutrient deficiency or to balance the total nutrient profile of a food.

enriched

the addition to a food of specific nutrients to replace losses that occur during processing so that the food will meet specified standards.

oral rehydration therapy

the administration of a simple solution of sugar, salt, and water, taken by mouth to treat dehydration caused by diarrhea.

retinol

the alcohol form of vitamin A

dietary folate equivalents (DFE)

the amount of folate available to the body from naturally occurring sources, fortified foods, and supplements, accounting for differences in the bioavailability from each source.

niacin equivalents (NE)

the amount of niacin present in food, including the niacin that can theoretically be made from its precursor, tryptohan, present in the food.

nitrogen balance

the amount of nitrogen consumed (N in) as compared with the amount of nitrogen (excreted (N out) in a given period of time.

Adequate Intake (Al)

the average daily amount of a nutrient that appears sufficient to maintain a specified criterion; a value used as a guide for nutrient intake when an RDA cannot be determined.

Estimated Energy Requirement(EER)

the average dietary energy intake that maintains energy balance and good health in a person of given age, gender, weight, height, and level of physical activity.

water balance

the balance between water intake and output

matrix

the basic substance that gives form to a developing structure; in the body, the formative cells from which teeth and bones grow.

immunity

the body's ability to defend itself against diseases.

adipose tissue

the body's fat tissue; consists of masses of triglyceride-storing cells.

erythrocyte hemolysis

the breaking open of red blood cells; a symptom of vitamin E deficiency disease in human beings.

Energy

the capacity to do work. The energy in food is chemical energy. The body can convert this chemical energy to mechanical, electrical, or heat energy.

type 2 diabetes

the cells fail to respond to insulin

mitochondria

the cellular organelles responsible for producing ATP aerobically; made of membranes (lipid and protein) with enzymes mounted on them. (The singular is mitochondrion).

denaturation

the change in a protein's shape and consequent loss of its function brought about by heat, agitation, acid, base, alcohol, heavy metals, or other agents.

triglycerides

the chief form of fat in the diet and the major storage form of fat in the body, composed of a molecule of glycerol with three fatty acids attached; also called triacyglycerols.

pyloric sphincter

the circular muscle that separates the stomach from the small intestine and regulates the flow of partially digested food into the small intestine; also called pylorous or pyloric valve.

enteropancreatic circulation

the circulation route from the pancreas to the small intestine and back to the pancreas.

chylomicrons

the class of lipoproteins that transport lipids from the intestinal cells to the rest of the body.

human genome

the complete set of genetic material (DNA) in a human being.

genome

the complete set of genetic material in an organism or a cell. The study of genomes is called genomics.

milliequivalents per liter

the concentration of electrolytes in a volume of solution. Milliequivalents reveal characteristics about the solution that are not evident when the concentration is expressed in terms of weight.

insulin resistance

the condition in which a normal amount of insulin produces a subnormal effect in muscle, adipose, and liver cells, resulting in an elevated fasting glucose; a metabolic consequence of obesity that precedes type 2 diabetes.

hemolytic anemia

the condition of having too few red blood cells as a result of erythrocyte hemolysis.

Gluconeogenesis

the conversion of protein to glucose

protein turnover

the degredation and synthesis of protein.

gastric juice

the digestive secretion of the gastric glands of the stomach.

remodeling

the dismantling and re-formation of a structure.

point of unsaturation

the double bond of a fatty acid, where hydrogen atoms can easily be added to the structure

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

the double helix molecules of which genes are made.

neural tube

the embryonic tissue that forms the brain and spinal cord. The two main types of neural tube defects are spinal bifda (literally "split spine") and anencephaly ("no brains")

basal metabolism

the energy needed to maintain life when a body is at complete digestive. physical, and emotional rest.

limiting amino acid

the essential amino acid found in the shortest supply relative to the amounts needed for protein synthesis in the body. Four amino acids are most likely to be limiting: -Lysine -Methionine -Threonine -Tryptophan

branched-chain amino acids

the essential amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine, which are present in large amounts in skeletal muscle tissue; falsely promoted as fuel for exercising muscles.

glycemic response

the extent to which a food raises the blood glucose concentration and elicits an insulin response.

satiety

the feeling of fullness and satisfaction that occurs after a meal and inhibits eating until the next meal. Satiety determines how much time passes between meals.

satiation

the feeling of satisfaction and fullness that occurs during a meal and halts eating. Satiation determines how much food is consumed during a meal.

electron transport chain

the final pathway in energy metabolism the transports electrons from hydrogen to oxygen and captures the energy released in the bonds of ATP; also called the respiratory chain.

Diet

the foods and beverages a person eats and drinks.

thermogenesis

the generation of heat; used in physiology and nutrition studies as an index of how much energy the body is expending.

hemoglobin

the globular protein of the red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells throughout the body.

chlorophyll

the green pigment of plants, which absorbs light and transfers the energy to other molecules, thereby initiating photosynthesis.

keshan disease

the heart disease associated with selenium deficiency; named for one of the provinces of China where it was first studied. Keshan disease is characterized by heart enlargement and insufficiently; fibrous tissues replaces the muscle tissue that normally composes the middle layer of the walls of the heart.

peak bone mass

the highest attainable bone density for an individual, developed during the first three decades of life.

retina

the innermost membrane of the eye, composed of several layers including one that contains the rods and cones.

appetite

the integrated response to the sight, smell, thought, or taste of food that initiates or delays eating.

heme iron

the iron in foods that is bound to the hemoglobin and myoglobin proteins; found only in meat, fish, and poultry.

nonheme iron

the iron in foods that is not bound to proteins; found in both plants-derived and animal-derived foods.

ferritin

the iron storage protein.

transferrin

the iron transport protein

discretionary kcalories

the kcalories remaining in a person's energy allowance after consuming enough nutrient-dense foods to meet nutrient needs for a day.

aorta

the large, primary artery that conducts blood from the heart to the body's smaller arteries.

omega

the last letter of the Greek alphabet, used by chemists to refer to the position of the closest double bond to the methyl (CH3) end of a fatty acid.

ileocecal valve

the last segment of the small intestine

epithelial tissues

the layer of the body that serves as a selective barrier between the body's interior and the environment. Examples are the cornea of the eyes, the skin, the respiratory lining of the lungs, and the lining of the digestive tract.

large intestine or colon

the lower portion of the intestine that competes the digestive process. Is segments are the ascending colon, transverse colon, the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon. Organ that receives digestive waste from the small intestine and concentrates it as feces.

Requirement

the lowest continuing intake of a nutrient that will maintain a specified criterion of adequacy.

thoracic

the main lymphatic vessel that collects lymph and drains into the left subclavian vein.

homeostasis

the maintenance of constant internal conditions, temperature, and blood pressure by the body's control systems.

chloride

the major anion in extracellular fluids of the body. Chloride s the ionic form of chlorine.

gluconeogenesis

the making of glucose from a non-carbohydrate source such a amino acids of glycerol.

Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)

the maximum daily amount of a nutrient that appears safe for most healthy people and beyond which there is an increased risk of adverse health effects.

mucous membranes

the membranes, composed of mucus-secreting cells, that line the surfaces of body tissues.

fatty acid oxidation

the metabolic breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl CoA; also called beta oxidation.

glycolysis

the metabolic breakdown of glucose to pyruvate. Glycolysis does not require oxygen (anaerobic).

obligatory water excretion

the minimum amount of water the body has to excrete each day to dispose of its wastes---about 500 ml (about 2 cups, or 1 pint)

calcium

the most abundant mineral in the body; found primarily in the body's bones and teeth.

rectum

the muscular terminal part of the intestine, extending from the sigmoid colon to the anus.

pellagra

the niacin-deficiency disease.

nucleotide bases

the nitrogen-containing building blocks of DNA and RNA---cytosine (C)m thymine (T), uracil (U), guanine (G), and adenine (A). In DNA, the base pairs are A--T and C--G and in RNA, the base pairs are A--U and C--G

physiological fuel value

the number of kcalories that the body derives from a food, in contrast to the number of kcalories determined by calorimetry.

energy-yielding nutrients

the nutrients that break down to yield energy the body can use: carbohydrate, fat, and protein.

lumen

the opening in a vessel through which fluid flows

mouth

the oral cavity containing the tongue and teeth

liver

the organ that manufactures bile.

gallbladder

the organ that stores and concentrates bile. When it receives the signal that fat is present in the duodenum, the gallbladder contracts and squirts bile through the bile duct into the duodenum.

antiscorbutic factor

the original name for vitamin C.

myoglobin

the oxygen-holding protein of the muscle cells.

hunger

the painful sensation caused by a lack of food that initiates food-seeking behavior.

type 1 diabetes

the pancreas fails to produce insulin

pharynx

the passageway leading from the nose and mouth to the larynx and esophagus, respectively. A passageway leading from behind the nasal cavity to the trachea.

Cori cycle

the pathway in which glucose is metabolized to lactate (by anaerobic glycolysis) in the muscle, lactate is converted back to glucose in the liver, and then glucose is returned to the muscle; named after the scientist who elucidated this pathway.

percent Daily Value (%DV)

the percentage of a Daily Value recommendation found in specified serving of food for key nutrient based on a 2000 calorie diet.

hematocrit

the percentage of total blood volume that consists of red blood cells.

sodium

the principal cation in the extracellular fluids of the body; critical to the maintenance of fluid balance, nerve impulse transmission, and muscle contractions.

potassium

the principal cation within the body's cells; critical to the maintenance of fluid balance, nerve impulse transmissions, and muscle contractions.

urea

the principal nitrogen-excretion product of protein metabolism. Two ammonia fragments are combines with carbon dioxide to form urea.

gene expression

the process by which a cell convers the genetic code into RNA and protein.

gene expression

the process by which a cell converts the genetic code into RNA and protein

Digestion

the process by which food is broken down into absorbable units.

photosynthesis

the process by which green plants use the sun's energy to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water.

cell differentation

the process by which immature cells develop specific functions different from those of the original that are characteristic of their mature cell type.

refined

the process by which the parts of a food are removed. When wheat is refined into flour, the bran, germ, and husk are removed, leaving only the endosperm.

mineralization

the process in which calcium, phosphorus, and other minerals crystallize on the collagen matrix of a growing bone, hardening the bone.

oxidation

the process of a substance combining with oxygen; oxidation reactions involve the loss of electrons.

transcription

the process of messenger RNA being made from template of DNA,

translation

the process of messenger RNA directing the sequence of amino acids and synthesis of proteins.

body composition

the proportions of muscle, bone, fat, and other tissue that make up a person's total body weight.

opsin

the protein portion of visual pigment molecules.

portion sizes

the quantity of a food served or eaten at one meal or snack; not a standard amount.

water intoxication

the rare condition in which body water contents are too high in all body fluid compartments.

bioavailability

the rate at and the extent to which a nutrient is absorbed and used.

basal metabolic rate (BMR)

the rate of energy use for metabolism under specified conditions; after a 12-hour fast and restful sleep, without any physical activity or emotional excitement, and in a comfortable setting. It is usually expressed as kcalories per kilogram body weight per hour.

nutritional genomics

the science of how nutrients affect the activities of genes and how genes affect the interaction between diet and diseases.

Nutrition

the science of the nutrients in foods and their actions within the body. A broader definition includes the study of human behaviors relating to food and eating.

chyme

the semiliquid mass of partially digested food expelled by the stomach into the duedenum

retinol-binding protein (RBP)

the specific protein responsible for transporting retinol.

fluorapartite

the stabilized form of bone and tooth crystal, in which fluoride has replaced the hydroxyl groups of hydroxyapatite.

serving sizes

the standardized quantity of a food, such information allows comparisons when reading food labels and consistency when following the Dietary Guidelines.

iron deficiency

the state of having depleted iron stores

collagen

the structural protein from which connective tissues such as scars, tendons, ligaments, and the foundations of bones and teeth are made.

genomics

the study of all the genes in any organism and their interaction with environmental factors.

genetics

the study of genes and inheritance

epigenetics

the study of heritable changes in gene function that occur without a change in the DNA sequence.

nucleotides

the subunits of DNA and RNA molecules, composed of a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar (deozyribose for DNA and ribose for RNA), and a nitrogen-containing base.

metabolism

the sum total of all the chemical reactions that go on in living cells. Energy metabolism includes all the reactions by which the body obtains and expands the energy from food.

amino acid pool

the supply of amino acids derived from with food proteins or body proteins that collect in the cells and circulation blood and stand ready to be incorporated in proteins and other compounds or used for energy.

edema

the swelling of body tissues caused by excessive amounts of fluid in the interstitial spaces; seen in protein deficiency (among other conditions).

anus

the terminal outlet of the GI tract

beriberi

the thiamin deficiency disease.

transamination

the transfer of an amino group from one amino acid to a keto acid, producing a new nonessential amino acid and a new keto acid.

cornea

the transparent membrane covering the outside of the eye

LDL (low-density lipoproteins)

the type of lipoprotein derived from very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) as triglycerides are removed and broken down; composed primarily of cholesterol.

VLDL (very-low-density lipoprotein)

the type of lipoprotein made primarily by the liver cells to transport lipids by various tissues in the body; composed primarily of triglycerides.

HDL (high-density lipoprotein)

the type of lipoprotein that transports cholesterol back to the liver from the cells; composed primarily of protein.

absorption

the uptake of nutrients by the cells of the small intestine for transport into either the blood or the lymph.

hepatic portal vein

the vein that collects blood from the GI tract and conducts it to the liver.

hepatic vein

the vein that collects blood from the liver and returns it to the heart.

subclavin

the vein that provides passageway from the lymphatic system in the vascular system.

tri

three

tripeptide

three amino acids bonded together

micelles

tiny spherical complexes of emulsified fat that arise during digestion; most contain bile salts and the products of lipid digestion, including fatty acids, monoglycerides, and cholesterol.

iron overload

toxicity from excess iron

crypts

tubular glands that lie between the intestinal villi and secrete intestinal juices into the small intestine

duodecim

twelve

dipeptide

two amino acids bonded together

complementary proteins

two or more dietary proteins whose amino acids assortments complement each other in such a way that the essential amino acids missing from one are supplied by the other.

epi

upon (over)

arteries

vessels that carry blood from the heart to the tissues

veins

vessels that carry blood to the heart.

calciferol

vitamin D

vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol

vitamin D derived from animals in the diet or made in the skin from 7-dehydrocholestterol, a precursor of cholesterol, with the help of sunlight.

vitamin D2 or ergocalciferol

vitamin D derived from plants in the diet.

metabolic water

water generated during metabolism

hard water

water with a high calcium and magnesium content

soft water

water with a high sodium or potassium content.

peristalsis

wavelike muscular contractions of the GI tract that push its contents along.

artificial fats

zero-energy fat replacers that are chemically synthesized to mimic the sensory and cooking qualities of naturally occurring fats but are totally or partially resistant to digestion.