Nutrition (All Terms)

hyperactivity

(in children) a syndrome characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, and excess motor activity; usually diagnosed before age 7, lasts six months or more, and usually does not entail mental illness or mental retardation. Properly called attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

websites

Internet resources composed of text and graphic files, each with a unique URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that names the site (for example, www.usda.gov).

built environment

The buildings, roads, utilities, homes, fixtures, parks, and all other man-made entities that form the physical characteristics of a community.

riboflavin (RIBE-o-flay-vin)

a B vitamin active in the body's energy-releasing mechanisms.

pantothenic (PAN-to-THEN-ic) acid

a B vitamin and part of a critical coenzyme needed in energy metabolism, among other roles.

thiamin (THIGH-uh-min)

a B vitamin involved in the body's use of fuels.

niacin

a B vitamin needed in energy metabolism. Niacin can be eaten preformed or made in the body from tryptophan, one of the amino acids. Other forms of niacin are nicotinic acid, niacinamide, and nicotinamide.

vitamin B6

a B vitamin needed in protein metabolism. Its three active forms are pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine.

folate (FOH-late)

a B vitamin that acts as part of a coenzyme important in the manufacture of new cells. The form added to foods and supplements is folic acid.

vitamin B12

a B vitamin that helps to convert folate to its active form and also helps maintain the sheath around nerve cells. Vitamin B12's scientific name, not often used, is cyanocobalamin.

biotin (BY-o-tin)

a B vitamin; a coenzyme necessary for fat synthesis and other metabolic reactions.

sushi

a Japanese dish that consists of vinegar-flavored rice, seafood, and colorful vegetables, typically wrapped in seaweed. Some sushi contains raw fish; other sushi contains only cooked ingredients.

Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)

a USDA program offering low-income pregnant and lactating women and those with infants or preschool children coupons redeemable for specific foods that supply the nutrients deemed most necessary for growth and development. For more information, visit www.usda.gov/FoodandNutrition.

unbleached flour

a beige-colored refined endosperm flour with texture and nutritive qualities that approximate those of regular white flour.

hypothermia

a below-normal body temperature.

low birthweight

a birthweight of less than 51/2 pounds (2,500 grams); used as a predictor of probable health problems in the newborn and as a probable indicator of poor nutrition status of the mother before and/or during pregnancy. Low-birthweight infants are of two different types. Some are premature infants; they are born early and are the right size for their gestational age. Other low-birthweight infants have suffered growth failure in the uterus; they are small for gestational age (small for date) and may or may not be premature.

fasting plasma glucose test

a blood test that measures current blood glucose in a person who has not eaten or consumed caloric beverages for at least 8 hours; the test can detect both diabetes and prediabetes. Plasma is the fluid part of whole blood.

HbA1C test

a blood test that measures hemoglobin molecules with glucose attached to them (Hb stands for hemoglobin). The test reflects blood glucose control over the previous few months. Also called glycosylated hemoglobin test, or A1C test.

peptide bond

a bond that connects one amino acid with another, forming a link in a protein chain.

heartburn

a burning sensation in the chest (in the area of the heart) caused by backflow of stomach acid into the esophagus.

carcinogen (car-SIN-oh-jen)

a cancer-causing substance (carcin means "cancer"; gen means "gives rise to").

agave syrup

a carbohydrate-rich sweetener made from a Mexican plant; a higher fructose content gives some agave syrups a greater sweetening power per calorie than sucrose.

bile

a cholesterol-containing digestive fluid made by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine when needed. It emulsifies fats and oils to ready them for enzymatic digestion (described in Chapter 5).

sphincter (SFINK-ter)

a circular muscle surrounding, and able to close, a body opening.

Wernicke-Korsakoff (VER-nik-ee KOR-sah-koff) syndrome

a cluster of symptoms involving nerve damage arising from a deficiency of the vitamin thiamin in alcoholism. Characterized by mental confusion, disorientation, memory loss, jerky eye movements, and staggering gait.

premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

a cluster of symptoms that some women experience prior to and during menstruation. They include, among others, abdominal cramps, back pain, swelling, headache, painful breasts, and mood changes.

metabolic syndrome

a combination of central obesity, high blood glucose (insulin resistance), high blood pressure, and altered blood lipids that greatly increase the risk of heart disease. (Also defined in Chapter 11.)

metabolic syndrome

a combination of characteristic factors—high fasting blood glucose or insulin resistance, central obesity, hypertension, low blood HDL cholesterol, and elevated blood triglycerides—that greatly increase a person's risk of developing CVD. Also called insulin resistance syndrome.

high-fructose corn syrup

a commercial sweetener used in many foods, including soft drinks. Composed almost entirely of the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, its sweetness and caloric value are similar to sucrose.

bicarbonate

a common alkaline chemical; a secretion of the pancreas; also the active ingredient of baking soda.

flavonoids (FLAY-von-oyds)

a common and widespread group of phytochemicals, with over 6,000 identified members; physiologic effects may include antioxidant, antiviral, anticancer, and other activities. Flavonoids are yellow pigments in foods; flavus means "yellow."

macular degeneration

a common, progressive loss of function of the part of the retina that is most crucial to focused vision (the macula is shown on page 237). This degeneration often leads to blindness.

athlete

a competitor in any sport, exercise, or game requiring physical skill; for the purpose of this book, anyone who trains at a high level of physical exertion, with or without competition. From the Greek athlein, meaning "to contend for a prize."

dolomite

a compound of minerals (calcium magnesium carbonate) found in limestone and marble. Dolomite is powdered and is sold as a calcium-magnesium supplement but may be contaminated with toxic minerals, is not well absorbed, and interacts adversely with absorption of other essential minerals.

lactate

a compound produced during the breakdown of glucose in anaerobic metabolism.

serotonin (SARE-oh-TONE-in)

a compound related in structure to (and made from) the amino acid tryptophan. It serves as one of the brain's principal neurotransmitters.

norepinephrine (NOR-EP-ih-NEFF-rin)

a compound related to epinephrine that helps to elicit the stress response.

prooxidant

a compound that triggers reactions involving oxygen.

emulsifier (ee-MULL-sih-fire)

a compound with both water-soluble and fat-soluble portions that can attract fats and oils into water, combining them.

diuretic (dye-you-RET-ic)

a compound, usually a medication, causing increased urinary water excretion; a "water pill."

maple syrup

a concentrated solution of sucrose derived from the sap of the sugar maple tree. This sugar was once common but is now usually replaced by sucrose and artificial maple flavoring.

honey

a concentrated solution primarily composed of glucose and fructose, produced by enzymatic digestion of the sucrose in nectar by bees.

concentrated fruit juice sweetener

a concentrated sugar syrup made from dehydrated, deflavored fruit juice, commonly grape juice; used to sweeten products that can then claim to be "all fruit."

insulin resistance

a condition in which a normal or high level of circulating insulin produces a less-than-normal response in muscle, liver, and adipose tissues; thought to be a metabolic consequence of obesity.

learning disability

a condition resulting in an altered ability to learn basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics.

pica (PIE-ka)

a craving and intentional consumption of nonfood substances. Also known as geophagia (gee-oh-FAY-gee-uh) when referring to clay eating and pagophagia (pag-oh-FAY-geeuh) when referring to ice craving (geo means "earth"; pago means "frost"; phagia means "to eat").

fluorapatite (floor-APP-uh-tight)

a crystal of bones and teeth, formed when fluoride displaces the "hydroxy" portion of hydroxyapatite. Fluorapatite resists being dissolved back into body fluid.

tofu (TOE-foo)

a curd made from soybeans that is rich in protein, often enriched with calcium, and variable in fat content; used in many Asian and vegetarian dishes in place of meat. Also defined in Controversy 2.

water intoxication

a dangerous dilution of the body's fluids resulting from excessive ingestion of plain water. Symptoms are headache, muscular weakness, lack of concentration, poor memory, and loss of appetite.

atrophy (AT-tro-fee)

a decrease in size (for example, of a muscle) because of disuse.

hyponatremia (high-poh-nah-TREE-meeah)

a decreased concentration of sodium in the blood.

hyponatremia (HIGH-poh-nah-TREEmee-ah)

a decreased concentration of sodium in the blood; also defined in Chapter 8.

alcoholism

a dependency on alcohol marked by compulsive uncontrollable drinking with negative effects on physical health, family relationships, and social health.

very low food security

a descriptor for households that, at times during the year, experienced disrupted eating patterns or reduced food intake of one or more household members because of a lack of money or other resources for food. Example: a family in which one or more members went to bed hungry, lost weight, or didn't eat for a whole day because they did not have enough food.

high food security

a descriptor for households with no problems or anxiety about consistently accessing adequate food.

marginal food security

a descriptor for households with problems or anxiety at times about accessing adequate food, but the quality, variety, or quantity of their food intake were not substantially reduced. Example: a parent worried that the food purchased would not last until the next paycheck.

low food security

a descriptor for households with reduced dietary quality, variety, and desirability but with adequate quantity of food and normal eating patterns. Example: a family whose diet centers on inexpensive, low-nutrient foods such as refined grains, inexpensive meats, sweets, and fats.

exchange system

a diet-planning tool that organizes foods with respect to their nutrient content and calories. Foods on any single exchange list can be used interchangeably. See Appendix D for details.

food group plan

a diet-planning tool that sorts foods into groups based on their nutrient content and then specifies that people should eat certain minimum numbers of servings of foods from each group.

sucrose (SOO-crose)

a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; sometimes known as table, beet, or cane sugar and, often, as simply sugar.

lactose

a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; sometimes known as milk sugar (lact means "milk"; ose means "sugar").

maltose

a disaccharide composed of two glucose units; sometimes known as malt sugar.

prion (PREE-on)

a disease agent consisting of an unusually folded protein that disrupts normal cell functioning. Prions cannot be controlled or killed by cooking or disinfecting, nor can the disease they cause be treated; prevention is the only form of control.

cancer

a disease in which cells multiply out of control and disrupt normal functioning of one or more organs.

autoimmune disorder

a disease in which the body develops antibodies to its own proteins and then proceeds to destroy cells containing these proteins. Examples are type 1 diabetes and lupus.

osteoporosis (OSS-tee-oh-pore-OH-sis)

a disease of older persons characterized by porous and fragile bones that easily break, leading to pain, infirmity, and death. Also defined in Chapter 8.

celiac (SEE-lee-ack) disease

a disorder characterized by intestinal inflammation on exposure to the dietary protein gluten; also called gluten-sensitive enteropathy or celiac sprue.

pop-up thermometer

a disposable timing device commonly used in turkeys. The center of the device contains a stainless steel spring that "pops up" when food reaches the right temperature.

eating disorder

a disturbance in eating behavior that jeopardizes a person's physical or psychological health.

night eating syndrome

a disturbance in the daily eating rhythm associated with obesity, characterized by no breakfast, more than half of the daily calories consumed after 7 p.m., frequent nighttime awakenings to eat, and a high calorie intake.

drink

a dose of any alcoholic beverage that delivers half an ounce of pure ethanol.

heavy episodic drinking

a drinking pattern that includes occasional or regular consumption of four or more alcoholic beverages in a short time period. Also called binge drinking.

intrinsic factor

a factor found inside a system. The intrinsic factor necessary to prevent pernicious anemia is now known to be a compound that helps in the absorption of vitamin B12.

lactoferrin (lack-toe-FERR-in)

a factor in breast milk that binds iron and keeps it from supporting the growth of the infant's intestinal bacteria.

lipid (LIP-id)

a family of organic (carbon-containing) compounds soluble in organic solvents but not in water. Lipids include triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids, and sterols.

saturated fatty acid

a fatty acid carrying the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms (having no points of unsaturation). A saturated fat is a triglyceride that contains three saturated fatty acids.

monounsaturated fatty acid

a fatty acid containing one point of unsaturation.

unsaturated fatty acid

a fatty acid that lacks some hydrogen atoms and has one or more points of unsaturation. An unsaturated fat is a triglyceride that contains one or more unsaturated fatty acids.

polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)

a fatty acid with two or more points of unsaturation.

critical period

a finite period during development in which certain events may occur that will have irreversible effects on later developmental stages. A critical period is usually a period of cell division in a body organ.

iron-deficiency anemia

a form of anemia caused by a lack of iron and characterized by red blood cell shrinkage and color loss. Accompanying symptoms are weakness, apathy, headaches, pallor, intolerance to cold, and inability to pay attention.

cardiovascular disease (CVD)

a general term for all diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerosis is the main cause of CVD. When the arteries that carry blood to the heart muscle become blocked, the heart suffers damage known as coronary heart disease (CHD). Also defined in Chapter 5.

inborn error of metabolism

a genetic variation present from birth that may result in disease.

World Wide Web (the Web, commonly abbreviated www)

a graphical subset of the Internet.

neural tube defect (NTD)

a group of abnormalities of the brain and spinal cord apparent at birth and caused by interruption of the normal early development of the neural tube.

complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)

a group of diverse medical and health-care systems, practices, and products that are not considered to be a part of conventional medicine. Examples include acupuncture, biofeedback, chiropractic, faith healing, and many others.

control group

a group of individuals who are similar in all possible respects to the group being treated in an experiment but who receive a sham treatment instead of the real one. Also called control subjects. See also experimental group and intervention studies.

body system

a group of related organs that work together to perform a function. Examples are the circulatory system, respiratory system, and nervous system.

certified lactation consultant

a health-care provider, often a registered nurse or a registered dietitian, with specialized training and certification in breast and infant anatomy and physiology who teaches the mechanics of breastfeeding to new mothers.

glycogen (GLY-co-gen)

a highly branched polysaccharide that is made and stored by liver and muscle tissues of human beings and animals as a storage form of glucose. Glycogen is not a significant food source of carbohydrate and is not counted as one of the complex carbohydrates in foods.

growth hormone

a hormone (somatotropin) that promotes growth and that is produced naturally in the pituitary gland of the brain.

insulin

a hormone from the pancreas that helps glucose enter cells from the blood (details in Chapter 4).

glucagon

a hormone from the pancreas that stimulates the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream.

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone)

a hormone made in the adrenal glands that serves as a precursor to the male hormone testosterone; recently banned by the FDA because it poses the risk of life-threatening diseases, including cancer. Falsely promoted to burn fat, build muscle, and slow aging.

epinephrine (epp-ih-NEFF-rin)

a hormone of the adrenal gland that counteracts anaphylactic shock by opening the airways and maintaining heartbeat and blood pressure.

antidiuretic (AN-tee-dye-you-RET-ick) hormone (ADH)

a hormone produced by the pituitary gland in response to dehydration (or a high sodium concentration in the blood). It stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water and so to excrete less. (This hormone should not be confused with the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, which is also abbreviated ADH.)

ghrelin (GREL-in)

a hormone released by the stomach that signals the brain's hypothalamus and other regions to stimulate eating.

hepcidin (HEP-sid-in)

a hormone secreted by the liver in response to elevated blood iron. Hepcidin reduces iron's absorption from the intestine and its release from storage.

insulin

a hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to a high blood glucose concentration. It assists cells in drawing glucose from the blood.

glucagon (GLOO-cah-gon)

a hormone secreted by the pancreas that stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood when blood glucose concentration dips.

tocopherol (tuh-KOFF-er-all)

a kind of alcohol. The active form of vitamin E is alpha-tocopherol.

100% whole grain

a label term for food in which the grain is entirely whole grain, with no added refined grains.

balance study

a laboratory study in which a person is fed a controlled diet and the intake and excretion of a nutrient are measured. Balance studies are valid only for nutrients like calcium (chemical elements) that do not change while they are in the body.

organosulfur compounds

a large group of phytochemicals containing the mineral sulfur. Organosulfur phytochemicals are responsible for the pungent flavors and aromas of foods belonging to the onion, leek, chive, shallot, and garlic family and are thought to stimulate cancer defenses in the body.

liver

a large, lobed organ that lies just under the ribs. It filters the blood, removes and processes nutrients, manufactures materials for export to other parts of the body, and destroys toxins or stores them to keep them out of the circulatory system.

structure-function claim

a legal but largely unregulated claim permitted on labels of foods and dietary supplements, often mistaken by consumers for a regulated health claim.

anaphylactic (an-ah-feh-LACK-tick) shock

a life-threatening whole-body allergic reaction to an offending substance.

kefir (KEE-fur)

a liquid form of yogurt, based on milk, probiotic microorganisms, and flavorings.

generally recognized as safe (GRAS) list

a list, established by the FDA, of food additives long in use and believed to be safe.

probiotic

a live microorganism which, when administered in adequate amounts, alters the bacterial colonies of the body in ways believed to confer a health benefit on the host.

fufu

a low-protein staple food that provides abundant starch energy to many of the world's people; fufu is made by pounding or grinding root vegetables or refined grains and cooking them to a smooth semisolid consistency.

plaque (PLACK)

a mass of microorganisms and their deposits on the surfaces of the teeth, a forerunner of dental caries and gum disease. The term plaque is also used in another connection—arterial plaque in atherosclerosis (see Chapter 11).

glycemic load (GL)

a mathematical expression of both the glycemic index and the carbohydrate content of a food, meal, or diet.

pregame meal

a meal consumed in the hours before prolonged or repeated athletic training or competition to boost the glycogen stores of endurance athletes.

pH

a measure of acidity on a point scale. A solution with a pH of 1 is a strong acid; a solution with a pH of 7 is neutral; a solution with a pH of 14 is a strong base.

bone density

a measure of bone strength, the degree of mineralization of the bone matrix.

IU (international units)

a measure of fat-soluble vitamin activity sometimes used in food composition tables and on supplement labels.

excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)

a measure of increased metabolism (energy expenditure) that continues for minutes or hours after cessation of exercise.

nutrient density

a measure of nutrients provided per calorie of food. A nutrient-dense food provides vitamins, minerals, and other beneficial substances with relatively few calories.

nutrient density

a measure of nutrients provided per calorie of food. A nutrient-dense food provides vitamins, minerals, and other beneficial substances with relatively few calories. Also defined in Chapter 1.

energy density

a measure of the energy provided by a food relative to its weight (calories per gram).

water stress

a measure of the pressure placed on water resources by human activities such as municipal water supplies, industries, power plants, and agricultural irrigation.

waist circumference

a measurement of abdominal girth that indicates visceral fatness.

dialysis (dye-AL-ih-sis)

a medical treatment for failing kidneys in which a person's blood is circulated through a machine that filters out toxins and wastes and returns cleansed blood to the body. Also called hemodialysis.

carotenoid (CARE-oh-ten-oyd)

a member of a group of pigments in foods that range in color from light yellow to reddish orange and are chemical relatives of beta-carotene. Many have a degree of vitamin A activity in the body. Also defined in Controversy 2.

cholesterol (koh-LESS-ter-all)

a member of the group of lipids known as sterols; a soft, waxy substance made in the body for a variety of purposes and also found in animal-derived foods.

antigen

a microbe or substance that is foreign to the body.

soy milk

a milk-like beverage made from soybeans, claimed to be a functional food. Soy drinks should be fortified with vitamin A, vitamin D, riboflavin, and calcium to approach the nutritional equivalency of milk.

colostrum (co-LAHS-trum)

a milklike secretion from the breasts during the first day or so after delivery before milk appears; rich in protective factors.

invert sugar

a mixture of glucose and fructose formed by the splitting of sucrose in an industrial process. Sold only in liquid form and sweeter than sucrose, invert sugar forms during certain cooking procedures and works to prevent crystallization of sucrose in soft candies and sweets.

galactose (ga-LACK-tose)

a monosaccharide; part of the disaccharide lactose (milk sugar).

fructose (FROOK-tose)

a monosaccharide; sometimes known as fruit sugar (fruct means "fruit"; ose means "sugar").

stomach

a muscular, elastic, pouchlike organ of the digestive tract that grinds and churns swallowed food and mixes it with acid and enzymes, forming chyme.

serotonin (SER-oh-TONE-in)

a neurotransmitter important in sleep regulation, appetite control, and mood regulation, among other roles. Serotonin is synthesized in the body from the amino acid tryptophan with the help of vitamin B6.

dopamine (DOH-pah-meen)

a neurotransmitter with many important roles in the brain, including cognition, pleasure, motivation, mood, sleep, and others.

retinol activity equivalents (RAE)

a new measure of the vitamin A activity of beta-carotene and other vitamin A precursors that reflects the amount of retinol that the body will derive from a food containing vitamin A precursor compounds.

creatine

a nitrogen-containing compound that combines with phosphate to burn a high-energy compound stored in muscle. Some studies suggest that creatine enhances energy and stimulates muscle growth but long-term studies are lacking; digestive side effects may occur.

carnitine

a nitrogen-containing compound, formed in the body from lysine and methionine, that helps transport fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane. Carnitine is claimed to "burn" fat and spare glycogen during endurance events, but it does neither.

olestra

a noncaloric artificial fat made from sucrose and fatty acids; formerly called sucrose polyester. A trade name is Olean.

inositol (in-OSS-ih-tall)

a nonessential nutrient found in cell membranes.

carnitine

a nonessential nutrient that functions in cellular activities.

lipoic (lip-OH-ic) acid

a nonessential nutrient.

dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (absorp-tee-OM-eh-tree)

a noninvasive method of determining total body fat, fat distribution, and bone density by passing two low-dose X-ray beams through the body. Also used in evaluation of osteoporosis. Abbreviated DEXA.

Olestra

a nonnutritive artificial fat made from sucrose and fatty acids; formerly called sucrose polyester.

subclinical deficiency

a nutrient deficiency that has no outward clinical symptoms. Also called marginal deficiency.

choline (KOH-leen)

a nutrient used to make the phospholipid lecithin and other molecules.

gout (GOWT)

a painful form of arthritis caused by the abnormal buildup of the waste product uric acid in the blood, with uric acid salt deposited as crystals in the joints.

kidneys

a pair of organs that filter wastes from the blood, make urine, and release it to the bladder for excretion from the body.

hypothalamus (high-poh-THAL-uh-mus)

a part of the brain that senses a variety of conditions in the blood, such as temperature, glucose content, salt content, and others. It signals other parts of the brain or body to adjust those conditions when necessary.

trimester

a period representing gestation. A trimester is about 13 to 14 weeks.

mutation

a permanent, heritable change in an organism's DNA.

self-efficacy

a person's belief in his or her ability to succeed in an undertaking.

lecithin (LESS-ih-thin)

a phospholipid manufactured by the liver and also found in many foods; a major constituent of cell membranes.

resveratrol (rez-VER-ah-trol)

a phytochemical of grapes under study for potential health benefits.

genistein (GEN-ih-steen)

a phytoestrogen found primarily in soybeans that both mimics and blocks the action of estrogen in the body.

lycopene (LYE-koh-peen)

a pigment responsible for the red color of tomatoes and other red-hued vegetables; a phytochemical that may act as an antioxidant in the body.

lutein (LOO-teen)

a plant pigment of yellow hue; a phytochemical believed to play roles in eye functioning and health.

starch

a plant polysaccharide composed of glucose. After cooking, starch is highly digestible by human beings; raw starch often resists digestion.

arsenic

a poisonous metallic element. In trace amounts, arsenic is believed to be an essential nutrient in some animal species. Arsenic is often added to insecticides and weed killers and, in tiny amounts, to certain animal drugs.

omega-6 fatty acid

a polyunsaturated fatty acid with its endmost double bond six carbons from the end of the carbon chain. Linoleic acid is an example.

omega-3 fatty acid

a polyunsaturated fatty acid with its endmost double bond three carbons from the end of the carbon chain. Linolenic acid is an example.

preeclampsia (PRE-ee-CLAMP-seeah)

a potentially dangerous condition during pregnancy characterized by hypertension and protein in the urine.

female athlete triad

a potentially fatal triad of medical problems seen in female athletes: disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis.

androstenedione (AN-droh-STEEN-die-own)

a precursor of testosterone that elevates both testosterone and estrogen in the blood of both males and females. Often called andro, it is sold with claims of producing increased muscle strength, but controlled studies disprove such claims.

high-risk pregnancy

a pregnancy characterized by risk factors that make it likely the birth will be surrounded by problems such as premature delivery, difficult birth, retarded growth, birth defects, and early infant death. A low-risk pregnancy has none of these factors.

thyroxine (thigh-ROX-in)

a principal peptide hormone of the thyroid gland that regulates the body's rate of energy use.

homogenization

a process by which milk fat is evenly dispersed within fluid milk; under high pressure, milk is passed through tiny nozzles to reduce the size of fat droplets and reduce their tendency to cluster and float to the top as cream.

ultra-high temperature

a process of sterilizing food by exposing it for a short time to temperatures above those normally used in processing.

oyster shell

a product made from the powdered shells of oysters that is sold as a calcium supplement but is not well absorbed by the digestive system.

biofilm

a protective coating of proteins and carbohydrates exuded by certain bacteria; biofilm adheres bacteria to surfaces and can survive rinsing.

hernia

a protrusion of an organ or part of an organ through the wall of the body chamber that normally contains the organ. An example is a hiatal (high-AY-tal) hernia, in which part of the stomach protrudes up through the diaphragm into the chest cavity, which contains the esophagus, heart, and lungs.

glycemic index (GI)

a ranking of foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose relative to a standard food such as glucose.

osteoporosis (OSS-tee-oh-pore-OH-sis)

a reduction of the bone mass of older persons in which the bones become porous and fragile (osteo means "bones"; poros means "porous"); also known as adult bone loss. (Also defined in Chapter 6.)

controlled clinical trial

a research study design that often reveals effects of a treatment on human beings. Health outcomes are observed in a group of people who receive the treatment and are then compared with outcomes in a control group of similar people who received a placebo (an inert or sham treatment). Ideally, neither subjects nor researchers know who receives the treatment and who gets the placebo (a double-blind study).

agroecology

a scientific discipline that combines biological, physical, and social sciences with ecological theory to develop methods for producing food sustainably.

listeriosis

a serious foodborne infection that can cause severe brain infection or death in a fetus or a newborn; caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, which is found in soil and water.

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)

a set of four lists of values for measuring the nutrient intakes of healthy people in the United States and Canada. The four lists are Estimated Average Requirements (EAR), Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), Adequate Intakes (AI), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL).

gastroesophageal (GAS-tro-eh-SOFF-ahjeel) reflux disease (GERD)

a severe and chronic splashing of stomach acid and enzymes into the esophagus, throat, mouth, or airway that causes injury to those organs. Untreated GERD may increase the risk of esophageal cancer; treatment may require surgery or management with medication.

eclampsia (eh-CLAMP-see-ah)

a severe complication during pregnancy in which seizures occur.

hemolytic-uremic (HEEM-oh-LIT-ic you-REEM-ick) syndrome

a severe result of infection with Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, characterized by abnormal blood clotting with kidney failure, damage to the central nervous system and other organs, and death, especially among children.

placebo

a sham treatment often used in scientific studies; an inert harmless medication. The placebo effect is the healing effect that the act of treatment, rather than the treatment itself, often has.

microbes

a shortened name for microorganisms; minute organisms too small to observe without a microscope, including bacteria, viruses, and others.

SNP

a single misplaced nucleotide in a gene that causes formation of an altered protein. The letters SNP stand for single nucleotide polymorphism.

glucose (GLOO-cose)

a single sugar used in both plant and animal tissues for energy; sometimes known as blood sugar or dextrose.

point of unsaturation

a site in a molecule where the bonding is such that additional hydrogen atoms can easily be attached.

mucus (MYOO-cus)

a slippery coating of the digestive tract lining (and other body linings) that protects the cells from exposure to digestive juices (and other destructive agents). The adjective form is mucous (same pronunciation). The digestive tract lining is a mucous membrane.

coenzyme (co-EN-zime)

a small molecule that works with an enzyme to promote the enzyme's activity. Many coenzymes have B vitamins as part of their structure (co means "with").

fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)

a spectrum of physical, behavioral, and cognitive disabilities caused by prenatal alcohol exposure.

hazard

a state of danger; used to refer to any circumstance in which harm is possible under normal conditions of use.

proof

a statement of the percentage of alcohol in an alcoholic beverage. Liquor that is 100 proof is 50% alcohol, 90 proof is 45%, and so forth.

thrombus

a stationary blood clot.

food crisis

a steep decline in food availability with a proportional rise in hunger and malnutrition at the local, national, or global level.

caffeine

a stimulant that can produce alertness and reduce reaction time when used in small doses but causes headaches, trembling, an abnormally fast heart rate, and other undesirable effects in high doses.

glycogen

a storage form of carbohydrate energy (glucose); described more fully in Chapter 4.

hydrochloric acid

a strong corrosive acid of hydrogen and chloride atoms, produced by the stomach to assist in digestion.

cathartic

a strong laxative.

antigen

a substance foreign to the body that elicits the formation of antibodies or an inflammation reaction from immune system cells. Food antigens are usually large proteins. Inflammation consists of local swelling and irritation and attracts white blood cells to the site. Also defined in Chapter 3.

solvent

a substance that dissolves another and holds it in solution.

prebiotic

a substance that may not be digestible by the host, such as fiber, but that serves as food for probiotic bacteria and thus promotes their growth.

emulsifier

a substance that mixes with both fat and water and permanently disperses the fat in the water, forming an emulsion.

histamine

a substance that participates in causing inflammation; produced by cells of the immune system as part of a local immune reaction to an antigen.

catalyst

a substance that speeds the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being permanently altered in the process. All enzymes are catalysts.

acetaldehyde (ass-et-AL-deh-hide)

a substance to which ethanol is metabolized on its way to becoming harmless waste products that can be excreted.

formaldehyde

a substance to which methanol is metabolized on the way to being converted to harmless waste products that can be excreted.

-ase (ACE)

a suffix meaning enzyme. Categories of digestive and other enzymes and individual enzyme names often contain this suffix.

malt syrup

a sweetener made from sprouted barley.

corn syrup

a syrup, mostly glucose, partly maltose, produced by the action of enzymes on cornstarch. Includes corn syrup solids.

immune system

a system of tissues and organs that defend the body against antigens, foreign materials that have penetrated the skin or body linings.

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

a systematic plan to identify and correct potential microbial hazards in the manufacturing, distribution, and commercial use of food products. HACCP may be pronounced "HASS-ip."

selective breeding

a technique of genetic modification whereby organisms are chosen for reproduction based on their desirability for human purposes, such as high growth rate, high food yield, or disease resistance, with the intention of retaining or enhancing these characteristics in their offspring.

recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology

a technique of genetic modification whereby scientists directly manipulate the genes of living things; includes methods of removing genes, doubling genes, introducing foreign genes, and changing gene positions to influence the growth and development of organisms.

acupuncture (ak-you-punk-chur)

a technique that involves piercing the skin with long, thin needles at specific anatomical points to relieve pain or illness. Acupuncture sometimes uses heat, pressure, friction, suction, or electromagnetic energy to stimulate the points.

modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)

a technique used to extend the shelf life of perishable foods; the food is packaged in a gas-impermeable container from which air is removed or to which an oxygen-free gas mixture, such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, is added.

cellulite

a term popularly used to describe dimpled fat tissue on the thighs and buttocks; not recognized in science.

partial vegetarian

a term sometimes used to mean an eating style that includes seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, vegetables, grains, legumes, fruits, and nuts; excludes or strictly limits certain meats, such as red meats. Also called semi-vegetarian.

nonalcoholic

a term used on beverage labels, such as wine or beer, indicating that the product contains less than 0.5% alcohol. The terms dealcoholized and alcohol removed mean the same thing. Alcohol free means that the product contains no detectable alcohol.

multi-grain

a term used on food labels to indicate a food made with more than one kind of grain. Not an indicator of a whole-grain food.

food deserts

a term used to describe urban and rural low-income neighborhoods and communities that have limited access to affordable and nutritious foods.

set-point theory

a theory stating that the body's regulatory controls tend to maintain a particular body weight (the set point) over time, opposing efforts to lose weight by dieting.

oven-safe thermometer

a thermometer designed to remain in the food to give constant readings during cooking.

appliance thermometer

a thermometer that verifies the temperature of an appliance. An oven thermometer verifies that the oven is heating properly; a refrigerator/freezer thermometer tests for proper refrigerator (?40°F, or ?4°C) or freezer temperature (0°F, or ?17°C).

instant-read thermometer

a thermometer that, when inserted into food, measures its temperature within seconds; designed to test temperature of food at intervals, and not to be left in food during cooking.

molasses

a thick brown syrup left over from the refining of sucrose from sugar cane. The major nutrient in molasses is iron, a contaminant from the machinery used in processing it.

epiphyseal (eh-PIFF-ih-seal) plate

a thick, cartilage-like layer that forms new cells that are eventually calcified, lengthening the bone (epiphysis means "growing" in Greek).

embolus (EM-boh-luss)

a thrombus that breaks loose and travels through the blood vessels (embol means "to insert").

thrombosis

a thrombus that has grown enough to close off a blood vessel. A coronary thrombosis closes off a vessel that feeds the heart muscle. A cerebral thrombosis closes off a vessel that feeds the brain (thrombo means "clot"; the cerebrum is part of the brain).

aflatoxin (af-lah-TOX-in)

a toxin from a mold that grows on corn, grains, peanuts, and tree nuts stored in warm, humid conditions; a cause of liver cancer prevalent in tropical developing nations. (To prevent it, discard shriveled, discolored, or moldy foods.)

chromium picolinate

a trace element supplement; falsely promoted to increase lean body mass, enhance energy, and burn fat.

herbal medicine

a type of CAM that uses herbs and other natural substances to prevent or cure diseases or to relieve symptoms.

brown adipose tissue (BAT)

a type of adipose tissue abundant in hibernating animals and human infants and recently identified in human adults. Abundant pigmented enzymes of energy metabolism give BAT a dark appearance under a microscope; the enzymes release heat from fuels without accomplishing other work. Also called brown fat.

collagen (KAHL-ah-jen)

a type of body protein from which connective tissues such as scars, tendons, ligaments, and the foundations of bones and teeth are made.

single-use temperature indicator

a type of instant-read thermometer that changes color to indicate that the food has reached the desired temperature. Discarded after one use, they are often used in commercial food establishments to eliminate cross-contamination.

gluten (GLOO-ten)

a type of protein in certain grain foods that is toxic to the person with celiac disease.

nori

a type of seaweed popular in Asian, particularly Japanese, cooking.

dietary folate equivalent (DFE)

a unit of measure expressing the amount of folate available to the body from naturally occurring sources. The measure mathematically equalizes the difference in absorption between less absorbable food folate and highly absorbable synthetic folate added to enriched foods and found in supplements.

arthritis

a usually painful inflammation of joints caused by many conditions, including infections, metabolic disturbances, or injury; usually results in altered joint structure and loss of function.

fork thermometer

a utensil combining a meat fork and an instant-read food thermometer.

macrobiotic diet

a vegan diet composed mostly of whole grains, beans, and certain vegetables; taken to extremes, macrobiotic diets can compromise nutrient status.

pernicious (per-NISH-us) anemia

a vitamin B12-deficiency disease, caused by lack of intrinsic factor and characterized by large, immature red blood cells and damage to the nervous system (pernicious means "highly injurious or destructive").

osteoporosis

a weakening of bone mineral structures that occurs commonly with advancing age. Also defined in Chapter 8.

white wheat

a wheat variety developed to be paler in color than common red wheat (most familiar flours are made from red wheat). White wheat is similar to red wheat in carbohydrate, protein, and other nutrients, but it lacks the dark and bitter, but potentially beneficial, phytochemicals of red wheat.

tofu

a white curd made of soybeans, popular in Asian cuisines, and considered to be a functional food.

high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)

a widely used commercial caloric sweetener made by adding enzymes to cornstarch to convert a portion of its glucose molecules into sweet-tasting fructose.

Internet (the Net)

a worldwide network of millions of computers linked together to share information.

kefir

a yogurt-based beverage.

sustainable

able to continue indefinitely; the use of resources in ways that maintain both natural resources and human life into the future; the use of natural resources at a pace that allows the earth to replace them and does not cause pollution to accumulate.

gestational diabetes

abnormal glucose tolerance appearing during pregnancy.

neural tube defects (NTD)

abnormalities of the brain and spinal cord apparent at birth and associated with low folate intake in women before and during pregnancy. The neural tube is the earliest brain and spinal cord structure formed during gestation. Also defined in Chapter 13.

keratinization

accumulation of keratin in a tissue; a sign of vitamin A deficiency.

antacids

acid-buffering agents used to counter excess acidity in the stomach. Calcium-containing preparations (such as Tums) contain available calcium. Antacids with aluminum or magnesium hydroxides (such as Rolaids) can accelerate calcium losses.

ketone bodies

acidic compounds derived from fat and certain amino acids. Normally rare in the blood, they help to feed the brain during times when too little carbohydrate is available. Also defined in Chapter 4.

ketone (kee-tone) bodies

acidic, water-soluble compounds that arise during the breakdown of fat when carbohydrate is not available.

AIDS

acquired immune deficiency syndrome; caused by infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is transmitted primarily by sexual contact, contact with infected blood, needles shared among drug users, or fluids transferred from an infected mother to her fetus or infant.

cirrhosis (seer-OH-sis)

advanced liver disease, often associated with alcoholism, in which liver cells have died, hardened, turned an orange color, and permanently lost their function.

sarcopenia (SAR-koh-PEE-nee-ah)

age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass, muscle strength, and muscle function.

alternative (low-input, or sustainable) agriculture

agriculture practiced on a small scale using individualized approaches that vary with local conditions so as to minimize technological, fuel, and chemical inputs.

behavior modification

alteration of behavior using methods based on the theory that actions can be controlled by manipulating the environmental factors that cue, or trigger, the actions.

essential amino acids

amino acids that either cannot be synthesized at all by the body or cannot be synthesized in amounts sufficient to meet physiological need. Also called indispensable amino acids.

DNA

an abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic (dee- OX-ee-RYE-bow-nu-CLAY-ick) acid, the threadlike molecule that encodes genetic information in its structure; DNA strands coil up densely to form the chromosomes (Chapter 3 provides more details).

hypoglycemia (HIGH-poh-gly-SEE-meeah)

an abnormally low blood glucose concentration, often accompanied by symptoms such as anxiety, rapid heartbeat, and sweating.

heat stroke

an acute and life-threatening reaction to heat buildup in the body.

food intolerance

an adverse reaction to a food or food additive not involving an immune response.

World Health Organization (WHO)

an agency of the United Nations charged with improving human health and preventing or controlling diseases in the world's people.

emetic (em-ETT-ic)

an agent that causes vomiting.

methanol

an alcohol produced in the body continually by all cells.

conditionally essential amino acid

an amino acid that is normally nonessential but must be supplied by the diet in special circumstances when the need for it exceeds the body's ability to produce it.

leptin

an appetite-suppressing hormone produced in the fat cells that conveys information about body fatness to the brain; believed to be involved in the maintenance of body composition (leptos means "slender").

performance nutrition

an area of nutrition science that applies its principles to maintaining health and maximizing physical performance in athletes, firefighters, military personnel, and others who must perform at high levels of physical ability.

farm share

an arrangement in which a farmer offers the public a "subscription" for an allotment of the farm's products throughout the season.

fatty liver

an early stage of liver deterioration seen in several diseases, including kwashiorkor and alcoholic liver disease, in which fat accumulates in the liver cells.

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight, self-starvation to the extreme, and a disturbed perception of body weight and shape; seen (usually) in teenage girls and young women (anorexia means "without appetite"; nervos means "of nervous origin").

binge eating disorder

an eating disorder whose criteria are similar to those of bulimia nervosa, excluding purging or other compensatory behaviors.

embolism

an embolus that causes sudden closure of a blood vessel.

bile

an emulsifier made by the liver from cholesterol and stored in the gallbladder. Bile does not digest fat as enzymes do but emulsifies it so that enzymes in the watery fluids may contact it and split the fatty acids from their glycerol for absorption.

white flour

an endosperm flour that has been refined and bleached for maximum softness and whiteness.

alcohol dehydrogenase (dee-high-DRAH-gen-ace) (ADH)

an enzyme system that breaks down alcohol. The antidiuretic hormone listed below is also abbreviated ADH.

ulcer

an erosion in the topmost, and sometimes underlying, layers of cells that form a lining. Ulcers of the digestive tract commonly form in the esophagus, stomach, or upper small intestine.

limiting amino acid

an essential amino acid that is present in dietary protein in an insufficient amount, thereby limiting the body's ability to build protein.

linolenic (lin-oh-LEN-ic) acid

an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid of the omega-3 family. The full name of linolenic acid is alpha-linolenic acid.

linoleic (lin-oh-LAY-ic) acid

an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid of the omega-6 family.

reference dose

an estimate of the intake of a substance over a lifetime that is considered to be without appreciable health risk; for pesticides, the maximum amount of a residue permitted in a food. Formerly called tolerance limit.

initiation

an event, probably occurring in a cell's genetic material, caused by radiation or by a chemical carcinogen that can give rise to cancer.

blind experiment

an experiment in which the subjects do not know whether they are members of the experimental group or the control group. In a double-blind experiment, neither the subjects nor the researchers know to which group the members belong until the end of the experiment.

overload

an extra physical demand placed on the body; an increase in the frequency, duration, or intensity of an activity. A principle of training is that for a body system to improve, it must be worked at frequencies, durations, or intensities that increase by increments.

inflammation (in-flam-MAY-shun)

an immune defense against injury, infection, or allergens and marked by heat, fever, and pain. Chronic, low-grade inflammation is associated with many disease states. Also defined in Chapter 3.

allergy

an immune reaction to a foreign substance, such as a component of food. Also called hypersensitivity by researchers.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

an inborn error of metabolism that interferes with the body's handling of the amino acid phenylalanine, with potentially serious consequences to the brain and nervous system in infancy and childhood.

hypertrophy (high-PURR-tro-fee)

an increase in size (for example, of a muscle) in response to use.

body mass index (BMI)

an indicator of obesity or underweight, calculated by dividing the weight of a person by the square of the person's height.

clone

an individual created asexually from a single ancestor, such as a plant grown from a single stem cell; a group of genetically identical individuals descended from a single common ancestor, such as a colony of bacteria arising from a single bacterial cell; in genetics, a replica of a segment of DNA, such as a gene, produced by genetic engineering.

exclusive breastfeeding

an infant's consumption of human milk with no supplementation of any type (no water, no juice, no nonhuman milk, and no foods) except for vitamins, minerals, and medications.

euphoria (you-FOR-ee-uh)

an inflated sense of well-being and pleasure brought on by a moderate dose of alcohol and by some other drugs.

food aversion

an intense dislike of a food, biological or psychological in nature, resulting from an illness or other negative experience associated with that food.

fibrosis (fye-BROH-sis)

an intermediate stage of alcoholic liver deterioration. Liver cells lose their function and assume the characteristics of connective tissue cells (become fibrous).

botulism

an often fatal foodborne illness caused by botulinum toxin, a toxin produced by the Clostridium botulinum bacterium that grows without oxygen in nonacidic canned foods.

bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BOH-vine SPUNJ-ih-form en-SEH-fal-AH-path-ee) (BSE)

an often fatal illness of the nerves and brain observed in cattle and wild game, and in people who consume affected meats. Also called mad cow disease.

levulose

an older name for fructose.

arachidonic (ah-RACK-ih-DON-ik) acid

an omega-6 fatty acid derived from linoleic acid.

beta-carotene

an orange pigment with antioxidant activity; a vitamin A precursor made by plants and stored in human fat tissue.

pancreas

an organ with two main functions. One is an endocrine function—the making of hormones such as insulin, which it releases directly into the blood (endo means "into" the blood). The other is an exocrine function—the making of digestive enzymes, which it releases through a duct into the small intestine to assist in digestion (exo means "out" into a body cavity or onto the skin surface).

glycerol (GLISS-er-all)

an organic compound, three carbons long, of interest here because it serves as the backbone for triglycerides.

genetically engineered organism (GEO)

an organism produced by genetic engineering; the term genetically modified organism (GMO) is often used to mean the same thing.

transgenic organism

an organism resulting from the growth of an embryonic, stem, or germ cell into which a new gene has been inserted.

diploma mill

an organization that awards meaningless degrees without requiring its students to meet educational standards. Diploma mills are not the same as diploma forgeries (fake diplomas and certificates bearing the names of real respected institutions). While virtually indistinguishable from authentic diplomas, forgeries can be unveiled by checking directly with the institution.

anencephaly (an-en-SEFF-ah-lee)

an uncommon and always fatal neural tube defect in which the brain fails to form.

ketosis (kee-TOE-sis)

an undesirable high concentration of ketone bodies, such as acetone, in the blood or urine.

stem cell

an undifferentiated cell that can mature into any of a number of specialized cell types. A stem cell of bone marrow may mature into one of many kinds of blood cells, for example.

polysaccharides

another term for complex carbohydrates; compounds composed of long strands of glucose units linked together (poly means "many"). Also called complex carbohydrates.

malnutrition

any condition caused by excess or deficient food energy or nutrient intake or by an imbalance of nutrients. Nutrient or energy deficiencies are forms of undernutrition; nutrient or energy excesses are forms of overnutrition.

wheat flour

any flour made from wheat, including refined white flour.

enzyme

any of a great number of working proteins that speed up a specific chemical reaction, such as breaking the bonds of a nutrient, without undergoing change themselves. Enzymes and their actions are described in Chapter 6.

carbohydrase (car-boh-HIGH-drace)

any of a number of enzymes that break the chemical bonds of carbohydrates.

lipase (LYE-pace)

any of a number of enzymes that break the chemical bonds of fats (lipids).

protease (PRO-tee-ace)

any of a number of enzymes that break the chemical bonds of proteins.

heavy metal

any of a number of mineral ions such as mercury and lead, so called because they are of relatively high atomic weight; many heavy metals are poisonous.

food contaminant

any substance occurring in food by accident; any food constituent that is not normally present.

drug

any substance that when taken into a living organism may modify one or more of its functions.

methylmercury

any toxic compound of mercury to which a characteristic chemical structure, a methyl group, has been added, usually by bacteria in aquatic sediments. Methylmercury is readily absorbed from the intestine and causes nerve damage in people.

accredited

approved; in the case of medical centers or universities, certified by an agency recognized by the U.S. Department of Education.

cognitive skills

as taught in behavior therapy, changes to conscious thoughts with the goal of improving adherence to lifestyle modifications; examples are problem-solving skills or the correction of false negative thoughts, termed cognitive restructuring.

free radicals

atoms or molecules with one or more unpaired electrons that make the atom or molecule unstable and highly reactive.

microbes

bacteria, viruses, or other organisms invisible to the naked eye, some of which cause diseases. Also called microorganisms.

antibiotic-resistant bacteria

bacterial strains that cause increasingly common and potentially fatal infectious diseases that do not respond to standard antibiotic therapy. An example is MRSA (pronounced MER-suh), a multi drug-resistant Staphyloccocus aureus bacterium.

legumes (leg-GOOMS, LEG-yooms)

beans, peas, and lentils, valued as inexpensive sources of protein, vitamins, minerals, and fiber that contribute little fat to the diet. Also defined in Chapter 6.

prenatal (pree-NAY-tal)

before birth.

alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND)

behavioral, cognitive, or central nervous system abnormalities associated with prenatal alcohol exposure.

eicosanoids (eye-COSS-ah-noyds)

biologically active compounds that regulate body functions.

prehypertension

blood pressure values that predict hypertension. See Chapter 11.

arteries

blood vessels that carry blood containing fresh oxygen supplies from the heart to the tissues (see Figure 3-3).

veins

blood vessels that carry blood, with the carbon dioxide it has collected, from the tissues back to the heart (see Figure 3-3).

physical activity

bodily movement produced by muscle contractions that substantially increase energy expenditure.

overweight

body weight above a healthy weight; BMI 25 to 29.9 (BMI is defined later).

underweight

body weight below a healthy weight; BMI below 18.5.

prehypertension

borderline blood pressure between 120 over 80 and 139 over 89 millimeters of mercury, an indication that hypertension is likely to develop in the future.

brown bread

bread containing ingredients such as molasses that lend a brown color; may be made with any kind of flour, including white flour.

wheat bread

bread made with any wheat flour, including refined enriched white flour.

organic

carbon containing. Four of the six classes of nutrients are organic: carbohydrate, fat, protein, and vitamins. Organic compounds include only those made by living things and do not include compounds such as carbon dioxide, diamonds, and a few carbon salts.

fat cells

cells that specialize in the storage of fat and form the fat tissue. Fat cells also produce fat-metabolizing enzymes; they also produce hormones involved in appetite and energy balance (see Chapter 9).

beer belly

central-body fatness associated with alcohol consumption.

anabolic steroid hormones

chemical messengers related to the male sex hormone testosterone that stimulate building up of body tissues (anabolic means "promoting growth"; sterol refers to compounds chemically related to cholesterol).

hormones

chemical messengers secreted by a number of body organs in response to conditions that require regulation. Each hormone affects a specific organ or tissue and elicits a specific response. Also defined in Chapter 3.

congeners (CON-jen-ers)

chemical substances other than alcohol that account for some of the physiological effects of alcoholic beverages, such as appetite, taste, and aftereffects.

neurotransmitters

chemicals that are released at the end of a nerve cell when a nerve impulse arrives there. They diffuse across the gap to the next cell and alter the membrane of that second cell to either inhibit or excite it.

hormones

chemicals that are secreted by glands into the blood in response to conditions in the body that require regulation. These chemicals serve as messengers, acting on other organs to maintain constant conditions.

pesticides

chemicals used to control insects, diseases, weeds, fungi, and other pests on crops and around animals. Used broadly, the term includes herbicides (to kill weeds), insecticides (to kill insects), and fungicides (to kill fungi).

acne

chronic inflammation of the skin's follicles and oil-producing glands, which leads to an accumulation of oils inside the ducts that surround hairs; usually associated with the maturation of young adults.

health claims

claims linking food constituents with disease states; allowable on labels within the criteria established by the Food and Drug Administration.

nutrient claims

claims using approved wording to describe the nutrient values of foods, such as the claim that a food is "high" in a desirable constituent, or "low" in an undesirable one.

extreme obesity

clinically severe overweight, presenting very high risks to health; the condition of having a BMI of 40 or above; also called morbid obesity.

cataracts (CAT-uh-racts)

clouding of the lens of the eye that can lead to blindness. Cataracts can be caused by injury, viral infection, toxic substances, genetic disorders, and, possibly, some nutrient deficiencies or imbalances.

lipoproteins (LYE-poh-PRO-teens, LIHpoh-PRO-teens)

clusters of lipids associated with protein, which serve as transport vehicles for lipids in blood and lymph. The major lipoproteins include chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL.

food recovery

collecting wholesome surplus food for distribution to low-income people who are hungry.

dead zones

columns of oxygen-depleted ocean water in which marine life cannot survive; often caused by algae blooms that occur when agricultural fertilizers and waste runoff enter natural waterways.

granulated sugar

common table sugar, crystalline sucrose, 99.9% pure.

food pantries

community food collection programs that provide groceries to be prepared and eaten at home.

nutrients

components of food that are indispensable to the body's functioning. They provide energy, serve as building material, help maintain or repair body parts, and support growth. The nutrients include water, carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamins, and minerals.

oxidants

compounds (such as oxygen itself) that oxidize other compounds. Compounds that prevent oxidation are called antioxidants, whereas those that promote it are called prooxidants (anti means "against"; pro means "for").

proteins

compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and arranged as strands of amino acids. Some amino acids also contain the element sulfur.

salts

compounds composed of charged particles (ions). An example is potassium chloride (K+Cl-).

carbohydrates

compounds composed of single or multiple sugars. The name means "carbon and water," and a chemical shorthand for carbohydrate is CHO, signifying carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).

anticarcinogens

compounds in foods that act in any of several ways to oppose the formation of cancer.

bioactive food components

compounds in foods, either nutrients or phytochemicals, that alter physiological processes. broccoli sprouts the sprouted seed of Brassica italica, or the common broccoli plant; believed to be a functional food by virtue of its high phytochemical content.

phytochemicals

compounds in plant-derived foods (phyto means "plant").

phytochemicals (FIGH-toe-CHEM-ih-cals)

compounds in plants that confer color, taste, and other characteristics. Often, the bioactive food components of functional foods. Also defined in Chapter 1. Phyto means "plant."

tannins

compounds in tea (especially black tea) and coffee that bind iron. Tannins also denature proteins.

amino acid chelates (KEY-lates)

compounds of minerals (such as calcium) combined with amino acids in a form that favors their absorption. A chelating agent is a molecule that surrounds another molecule and can then either promote or prevent its movement from place to place (chele means "claw").

phytates (FYE-tates)

compounds present in plant foods (particularly whole grains) that bind iron and may prevent its absorption.

bases

compounds that accept hydrogens from solutions.

precursors

compounds that can be converted into active vitamins. Also called provitamins.

buffers

compounds that help keep a solution's acidity or alkalinity constant.

electrolytes

compounds that partly dissociate in water to form ions, such as the potassium ion (K+) and the chloride ion (Cl-).

antioxidants (anti-OX-ih-dants)

compounds that protect other compounds from damaging reactions involving oxygen by themselves reacting with oxygen (anti means "against"; oxy means "oxygen"). Oxidation is a potentially damaging effect of normal cell chemistry involving oxygen (more in Chapters 5 and 7).

acids

compounds that release hydrogens in a watery solution.

glucose polymers

compounds that supply glucose, not as single molecules, but linked in chains somewhat like starch. The objective is to attract less water from the body into the digestive tract.

dietary antioxidants

compounds typically found in plant foods that significantly decrease the adverse effects of oxidation on living tissues. The major antioxidant vitamins are vitamin E, vitamin C, and beta-carotene. Many phytochemicals are also antioxidants.

nectars

concentrated peach nectar, pear nectar, or others.

prediabetes

condition in which blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes; a major risk factor for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

calorie control

control of energy intake; a feature of a sound diet plan.

corn sweeteners

corn syrup and sugar solutions derived from corn.

bone meal or powdered bone

crushed or ground bone preparations intended to supply calcium to the diet. Calcium from bone is not well absorbed and is often contaminated with toxic materials such as arsenic, mercury, lead, and cadmium.

oxidative stress

damage inflicted on living systems by free radicals.

pressure ulcers

damage to the skin and underlying tissues as a result of unrelieved compression and poor circulation to the area; also called bed sores.

dental caries

decay of the teeth (caries means "rottenness"). Also called cavities.

dental caries

decay of the teeth (caries means "rottenness"). Dental caries are a topic of Chapter 14.

dental caries

decay of the teeth, commonly called cavities. Also defined in Chapter 14.

chronic diseases

degenerative conditions or illnesses that progress slowly, are long in duration, and that lack an immediate cure; chronic diseases limit functioning, productivity, and quality and length of life. Also defined in Chapter 1.

chronic diseases

degenerative conditions or illnesses that progress slowly, are long in duration, and that lack an immediate cure; chronic diseases limit functioning, productivity, and the quality and length of life. Examples include heart disease, cancer, and diabetes.

nonheme iron

dietary iron not associated with hemoglobin; the iron of plants and other sources.

high-quality proteins

dietary proteins containing all the essential amino acids in relatively the same amounts that human beings require. They may also contain nonessential amino acids.

elemental diets

diets composed of purified ingredients of known chemical composition; intended to supply all essential nutrients to people who cannot eat foods.

constipation

difficult, incomplete, or infrequent bowel movements associated with discomfort in passing dry, hardened feces from the body.

muscle fatigue

diminished force and power of muscle contractions despite consistent or increasing conscious effort to perform a physical activity; muscle fatigue may result from depleted glucose or oxygen supplies or other causes.

fluorosis (floor-OH-sis)

discoloration of the teeth due to ingestion of too much fluoride during tooth development. Skeletal fluorosis is characterized by unusually dense but weak, fracture-prone, often malformed bones, caused by excess fluoride in bone crystals.

organs

discrete structural units made of tissues that perform specific jobs. Examples are the heart, liver, and brain.

cardiovascular disease (CVD)

disease of the heart and blood vessels; disease of the arteries of the heart is called coronary heart disease (CHD). Also defined in Chapter 11.

infectious diseases

diseases that are caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, and other microbes and can be transmitted from one person to another through air, water, or food; by contact; or through vector organisms such as mosquitoes and fleas.

bottled water

drinking water sold in bottles.

xerosis (zeer-OH-sis)

drying of the cornea; a symptom of vitamin A deficiency.

EPA, DHA

eicosapentaenoic (EYE-cossa-PENTA-ee-NO-ick) acid, docosahexaenoic (DOE-cossa-HEXA-ee-NO-ick) acid; omega-3 fatty acids made from linolenic acid in the tissues of fish.

ions (EYE-ons)

electrically charged particles, such as sodium (positively charged) or chloride (negatively charged).

goiter (GOY-ter)

enlargement of the thyroid gland due to iodine deficiency is simple goiter; enlargement due to an iodine excess is toxic goiter.

acid-base balance

equilibrium between acid and base concentrations in the body fluids.

major minerals

essential mineral nutrients required in the adult diet in amounts greater than 100 milligrams per day. Also called macrominerals.

trace minerals

essential mineral nutrients required in the adult diet in amounts less than 100 milligrams per day. Also called microminerals.

central obesity

excess fat in the abdomen and around the trunk.

food banks

facilities that collect and distribute food donations to authorized organizations feeding the hungry.

risk factors

factors known to be related to (or correlated with) diseases but not proved to be causal.

promoters

factors such as certain hormones that do not initiate cancer but speed up its development once initiation has taken place.

fluid and electrolyte imbalance

failure to maintain the proper amounts and kinds of fluids and minerals in every body compartment; a medical emergency.

subcutaneous fat

fat stored directly under the skin (sub means "beneath"; cutaneous refers to the skin).

visceral fat

fat stored within the abdominal cavity in association with the internal abdominal organs; also called intra-abdominal fat.

solid fats

fats that are high in saturated fat and usually not liquid at room temperature. Some common solid fats include butter, beef fat, chicken fat, pork fat, stick margarine, coconut oil, palm oil, and shortening.

solid fats

fats that are high in saturated fatty acids and are usually solid at room temperature. Solid fats are found naturally in most animal foods but also can be made from vegetable oils through hydrogenation. Also defined in Chapter 2.

trans fats

fats that contain any number of unusual fatty acids—trans-fatty acids—formed during processing.

essential fatty acids

fatty acids that the body needs but cannot make and so must be obtained from the diet.

trans-fatty acids

fatty acids with unusual shapes that can arise when hydrogens are added to the unsaturated fatty acids of polyunsaturated oils (a process known as hydrogenation).

infomercials

feature-length television commercials that follow the format of regular programs but are intended to convince viewers to buy products and not to educate or entertain them. The statements made may or may not be accurate.

miso

fermented soybean paste used in Japanese cooking. Soy products are considered to be functional foods.

confectioner's sugar

finely powdered sucrose, 99.9% pure.

villi (VILL-ee, VILL-eye)

fingerlike projections of the sheets of cells lining the intestinal tract. The villi make the surface area much greater than it would otherwise be (singular: villus).

sports drinks

flavored beverages designed to help athletes replace fluids and electrolytes and to provide carbohydrate before, during, and after physical activity, particularly endurance activities.

nutritionally enhanced beverages

flavored beverages that contain any of a number of nutrients, including some carbohydrate, along with protein, vitamins, minerals, herbs, or other unneeded substances. Such "enhanced waters" may not contain useful amounts of carbohydrate or electrolytes to support athletic competition or training.

recovery drinks

flavored beverages that contain protein, carbohydrate, and often other nutrients; intended to support postexercise recovery of energy fuels and muscle tissue. These can be convenient, but are not superior to ordinary foods and beverages, such as chocolate milk or a sandwich, to supply carbohydrate and protein after exercise. Not intended for hydration during athletic competition or training because their high carbohydrate and protein contents may slow water absorption.

high-carbohydrate energy drinks

flavored commercial beverages used to restore muscle glycogen after exercise or as pregame beverages.

stone-ground flour

flour made by grinding kernels of grain between heavy wheels made of limestone, a kind of rock derived from the shells and bones of marine animals. As the stones scrape together, bits of the limestone mix with the flour, enriching it with calcium.

whole-wheat flour

flour made from whole-wheat kernels; a whole-grain flour. Also called graham flour.

intracellular fluid

fluid residing inside the cells that provides the medium for cellular reactions.

extracellular fluid

fluid residing outside the cells that transports materials to and from the cells.

pancreatic juice

fluid secreted by the pancreas that contains both enzymes to digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins and sodium bicarbonate, a neutralizing agent.

soluble fibers

food components that readily dissolve in water and often impart gummy or gel-like characteristics to foods. An example is pectin from fruit, which is used to thicken jellies.

ethnic foods

foods associated with particular cultural subgroups within a population.

organic foods

foods meeting strict USDA production regulations for organic, including prohibition of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, drugs, and preservatives and produced without genetic engineering or irradiation.

dextrose, anhydrous dextrose

forms of glucose.

diarrhea

frequent, watery bowel movements usually caused by diet, stress, or irritation of the colon. Severe, prolonged diarrhea robs the body of fluid and certain minerals, causing dehydration and imbalances that can be dangerous if left untreated.

edamame

fresh green soybeans, a source of phytoestrogens.

biofuels

fuels made mostly of materials derived from recently harvested living organisms. Examples are biogas, ethanol, and biodiesel.

organic gardens

gardens grown with techniques of sustainable agriculture, such as using fertilizers made from composts and introducing predatory insects to control pests, in ways that have minimal impact on soil, water, and air quality.

refined grains

grains and grain products from which the bran, germ, or other edible parts of whole grains have been removed; not a whole grain. Many refined grains are low in fiber and are enriched with vitamins as required by U.S. regulations.

whole grains

grains or foods made from them that contain all the essential parts and naturally occurring nutrients of the entire grain seed (except the inedible husk).

white sugar

granulated sucrose, produced by dissolving, concentrating, and recrystallizing raw sugar. Also called table sugar.

recombinant bovine somatotropin (somat-oh-TROPE-in) (rbST)

growth hormone of cattle, which can be produced for agricultural use by genetic engineering. Also called bovine growth hormone (bGH).

eating pattern

habitual intake of foods and beverages over time; a person's usual diet.

viscous (VISS-cuss)

having a sticky, gummy, or gel-like consistency that flows relatively slowly.

cultural competence

having an awareness and acceptance of one's own and others' cultures and abilities leading to effective interactions with all kinds of people.

bioactive

having biological activity in the body. See also the Controversy in Chapter 2.

gestational hypertension

high blood pressure that develops in the second half of pregnancy and usually resolves after childbirth.

hypertension

high blood pressure; also defined in Chapter 11.

hypertension

higher than normal blood pressure.

ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF)

highly caloric food products offering carbohydrate, lipid, protein, and micronutrients in a soft-textured paste used to promote rapid weight gain in malnourished people, particularly children.

food poverty

hunger occurring when enough food exists in an area but some of the people cannot obtain it because they lack money, are being deprived for political reasons, live in a country at war, or suffer from other problems such as lack of transportation.

foodborne illness

illness transmitted to human beings through food and water; caused by an infectious agent (foodborne infection) or a poisonous substance arising from microbial toxins, poisonous chemicals, or other harmful substances (food intoxication). Also commonly called food poisoning.

lactose intolerance

impaired ability to digest lactose due to reduced amounts of the enzyme lactase.

intensity

in exercise, the degree of effort required to perform a given physical activity.

dialysis (die-AL-ih-sis)

in kidney disease, treatment of the blood to remove toxic substances or metabolic wastes; more properly, hemodialysis, meaning "dialysis of the blood."

chronic hypertension

in pregnant women, hypertension that is present and documented before pregnancy; in women whose prepregnancy blood pressure is unknown, the presence of sustained hypertension before 20 weeks of gestation.

margin of safety

in reference to food additives, a zone between the concentration normally used and that at which a hazard exists. For common table salt, for example, the margin of safety is 1/5 (five times the amount normally used would be hazardous).

lacto-ovo vegetarian

includes dairy products, eggs, vegetables, grains, legumes, fruits, and nuts; excludes flesh and seafood.

lacto-vegetarian

includes dairy products, vegetables, grains, legumes, fruits, and nuts; excludes flesh, seafood, and eggs.

ovo-vegetarian

includes eggs, vegetables, grains, legumes, fruits, and nuts; excludes flesh, seafood, and milk products.

vegan

includes only food from plant sources: vegetables, grains, legumes, fruits, seeds, and nuts; also called strict vegetarian.

fruitarian

includes only raw or dried fruits, seeds, and nuts in the diet.

vegetarian

includes plant-based foods and eliminates some or all animal-derived foods.

appendicitis

inflammation and/or infection of the appendix, a sac protruding from the intestine.

anecdotal evidence

information based on interesting and entertaining, but not scientific, personal accounts of events.

constipation

infrequent, difficult bowel movements often caused by diet, inactivity, dehydration, or medication. Also defined in Chapter 4.

fat replacers

ingredients that replace some or all of the functions of fat and may or may not provide energy.

voluntary activities

intentional activities (such as walking, sitting, or running) conducted by voluntary muscles.

oxidation

interaction of a compound with oxygen; in this case, a damaging effect by a chemically reactive form of oxygen. Chapter 7 provides details.

irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

intermittent disturbance of bowel function, especially diarrhea or alternating diarrhea and constipation, often with abdominal cramping or bloating; managed with diet, physical activity, or relief from psychological stress. The cause is uncertain, but IBS does not permanently harm the intestines nor lead to serious diseases.

milk anemia

iron-deficiency anemia caused by drinking so much milk that iron-rich foods are displaced from the diet.

antibodies

large protein molecules that are produced in response to the presence of antigens to inactivate them. Also defined in Chapters 3 and 6.

antibodies (AN-te-bod-ees)

large proteins of the blood, produced by the immune system in response to an invasion of the body by foreign substances (antigens). Antibodies combine with and inactivate the antigens. Also defined in Chapter 3.

macrophages (MACK-roh-fah-jez)

large scavenger cells of the immune system that engulf debris and remove it (macro means "large"; phagein means "to eat"). Also defined in Chapter 3.

advertorials

lengthy advertisements in newspapers and magazines that read like feature articles but are written for the purpose of touting the virtues of products and may or may not be accurate.

flavored waters

lightly flavored beverages with few or no calories, but often containing vitamins, minerals, herbs, or other unneeded substances. Not superior to plain water for athletic competition or training.

oils

lipids that are liquid at room temperature (708F or 218C).

fats

lipids that are solid at room temperature (708F or 218C).

chylomicrons (KYE-low-MY-krons)

lipoproteins formed when lipids from a meal cluster with carrier proteins in the cells of the intestinal lining. Chylomicrons transport food fats through the watery body fluids to the liver and other tissues.

high-density lipoproteins (HDL)

lipoproteins that return cholesterol from the tissues to the liver for dismantling and disposal; contain a large proportion of protein.

low-density lipoproteins (LDL)

lipoproteins that transport lipids from the liver to other tissues such as muscle and fat; contain a large proportion of cholesterol.

very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)

lipoproteins that transport triglycerides and other lipids from the liver to various tissues in the body.

leavened (LEV-end)

literally, "lightened" by yeast cells, which digest some carbohydrate components of the dough and leave behind bubbles of gas that make the bread rise.

complex carbohydrates

long chains of sugar units arranged to form starch or fiber; also called polysaccharides.

longevity

long duration of life.

dehydration

loss of water. The symptoms progress rapidly, from thirst to weakness to exhaustion and delirium, and end in death.

T-cells

lymphocytes that attack antigens. T stands for the thymus gland of the neck, where the T-cells are stored and matured.

B-cells

lymphocytes that produce antibodies. B stands for bursa, an organ in the chicken where B-cells were first identified.

fluid and electrolyte balance

maintenance of the proper amounts and kinds of fluids and minerals in each compartment of the body.

acid-base balance

maintenance of the proper degree of acidity in each of the body's fluids.

alcohol-related birth defects (ARBD)

malformations in the skeletal and organ systems (heart, kidneys, eyes, ears) associated with prenatal alcohol exposure.

chronic malnutrition

malnutrition caused by long-term food deprivation; characterized in children by short height for age (stunting).

severe acute malnutrition (SAM)

malnutrition caused by recent severe food restriction; characterized in children by underweight for height (wasting). Moderate acute malnutrition is a somewhat less severe form.

integrated pest management (IPM)

management of pests using a combination of natural and biological controls and minimal or no application of pesticides.

skinfold test

measurement of the thickness of a fold of skin and subcutaneous fat on the back of the arm (over the triceps muscle), below the shoulder blade (subscapular), or in other places, using a caliper; also called fatfold test.

food

medically, any substance that the body can take in and assimilate that will enable it to stay alive and to grow; the carrier of nourishment; socially, a more limited number of such substances defined as acceptable by each culture.

antacids

medications that react directly and immediately with the acid of the stomach, neutralizing it. Antacids are most suitable for treating occasional heartburn.

diabetes (dye-uh-BEET-eez)

metabolic diseases characterized by elevated blood glucose and inadequate or ineffective insulin, which impair a person's ability to regulate blood glucose. The technical name is diabetes mellitus (mellitus means "honey-sweet" in Latin, referring to sugar in the urine).

capillaries

minute, weblike blood vessels that connect arteries to veins and permit transfer of materials between blood and tissues (see Figures 3-3 and 3-4).

chelating (KEE-late-ing) agents

molecules that attract or bind with other molecules and are therefore useful in either preventing or promoting movement of substances from place to place.

buffers

molecules that can help to keep the pH of a solution from changing by gathering or releasing H ions.

plaques (PLACKS)

mounds of lipid material mixed with smooth muscle cells and calcium that develop in the artery walls in atherosclerosis (placken means "patch"). The same word is also used to describe the accumulation of a different kind of deposit on teeth, which promotes dental caries.

metastasis (meh-TASS-ta-sis)

movement of cancer cells from one body part to another, usually by way of the body fluids.

minerals

naturally occurring, inorganic, homogeneous substances; chemical elements.

agility

nimbleness; the ability to quickly change directions.

anaerobic (AN-air-ROH-bic)

not requiring oxygen. Anaerobic activity is of high intensity and short duration.

Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)

nutrient intake goals for individuals; the average daily nutrient intake level that meets the needs of nearly all (97 percent to 98 percent) healthy people in a particular life stage and gender group. Derived from the Estimated Average Requirements.

Adequate Intakes (AI)

nutrient intake goals for individuals; the recommended average daily nutrient intake level based on intakes of healthy people (observed or experimentally derived) in a particular life stage and gender group and assumed to be adequate. Set whenever scientific data are insufficient to allow establishment of an RDA value.

Daily Values

nutrient standards that are printed on food labels and on grocery store and restaurant signs. Based on nutrient and energy recommendations for a general 2,000-calorie diet, they allow consumers to compare foods with regard to nutrients and calorie contents.

prenatal supplements

nutrient supplements specifically designed to provide the nutrients needed during pregnancy, particularly folate, iron, and calcium, without excesses or unneeded constituents.

bioactive food components

nutrients and phytochemicals of foods that alter physiological processes often by interacting, directly or indirectly, with the genes.

persistent

of a stubborn or enduring nature; with respect to food contaminants, the quality of remaining unaltered and unexcreted in plant foods or in the bodies of animals and human beings.

Nutrition Facts

on a food label, the panel of nutrition information required to appear on almost every packaged food. Grocers may also provide the information for fresh produce, meats, poultry, and seafood.

retinol

one of the active forms of vitamin A made from beta-carotene in animal and human bodies; an antioxidant nutrient. Other active forms are retinal and retinoic acid.

ascorbic acid

one of the active forms of vitamin C (the other is dehydroascorbic acid); an antioxidant nutrient.

leucine

one of the essential amino acids; it is of current research interest for its role in stimulating muscle protein synthesis.

spina bifida (SPY-na BIFF-ih-duh)

one of the most common types of neural tube defects in which gaps occur in the bones of the spine. Often the spinal cord bulges and protrudes through the gaps, resulting in a number of motor and other impairments.

nucleotide (NU-klee-oh-tied)

one of the subunits from which DNA and RNA are composed.

triglycerides (try-GLISS-er-ides)

one of the three main classes of dietary lipids and the chief form of fat in foods and in the human body. A triglyceride is made up of three units of fatty acids and one unit of glycerol (fatty acids and glycerol are defined later). In research, triglycerides are often called triacylglycerols (try-ay-seal-GLISS-er-ols).

sterols (STEER-alls)

one of the three main classes of dietary lipids. Sterols have a structure similar to that of cholesterol.

phospholipids (FOSS-foh-LIP-ids)

one of the three main classes of dietary lipids. These lipids are similar to triglycerides, but each has a phosphorus-containing acid in place of one of the fatty acids. Phospholipids are present in all cell membranes.

oral rehydration therapy (ORT)

oral fluid replacement for children with severe diarrhea caused by infectious disease. ORT enables parents to mix a simple solution for their child from substances that they have at home. A simple recipe for ORT: 1/2 L boiled water, 4 tsp sugar, 1/2 tsp salt.

fatty acids

organic acids composed of carbon chains of various lengths. Each fatty acid has an acid end and hydrogens attached to all of the carbon atoms of the chain.

vitamins

organic compounds that are vital to life and indispensable to body functions but are needed only in minute amounts; noncaloric essential nutrients.

obesity

overfatness with adverse health effects, as determined by reliable measures and interpreted with good medical judgment. Obesity is officially defined as a body mass index of 30 or higher.

heat cramps

painful cramps of the abdomen, arms, or legs, often occurring hours after exercise; associated with inadequate intake of fluid or electrolytes or heavy sweating.

disaccharides

pairs of single sugars linked together (di means "two").

inflammation (in-flam-MAY-shun)

part of the body's immune defense against injury, infection, or allergens, marked by increased blood flow, release of chemical toxins, and attraction of white blood cells to the affected area (from the Latin inflammare, meaning "to flame within"). Also defined in Chapter 5.

moderate drinkers

people who do not drink excessively and do not behave inappropriately because of alcohol. A moderate drinker's health may or may not be harmed by alcohol over the long term.

omnivores

people who eat foods of both plant and animal origin, including animal flesh.

vegetarians

people who exclude from their diets animal flesh and possibly other animal products such as milk, cheese, and eggs.

problem drinkers or alcohol abusers

people who suffer social, emotional, family, job-related, or other problems because of alcohol. A problem drinker is on the way to alcoholism.

lapses

periods of returning to old habits.

botanical

pertaining to or made from plants; any drug, medicinal preparation, dietary supplement, or similar substance obtained from a plant.

resistance training

physical activity that develops muscle strength, power, endurance, and mass. Resistance can be provided by free weights, weight machines, other objects, or the person's own body weight. Also called weight training, resistance exercise, or strength exercise.

aerobic activity

physical activity that involves the body's large muscles working at light to moderate intensity for a sustained period of time. Brisk walking, running, swimming, and bicycling are examples. Also called endurance activity.

hunger

physical discomfort, illness, weakness, or pain beyond a mild uneasy sensation arising from a prolonged involuntary lack of food; a consequence of food insecurity.

lignans

phytochemicals present in flaxseed, but not in flax oil, that are converted to phytoestrogens by intestinal bacteria and are under study as possible anticancer agents.

phytoestrogens (FIGH-toe-ESS-troh-gens)

phytochemicals structurally similar to the female sex hormone estrogen. Phytoestrogens weakly mimic estrogen or modulate hormone activity in the human body.

plant sterols

phytochemicals that resemble cholesterol in structure but that lower blood cholesterol by interfering with cholesterol absorption in the intestine. Plant sterols include sterol esters and stanol esters, formerly called phytosterols.

dietary supplements

pills, liquids, or powders that contain purified nutrients or other ingredients (see Controversy in Chapter 7).

exercise

planned, structured, and repetitive bodily movement that promotes or maintains physical fitness.

legumes (leg-GOOMS, LEG-yooms)

plants of the bean, pea, and lentil family that have roots with nodules containing special bacteria. These bacteria can trap nitrogen from the air in the soil and make it into compounds that become part of the plant's seeds. The seeds are rich in protein compared with those of most other plant foods. Also defined in Chapter 1.

enterotoxins

poisons that act upon mucous membranes, such as those of the digestive tract.

neurotoxins

poisons that act upon the cells of the nervous system.

acid reducers

prescription and over-the-counter drugs that reduce the acid output of the stomach; effective for treating severe, persistent forms of heartburn but not for neutralizing acid already present. Side effects are frequent and include diarrhea, other gastrointestinal complaints, and reduction of the stomach's capacity to destroy alcohol, thereby producing higher-than-expected blood alcohol levels from each drink (see this chapter's Controversy section). Also called acid controllers.

textured vegetable protein

processed soybean protein used in products formulated to look and taste like meat, fish, or poultry.

extrusion

processing techniques that transform whole or refined grains, legumes, and other foods into shaped, colored, and flavored snacks, breakfast cereals, and other products.

lactation

production and secretion of breast milk for the purpose of nourishing an infant.

monoglycerides (mon-oh-GLISS-erides)

products of the digestion of lipids; a monoglyceride is a glycerol molecule with one fatty acid attached (mono means "one"; glyceride means "a compound of glycerol").

ergogenic (ER-go-JEN-ic) aids

products that supposedly enhance performance, although few actually do so; the term ergogenic implies "energy giving" (ergo means "work"; genic means "give rise to").

emergency kitchens

programs that provide prepared meals to be eaten on-site; often called soup kitchens.

xerophthalmia (ZEER-ahf-THALL-me-uh)

progressive hardening of the cornea of the eye in advanced vitamin A deficiency that can lead to blindness (xero means "dry"; ophthalm means "eye").

immunity

protection from or resistance to a disease or infection by development of antibodies and by the actions of cells and tissues in response to a threat.

polypeptide (POL-ee-PEP-tide)

protein fragments of many (more than 10) amino acids bonded together (poly means "many"). A peptide is a strand of amino acids.

tripeptides (try-PEP-tides)

protein fragments that are three amino acids long (tri means "three").

dipeptides (dye-PEP-tides)

protein fragments that are two amino acids long (di means "two").

adipokines (AD-ih-poh-kynz)

protein hormones made and released by adipose tissue (fat) cells.

enzymes (EN-zimes)

proteins that facilitate chemical reactions without being changed in the process; protein catalysts.

histones

proteins that lend structural support to the chromosome structure and that activate or silence gene expression.

antibodies

proteins, made by cells of the immune system, that are expressly designed to combine with and inactivate specific antigens.

cognitive therapy

psychological therapy aimed at changing undesirable behaviors by changing underlying thought processes contributing to these behaviors; in anorexia, a goal is to replace false beliefs about body weight, eating, and self-worth with health-promoting beliefs.

evaporated cane juice

raw sugar from which impurities have been removed.

turbinado (ter-bih-NOD-oh) sugar

raw sugar from which the filth has been washed; legal to sell in the United States.

bulimia (byoo-LEEM-ee-uh) nervosa

recurring episodes of binge eating combined with a morbid fear of becoming fat; usually followed by self-induced vomiting or purging.

stone ground

refers to a milling process using limestone to grind any grain, including refined grains, into flour.

enriched, fortified

refers to the addition of nutrients to a refined food product. As defined by U.S. law, these terms mean that specified levels of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, and iron have been added to refined grains and grain products. The terms enriched and fortified can refer to the addition of more nutrients than just these five; read the label.

refined

refers to the process by which the coarse parts of food products are removed. For example, the refining of wheat into white enriched flour involves removing three of the four parts of the kernel—the chaff, the bran, and the germ—leaving only the endosperm, composed mainly of starch and a little protein.

training

regular practice of an activity, which leads to physical adaptations of the body with improvement in flexibility, strength, or endurance.

weight cycling

repeated rounds of weight loss and subsequent regain, with reduced ability to lose weight with each attempt; also called yo-yo dieting.

aerobic (air-ROH-bic)

requiring oxygen. Aerobic activity strengthens the heart and lungs by requiring them to work harder than normal to deliver oxygen to the tissues.

DNA microarray technology

research tools that analyze the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously and search for particular genes associated with a disease. DNA microarrays are also called DNA chips.

erythrocyte (eh-REETH-ro-sight) hemolysis (HEE-moh-LIE-sis, hee-MOLL-ihsis)

rupture of the red blood cells that can be caused by vitamin E deficiency (erythro means "red"; cyte means "cell"; hemo means "blood"; lysis means "breaking"). The anemia produced by the condition is hemolytic (HEE-moh-LIT-ick) anemia.

diverticula (dye-ver-TIC-you-la)

sacs or pouches that balloon out of the intestinal wall, caused by weakening of the muscle layers that encase the intestine. The painful inflammation of one or more of the diverticula is known as diverticulitis.

screen time

sedentary time spent using an electronic device, such as a television, computer, or video game player.

high-carbohydrate gels

semi-solid easy-to-swallow supplements of concentrated carbohydrate, commonly with potassium and sodium added; not a fluid source.

kwashiorkor (kwash-ee-OR-core, kwashee-or-CORE)

severe malnutrition characterized by failure to grow and develop, edema, changes in the pigmentation of hair and skin, fatty liver, anemia, and apathy.

marasmus (ma-RAZ-mus)

severe malnutrition characterized by poor growth, dramatic weight loss, loss of body fat and muscle, and apathy. Collectively, kwashiorkor and marasmus may be called protein-energy malnutrition.

cretinism (CREE-tin-ism)

severe mental and physical retardation of an infant caused by the mother's iodine deficiency during pregnancy.

sugars

simple carbohydrates; that is, molecules of either single sugar units or pairs of those sugar units bonded together. By common usage, sugar most often refers to sucrose.

monosaccharides (mon-oh-SACK-ahrides)

single sugar units (mono means "one"; saccharide means "sugar unit").

night blindness

slow recovery of vision after exposure to flashes of bright light at night; an early symptom of vitamin A deficiency.

flaxseed

small brown seed of the flax plant; used in baking, cereals, or other foods. Valued in nutrition as a source of fatty acids, lignans, and fiber.

methyl groups

small carbon-containing molecules that, among their activities, silence genes when applied to DNA strands by enzymes.

granules

small grains. Starch granules are packages of starch molecules. Various plant species make starch granules of varying shapes.

hiccups

spasms of both the vocal cords and the diaphragm, causing periodic, audible, short, inhaled coughs. Can be caused by irritation of the diaphragm, indigestion, or other causes. Hiccups usually resolve in a few minutes but can have serious effects if prolonged. Breathing into a paper bag (inhaling carbon dioxide) or dissolving a teaspoon of sugar in the mouth may stop them.

PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls)

stable oily synthetic chemicals once used in hundreds of U.S. industrial operations that persist today in underwater sediments and contaminate fish and shellfish. Now banned from use in the United States, PCBs circulate globally from areas where they are still in use. PCBs cause cancer, nervous system damage, immune dysfunction, and a number of other serious health effects.

urban legends

stories, usually false, that may travel rapidly throughout the world via the Internet gaining strength of conviction solely on the basis of repetition.

case studies

studies of individuals. In clinical settings, researchers can observe treatments and their apparent effects. To prove that a treatment has produced an effect requires simultaneous observation of an untreated similar subject (a case control).

intervention studies

studies of populations in which observation is accompanied by experimental manipulation of some population members—for example, a study in which half of the subjects (the experimental subjects) follow diet advice to reduce fat intakes while the other half (the control subjects) do not, and both groups' heart health is monitored.

epidemiological studies

studies of populations; often used in nutrition to search for correlations between dietary habits and disease incidence; a first step in seeking nutrition-related causes of diseases.

laboratory studies

studies that are performed under tightly controlled conditions and are designed to pinpoint causes and effects. Such studies often use animals as subjects.

cuisines

styles of cooking.

plant pesticides

substances produced within plant tissues that kill or repel attacking organisms.

additives

substances that are added to foods but are not normally consumed by themselves as foods.

incidental additives

substances that can get into food not through intentional introduction, but as a result of contact with the food during growing, processing, packaging, storing, or some other stage before the food is consumed. Also called accidental or indirect additives.

nonnutritive sweeteners

sugar substitutes that provide negligible, if any, energy. Also defined in Chapter 12.

energy drinks and energy shots

sugar-sweetened beverages in various concentrations with supposedly ergogenic ingredients, such as vitamins, amino acids, caffeine, guarana, carnitine, ginseng, and others. The drinks are not regulated by the FDA and are often high in caffeine or other stimulants.

sugar alcohols

sugarlike compounds in the chemical family alcohol derived from fruits or manufactured from sugar dextrose or other carbohydrates; sugar alcohols are absorbed more slowly than sugars, are metabolized differently, and do not elevate the risk of dental caries. Also called polyols.

added sugars

sugars and syrups added to a food for any purpose, such as to add sweetness or bulk or to aid in browning (baked goods). Also called carbohydrate sweeteners, they include concentrated fruit juice, glucose, fructose, high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, and other sweet carbohydrates. Also defined in Chapter 2.

naturally occurring sugars

sugars that are not added to a food but are present as its original constituents, such as the sugars of fruit or milk.

simple carbohydrates

sugars, including both single sugar units and linked pairs of sugar units. The basic sugar unit is a molecule containing six carbon atoms, together with oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

cesarean (see-ZAIR-ee-un) section

surgical childbirth, in which the infant is taken through an incision in the woman's abdomen.

nonnutritive sweeteners

sweet-tasting synthetic or natural food additives that offer sweet flavor but with negligible or no calories per serving; also called artificial sweeteners, intense sweeteners, noncaloric sweeteners, and very low-calorie sweeteners. Also defined in Chapter 4.

edema (eh-DEEM-uh)

swelling of body tissue caused by leakage of fluid from the blood vessels; seen in protein deficiency (among other conditions).

hemorrhoids (HEM-or-oids)

swollen, hardened (varicose) veins in the rectum, usually caused by the pressure resulting from constipation.

tissues

systems of cells working together to perform specialized tasks. Examples are muscles, nerves, blood, and bone.

amniotic (AM-nee-OTT-ic) sac

the "bag of waters" in the uterus in which the fetus floats.

small intestine

the 20-foot length of small-diameter intestine, below the stomach and above the large intestine, that is the major site of digestion of food and absorption of nutrients.

Estimated Energy Requirement (EER)

the DRI recommendation for energy intake, accounting for age, gender, weight, height, and physical activity. Also defined in Chapter 2.

muscle endurance

the ability of a muscle to contract repeatedly within a given time without becoming exhausted. This muscle characteristic develops with increasing repetition rather than increasing workload and is associated with cardiorespiratory endurance.

toxicity

the ability of a substance to harm living organisms. All substances, even pure water or oxygen, can be toxic in high enough doses.

muscle strength

the ability of muscles to overcome physical resistance. This muscle characteristic develops with increasing work load rather than repetition and is associated with muscle size.

cardiorespiratory endurance

the ability of the heart, lungs, and metabolism to sustain large-muscle exercise of moderate-to-high intensity for prolonged periods.

bioaccumulation

the accumulation of a contaminant in the tissues of living things at higher and higher concentrations along the food chain.

protein-sparing action

the action of carbohydrate and fat in providing energy that allows protein to be used for purposes it alone can serve.

MSG symptom complex

the acute, temporary, and self-limiting reactions, including burning sensations or flushing of the skin with pain and headache, experienced by sensitive people upon ingesting a large dose of MSG. Formerly called Chinese restaurant syndrome.

osteomalacia (OS-tee-o-mal-AY-shuh)

the adult expression of vitamin D-deficiency disease, characterized by an overabundance of unmineralized bone protein (osteo means "bone"; mal means "bad"). Symptoms include bending of the spine and bowing of the legs.

ethanol

the alcohol of alcoholic beverages, produced by the action of microorganisms on the carbohydrates of grape juice or other carbohydrate-containing fluids.

requirement

the amount of a nutrient that will just prevent the development of specific deficiency signs; distinguished from the DRI recommended intake value, which is a generous allowance with a margin of safety.

niacin equivalents (NE)

the amount of niacin present in food, including the niacin that can theoretically be made from its precursor tryptophan that is present in the food.

nitrogen balance

the amount of nitrogen consumed compared with the amount excreted in a given time period.

hourly sweat rate

the amount of weight lost plus fluid consumed during exercise per hour.

fermentation

the anaerobic (without oxygen) breakdown of carbohydrates by microorganisms that releases small organic compounds along with carbon dioxide and energy.

irradiation

the application of ionizing radiation to foods to reduce insect infestation or microbial contamination or to slow the ripening or sprouting process. Also called cold pasteurization.

Estimated Average Requirements (EAR)

the average daily nutrient intake estimated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group; used in nutrition research and policy making and is the basis upon which RDA values are set.

Estimated Energy Requirement (EER)

the average dietary energy intake predicted to maintain energy balance in a healthy adult of a certain age, gender, weight, height, and level of physical activity consistent with good health.

life expectancy

the average number of years lived by people in a given society.

water balance

the balance between water intake and water excretion, which keeps the body's water content constant.

aneurysm (AN-you-rism)

the ballooning out of an artery wall at a point that is weakened by deterioration.

digestive system

the body system composed of organs that break down complex food particles into smaller, absorbable products. The digestive tract and alimentary canal are names for the tubular organs that extend from the mouth to the anus. The whole system, including the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder, is sometimes called the gastrointestinal, or GI, system.

adipose tissue

the body's fat tissue, consisting of masses of fat-storing cells and blood vessels to nourish them.

adipose tissue

the body's fat tissue. Adipose tissue performs several functions, including the synthesis and secretion of the hormone leptin involved in appetite regulation.

fight-or-flight reaction

the body's instinctive hormone-and nerve-mediated reaction to danger. Also known as the stress response.

intestine

the body's long, tubular organ of digestion and the site of nutrient absorption.

lungs

the body's organs of gas exchange. Blood circulating through the lungs releases its carbon dioxide and picks up fresh oxygen to carry to the tissues.

thermic effect of food

the body's speeded-up metabolism in response to having eaten a meal; also called diet-induced thermogenesis.

amino (a-MEEN-o) acids

the building blocks of protein. Each has an amine group at one end, an acid group at the other, and a distinctive side chain.

endosperm

the bulk of the edible part of a grain, the starchy part.

fertility

the capacity of a woman to produce a normal ovum periodically and of a man to produce normal sperm; the ability to reproduce.

flexibility

the capacity of the joints to move through a full range of motion; the ability to bend and recover without injury.

energy

the capacity to do work. The energy in food is chemical energy; it can be converted to mechanical, electrical, thermal, or other forms of energy in the body. Food energy is measured in calories, defined on page 8.

plasma

the cell-free fluid part of blood and lymph.

fitness

the characteristics that enable the body to perform physical activity; more broadly, the ability to meet routine physical demands with enough reserve energy to rise to a physical challenge; or the body's ability to withstand stress of all kinds.

hydroxyapatite (hi-DROX-ee-APP-uhtight)

the chief crystal of bone, formed from calcium and phosphorus.

alpha-lactalbumin (lact-AL-byoo-min)

the chief protein in human breast milk. The chief protein in cow's milk is casein (CAY-seen).

collagen (COLL-a-jen)

the chief protein of most connective tissues, including scars, ligaments, and tendons, and the underlying matrix on which bones and teeth are built.

pyloric (pye-LORE-ick) valve

the circular muscle of the lower stomach that regulates the flow of partly digested food into the small intestine. Also called pyloric sphincter.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

the cluster of symptoms including brain damage, growth restriction, mental retardation, and facial abnormalities seen in an infant or child whose mother consumed alcohol during her pregnancy.

environmental tobacco smoke

the combination of exhaled smoke (mainstream smoke) and smoke from lighted cigarettes, pipes, or cigars (sidestream smoke) that enters the air and may be inhaled by other people.

acidosis (acid-DOH-sis)

the condition of excess acid in the blood, indicated by a below-normal pH (osis means "too much in the blood").

alkalosis (al-kah-LOH-sis)

the condition of excess base in the blood, indicated by an above-normal blood pH (alka means "base"; osis means "too much in the blood").

iron deficiency

the condition of having depleted iron stores, which, at the extreme, causes iron-deficiency anemia.

anemia

the condition of inadequate or impaired red blood cells; a reduced number or volume of red blood cells along with too little hemoglobin in the blood. The red blood cells may be immature and, therefore, too large or too small to function properly. Anemia can result from blood loss, excessive red blood cell destruction, defective red blood cell formation, and many nutrient deficiencies. Anemia is not a disease, but a symptom of another problem; its name literally means "too little blood."

cross-contamination

the contamination of a food through exposure to utensils, hands, or other surfaces that were previously in contact with a contaminated food.

protein turnover

the continuous breakdown and synthesis of body proteins involving the recycling of amino acids.

variety

the dietary characteristic of providing a wide selection of foods—the opposite of monotony.

adequacy

the dietary characteristic of providing all of the essential nutrients, fiber, and energy in amounts sufficient to maintain health and body weight.

moderation

the dietary characteristic of providing constituents within set limits, not to excess.

balance

the dietary characteristic of providing foods of a number of types in proportion to each other, such that foods rich in some nutrients do not crowd out of the diet foods that are rich in other nutrients. Also called proportionality.

gastric juice

the digestive secretion of the stomach.

genetic engineering (GE)

the direct, intentional manipulation of the genetic material of living things in order to obtain some desirable inheritable trait not present in the original organism. Also called recombinant DNA technology.

lactose, maltose, sucrose

the disaccharides.

fluid and electrolyte balance

the distribution of fluid and dissolved particles among body compartments (see also Chapter 8).

caloric effect

the drop in cancer incidence seen whenever intake of food energy (calories) is restricted.

muscle power

the efficiency of a muscle contraction, measured by force and time.

ovum

the egg, produced by the mother, that unites with a sperm from the father to produce a new individual.

neural tube

the embryonic tissue that later forms the brain and spinal cord.

acceptable daily intake (ADI)

the estimated amount of a sweetener that can be consumed daily over a person's lifetime without any adverse effects.

heart attack

the event in which the vessels that feed the heart muscle become closed off by an embolism, thrombus, or other cause with resulting sudden tissue death. A heart attack is also called a myocardial infarction (myo means "muscle"; cardial means "of the heart"; infarct means "tissue death").

aquaculture

the farming of aquatic organisms for food, generally fish, mollusks, or crustaceans, that involves such activities as feeding immature organisms, providing habitat, protecting them from predators, harvesting, and selling or consuming them.

food neophobia (NEE-oh-FOE-beeah)

the fear of trying new foods, common among toddlers.

satiety (sat-EYE-uh-tee)

the feeling of fullness or satisfaction that people experience after meals.

raw sugar

the first crop of crystals harvested during sugar processing. Raw sugar cannot be sold in the United States because it contains too much filth (dirt, insect fragments, and the like). Sugar sold as "raw sugar" is actually evaporated cane juice.

systolic (sis-TOL-ik) pressure

the first figure in a blood pressure reading (the "dupp" sound of the heartbeat's "lubb-dupp" beat is heard), which reflects arterial pressure caused by the contraction of the heart's left ventricle.

blood

the fluid of the cardiovascular system; composed of water, red and white blood cells, other formed particles, nutrients, oxygen, and other constituents.

chyme (KIME)

the fluid resulting from the actions of the stomach upon a meal.

lymph (LIMF)

the fluid that moves from the bloodstream into tissue spaces and then travels in its own vessels, which eventually drain back into the bloodstream (see Figure 3-6).

diet

the foods (including beverages) a person usually eats and drinks.

resistant starch

the fraction of starch in a food that is digested slowly, or not at all, by human enzymes.

genome (GEE-nome)

the full complement of genetic information in the chromosomes of a cell. In human beings, the genome consists of about 35,000 genes and supporting materials. The study of genomes is genomics. Also defined in Controversy 11.

genome (GEE-nohm)

the full complement of genetic material in the chromosomes of a cell. Also defined in Chapter 1.

thermogenesis

the generation and release of body heat associated with the breakdown of body fuels. Adaptive thermogenesis describes adjustments in energy expenditure related to changes in environment such as cold and to physiological events such as underfeeding or trauma.

hemoglobin

the globular protein of red blood cells, whose iron atoms carry oxygen around the body via the bloodstream (more about hemoglobin in Chapter 8).

progressive weight training

the gradual increase of a workload placed upon the body with the use of resistance.

chlorophyll

the green pigment of plants that captures energy from sunlight for use in photosynthesis.

cornea (KOR-nee-uh)

the hard, transparent membrane covering the outside of the eye.

peak bone mass

the highest attainable bone density for an individual; developed during the first three decades of life.

Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL)

the highest average daily nutrient intake level that is likely to pose no risk of toxicity to almost all healthy individuals of a particular life stage and gender group. Usual intake above this level may place an individual at risk of illness from nutrient toxicity.

inflammation

the immune system's response to cellular injury characterized by an increase in white blood cells, redness, heat, pain, and swelling. Inflammation plays a role in many chronic diseases.

fibers

the indigestible parts of plant foods, largely nonstarch polysaccharides that are not digested by human digestive enzymes, although some are digested by resident bacteria of the colon. Fibers include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, mucilages, and a few nonpolysaccharides such as lignin.

reaction time

the interval between stimulation and response.

lactase

the intestinal enzyme that splits the disaccharide lactose to monosaccharides during digestion.

heme (HEEM)

the iron-containing portion of the hemoglobin and myoglobin molecules.

denaturation

the irreversible change in a protein's folded shape brought about by heat, acids, bases, alcohol, salts of heavy metals, or other agents.

cortical bone

the ivorylike outer bone layer that forms a shell surrounding trabecular bone and that comprises the shaft of a long bone.

colon

the large intestine.

aorta (ay-OR-tuh)

the large, primary artery that conducts blood from the heart to the body's smaller arteries.

retina (RET-in-uh)

the layer of light-sensitive nerve cells lining the back of the inside of the eye.

epithelial (ep-ith-THEE-lee-ull) tissue

the layers of the body that serve as selective barriers to environmental factors. Examples are the cornea, the skin, the respiratory tract lining, and the lining of the digestive tract.

rhodopsin (roh-DOP-sin)

the light-sensitive pigment of the cells in the retina; it contains vitamin A (opsin means "visual protein").

senile dementia

the loss of brain function beyond the normal loss of physical adeptness and memory that occurs with aging.

epinephrine (EP-ih-NEFF-rin)

the major hormone that elicits the stress response.

growth spurt

the marked rapid gain in physical size usually evident around the onset of adolescence.

life span

the maximum number of years of life attainable by a member of a species.

VO2max

the maximum rate of oxygen consumption by an individual (measured at sea level).

fructose, galactose, glucose

the monosaccharides.

atherosclerosis (ath-er-oh-scler-OHsis)

the most common form of cardiovascular disease; characterized by plaques along the inner walls of the arteries (scleros means "hard"; osis means "too much"). The term arteriosclerosis is often used to mean the same thing.

pellagra (pell-AY-gra)

the niacin-deficiency disease (pellis means "skin"; agra means "rough"). Symptoms include the "4 Ds": diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and, ultimately, death.

amine (a-MEEN) group

the nitrogen-containing portion of an amino acid.

keratin (KERR-uh-tin)

the normal protein of hair and nails.

germ

the nutrient-rich inner part of a grain.

energy-yielding nutrients

the nutrients the body can use for energy—carbohydrate, fat, and protein. These also may supply building blocks for body structures.

essential nutrients

the nutrients the body cannot make for itself (or cannot make fast enough) from other raw materials; nutrients that must be obtained from food to prevent deficiencies.

placenta (pla-SEN-tuh)

the organ of pregnancy in which maternal and fetal blood circulate in close proximity and exchange nutrients and oxygen (flowing into the fetus) and wastes (picked up by the mother's blood).

carcinogenesis

the origination or beginning of cancer.

husk

the outer, inedible part of a grain.

cortex

the outermost layer of something. The brain's cortex is the part of the brain where conscious thought takes place.

hemoglobin (HEEM-oh-globe-in)

the oxygen-carrying protein of the blood; found in the red blood cells (hemo means "blood"; globin means "spherical protein").

myoglobin (MYE-oh-globe-in)

the oxygen-holding protein of the muscles (myo means "muscle").

experimental group

the people or animals participating in an experiment who receive the treatment under investigation. Also called experimental subjects. See also control group and intervention studies.

satiation (SAY-she-AY-shun)

the perception of fullness that builds throughout a meal, eventually reaching the degree of fullness and satisfaction that halts eating. Satiation generally determines how much food is consumed at one sitting.

satiety (sah-TIE-eh-tee)

the perception of fullness that lingers in the hours after a meal and inhibits eating until the next mealtime. Satiety generally determines the length of time between meals.

adolescence

the period from the beginning of puberty until maturity.

gestation

the period of about 40 weeks (three trimesters) from conception to birth; the term of a pregnancy.

hunger

the physiological need to eat, experienced as a drive for obtaining food; an unpleasant sensation that demands relief.

large intestine

the portion of the intestine that completes the absorption process.

safety

the practical certainty that injury will not result from the use of a substance.

urea (yoo-REE-uh)

the principal nitrogen-excretion product of protein metabolism; generated mostly by removal of amine groups from unneeded amino acids or from amino acids being sacrificed to a need for energy.

photosynthesis

the process by which green plants make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using the green pigment chlorophyll to capture the sun's energy (photo means "light"; synthesis means "making").

cell differentiation (dih-fer-en-she-AYshun)

the process by which immature cells are stimulated to mature and gain the ability to perform functions characteristic of their cell type.

hydrogenation (high-dro-gen-AYshun)

the process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids to make fat more solid and resistant to the chemical change of oxidation.

emulsification

the process of mixing lipid with water by adding an emulsifier.

zygote (ZYE-goat)

the product of the union of ovum and sperm; a fertilized ovum.

wasting

the progressive, relentless loss of the body's tissues that accompanies certain diseases and shortens survival time.

fraud or quackery

the promotion, for financial gain, of devices, treatments, services, plans, or products (including diets and supplements) claimed to improve health, well-being, or appearance without proof of safety or effectiveness. (The word quackery comes from the term quacksalver, meaning a person who quacks loudly about a miracle product—a lotion or a salve.)

body composition

the proportions of muscle, bone, fat, and other tissue that make up a person's total body weight.

bran

the protective fibrous coating around a grain; the chief fiber donator of a grain.

epigenome (ep-ih-GEE-nohm)

the proteins and other molecules associated with chromosomes that affect gene expression. The epigenome is modulated by bioactive food components and other factors in ways that can be inherited. Epi is a Greek prefix, meaning "above" or "on."

appetite

the psychological desire to eat; a learned motivation and a positive sensation that accompanies the sight, smell, or thought of appealing foods.

world food supply

the quantity of food, including stores from previous harvests, available to the world's people at a given time.

basal metabolic rate (BMR)

the rate at which the body uses energy to support its basal metabolism.

country of origin label

the required label stating the country of origination of many imported meats, chicken, fish and shellfish, other perishable foods, certain nuts, peanuts, and ginseng.

peripheral resistance

the resistance to pumped blood in the small arterial branches (arterioles) that carry blood to tissues.

genetic profile

the result of an analysis of genetic material that identifies unique characteristics of a person's DNA for forensic or diagnostic purposes.

umbilical (um-BIL-ih-cul) cord

the ropelike structure through which the fetus's veins and arteries reach the placenta; the route of nourishment and oxygen into the fetus and the route of waste disposal from the fetus.

bladder

the sac that holds urine until time for elimination.

epigenetics (ep-ih-gen-EH-tics)

the science of heritable changes in gene function that occur without a change in the DNA sequence.

nutritional genomics

the science of how food (and its components) interacts with the genome.

biotechnology

the science of manipulating biological systems or organisms to modify their products or components or create new products; biotechnology includes recombinant DNA technology and traditional and accelerated selective breeding techniques.

diastolic (dye-as-TOL-ik) pressure

the second figure in a blood pressure reading (the "lubb" of the heartbeat is heard), which reflects the arterial pressure when the heart is between beats.

calcium compounds

the simplest forms of purified calcium. They include calcium carbonate, citrate, gluconate, hydroxide, lactate, malate, and phosphate. These supplements vary in the amount of calcium they contain, so read the labels carefully. A 500-milligram tablet of calcium gluconate may provide only 45 milligrams of calcium, for example.

correlation

the simultaneous change of two factors, such as the increase of weight with increasing height (a direct or positive correlation) or the decrease of cancer incidence with increasing fiber intake (an inverse or negative correlation). A correlation between two factors suggests that one may cause the other but does not rule out the possibility that both may be caused by chance or by a third factor.

cells

the smallest units in which independent life can exist. All living things are single cells or organisms made of cells.

implantation

the stage of development, during the first two weeks after conception, in which the fertilized egg (fertilized ovum or zygote) embeds itself in the wall of the uterus and begins to develop.

fetus (FEET-us)

the stage of human gestation from eight weeks after conception until the birth of an infant.

embryo (EM-bree-oh)

the stage of human gestation from the third to the eighth week after conception.

iron overload

the state of having more iron in the body than it needs or can handle, usually arising from a hereditary defect. Also called hemochromatosis.

genomics

the study of all the genes in an organism and their interactions with environmental factors.

nutrition

the study of the nutrients in foods and in the body; sometimes also the study of human behaviors related to food.

stroke

the sudden shutting off of the blood flow to the brain by a thrombus, embolism, or the bursting of a vessel (hemorrhage).

foodways

the sum of a culture's habits, customs, beliefs, and preferences concerning food.

metabolism

the sum of all physical and chemical changes taking place in living cells; includes all reactions by which the body obtains and spends the energy from food.

basal metabolism

the sum total of all the involuntary activities that are necessary to sustain life, including circulation, respiration, temperature maintenance, hormone secretion, nerve activity, and new tissue synthesis, but excluding digestion and voluntary activities. Basal metabolism is the largest component of the average person's daily energy expenditure.

smoking point

the temperature at which fat gives off an acrid blue gas.

beriberi (berry-berry)

the thiamin-deficiency disease; characterized by loss of sensation in the hands and feet, muscular weakness, advancing paralysis, and abnormal heart action.

carrying capacity

the total number of living organisms that a given environment can support without deteriorating in quality.

insoluble fibers

the tough, fibrous structures of fruits, vegetables, and grains; indigestible food components that do not dissolve in water.

pasteurization

the treatment of milk, juices, or eggs with heat sufficient to kill certain pathogens (disease-causing microbes) commonly transmitted through these foods; not a sterilization process. Pasteurized products retain bacteria that cause spoilage.

type 2 diabetes

the type of diabetes in which the pancreas makes plenty of insulin but the body's cells resist insulin's action; often diagnosed in adulthood. Formerly called adult-onset or non-insulin-dependent diabetes.

type 1 diabetes

the type of diabetes in which the pancreas produces no or very little insulin; often diagnosed in childhood, although some cases arise in adulthood. Formerly called juvenile-onset or insulin-dependent diabetes.

outcrossing

the unintended breeding of a domestic crop with a related wild species.

side chain

the unique chemical structure attached to the backbone of each amino acid that differentiates one amino acid from another.

scurvy

the vitamin C-deficiency disease.

rickets

the vitamin D-deficiency disease in children; characterized by abnormal growth of bone and manifested in bowed legs or knock-knees, outward-bowed chest, and knobs on the ribs.

cardiac output

the volume of blood discharged by the heart each minute.

cardiac output

the volume of blood discharged by the heart each minute. Also defined in Chapter 10.

stroke volume

the volume of oxygenated blood ejected from the heart toward body tissues at each beat.

whey (way)

the watery part of milk, a by-product of cheese production. Once discarded as waste, whey is now recognized as a high-quality protein source for human consumption.

peristalsis (perri-STALL-sis)

the wavelike muscular squeezing of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine that pushes their contents along.

trabecular (tra-BECK-you-lar) bone

the weblike structure composed of calcium-containing crystals inside a bone's solid outer shell. It provides strength and acts like a calcium storage bank.

uterus (YOO-ter-us)

the womb, the muscular organ within which the infant develops before birth.

nephrons (NEFF-rons)

the working units in the kidneys, consisting of intermeshed blood vessels and tubules.

platelets

tiny cell-like fragments in the blood, important in blood clot formation (platelet means "little plate").

microvilli (MY-croh-VILL-ee, MY-croh- VILL-eye)

tiny, hairlike projections on each cell of every villus that greatly expand the surface area available to trap nutrient particles and absorb them into the cells (singular: microvillus).

digest

to break molecules into smaller molecules; a main function of the digestive tract with respect to food.

wean

to gradually replace breast milk with infant formula or other foods appropriate to an infant's diet.

absorb

to take in, as nutrients are taken into the intestinal cells after digestion; the main function of the digestive tract with respect to nutrients.

saturated fats

triglycerides in which most of the fatty acids are saturated.

monounsaturated fats

triglycerides in which most of the fatty acids have one point of unsaturation (are monounsaturated).

polyunsaturated fats

triglycerides in which most of the fatty acids have two or more points of unsaturation (are polyunsaturated).

outbreak

two or more cases of a disease arising from an identical organism acquired from a common food source within a limited time frame. Government agencies track and investigate outbreaks of foodborne illnesses, but tens of millions of individual cases go unreported each year.

complementary proteins

two or more proteins whose amino acid assortments complement each other in such a way that the essential amino acids missing from one are supplied by the other.

aquifers

underground rock formations containing water that can be drawn to the surface for use.

genes

units of a cell's inheritance; sections of the larger genetic molecule DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each gene directs the making of one or more of the body's proteins.

calories

units of energy. In nutrition science, the unit used to measure the energy in foods is a kilocalorie (also called kcalorie or Calorie): it is the amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of a kilogram (a liter) of water 1 degree Celsius. This book follows the common practice of using the lowercase term calorie (abbreviated cal) to mean the same thing.

grams

units of weight. A gram (g) is the weight of a cubic centimeter (cc) or milliliter (ml) of water under defined conditions of temperature and pressure. About 28 grams equal an ounce.

competitive foods

unregulated meals, including fast foods, that compete side by side with USDA-regulated school lunches.

food deserts

urban and rural low-income areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious foods. Also defined in Chapter 15.

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR)

values for carbohydrate, fat, and protein expressed as percentages of total daily caloric intake; ranges of intakes set for the energy-yielding nutrients that are sufficient to provide adequate total energy and nutrients while minimizing the risk of chronic diseases.

cruciferous vegetables

vegetables with cross-shaped blossoms—the cabbage family. Their intake is associated with low cancer rates in human populations. Examples are broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, rutabagas, and turnips.

antioxidant nutrients

vitamins and minerals that oppose the effects of oxidants on human physical functions. The antioxidant vitamins are vitamin E, vitamin C, and betacarotene. The mineral selenium also participates in antioxidant activities.

feces

waste material remaining after digestion and absorption are complete; eventually discharged from the body.

metabolic water

water generated in the tissues during the chemical breakdown of the energy-yielding nutrients in foods.

surface water

water that comes from lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.

groundwater

water that comes from underground aquifers.

soft water

water with a high sodium concentration.

hard water

water with high calcium and magnesium concentrations.

residues

whatever remains; in the case of pesticides, those amounts that remain on or in foods when people buy and use them.

phagocytes (FAG-oh-sites)

white blood cells that can ingest and destroy antigens. The process by which phagocytes engulf materials is called phagocytosis. The Greek word phagein means "to eat."

lymphocytes (LIM-foh-sites)

white blood cells that participate in the immune response; B-cells and T-cells.

brown sugar

white sugar with molasses added, 95% pure sucrose.

functional foods

whole or modified foods that contain bioactive food components believed to provide health benefits, such as reduced disease risks, beyond the benefits that their nutrients confer. All whole foods are functional in some ways because they provide at least some needed substances, but certain foods stand out as rich sources of bioactive food components. Also defined in Chapter 1.

famine

widespread and extreme scarcity of food that causes starvation and death in a large portion of the population in an area.

gatekeeper

with respect to nutrition, a key person who controls other people's access to foods and thereby affects their nutrition profoundly. Examples are the spouse who buys and cooks the food, the parent who feeds the children, and the caregiver in a day-care center.

jaundice (JAWN-dis)

yellowing of the skin due to spillover of the bile pigment bilirubin (bill-ee-ROO-bin) from the liver into the general circulation.

artificial fats

zero-energy fat replacers that are chemically synthesized to mimic the sensory and cooking qualities of naturally occurring fats but are totally or partially resistant to digestion.