Nutritional Science Chapter 4

What are some examples of foods that are high in complex carbohydrates?

-bagels -cereals -corn -crackers -legumes -peas -popcorn -potatoes -rice cakes -squash -tortillas

What are some forms of sugar used in foods?

-brown rice syrup -brown sugar -concentrated fruit juice sweetener -confectioners sugar -corn syrup -dextrose -fructose -galactose -glucose -granulated sugar

What are some examples of non starch polysaccharides?

-cellulose -hemicellulose -pectins -gums -beta-glucans (B-glucans)

What are some examples of functional fiber?

-extracted plant pectins -gums and resistant starches -chitin and chitosan -commercially produced nondigestable polysaccharides

What are some examples of foods that are high in simple carbohydrates?

-fruits -fruit juices -plain nonfat yogurt -skim milk -angel food cake -candy -cookies -frosting -gelatin -high-sugar breakfast cereals -jams -jellies -sherbet -soft drinks -sweetened nonfat yogurt -syrups

Simple carbohydrates occur naturally as simple sugars in ________, _________, and other foods.

-fruits -milk

Raffinose is formed from three monosaccharide molecules; one ___________, one ___________, and one ____________.

-galactose -glucose -fructose

Stachyose is formed from four monosaccharide molecules: two ___________, one ___________, and one ____________.

-galactose -glucose -fructose

Whole kernels of grains consist of four parts: ___________, _____________, _____________, and ______________.

-germ -endosperm -bran -husk

What are some common monosaccharides?

-glucose -fructose -galactose

What are the most common monosaccharides in the human diet?

-glucose -fructose -galactose

What are some examples of foods that contain cellulose?

-grains -fruits -vegetables -nuts

Like pectin, ______ and ______ are thick, gel-forming fibers that help hold plant cells together.

-gums -mucilages

Foods with a ________ glycemic index cause a faster and higher rise in blood glucose, whereas foods with a _________ glycemic index cause a slower rise in blood glucose.

-high -low

We store excess glucose as glycogen in ________ and _______.

-liver -muscle tissue

What are the two main types of sugars?

-monosaccharides -disaccharides

What are some foods that are rich in hemicelluloses?

-outer bran on many cereal grains -legumes -vegetables -nuts

Dried beans, peas, and lentils contain the two most common oligosaccharides: _____________ and ____________.

-raffinose -stachyose

What are the most common nonnutritive sweeteners in the United States?

-saccharin -aspartame -acesulfame

The two main types of carbohydrates in food are _________ carbohydrates and ________ carbohydrates.

-simple carbohydrates (sugars) -complex carbohydrates (starches and fiber)

What are the two major sites of glycogen storage?

-skeletal muscle -liver

Name some examples of sugar alcohols.

-sorbitol -mannitol -lactitol -xylitol

What are some common disaccharides?

-sucrose (common table sugar) -lactose (milk sugar) -maltose

What are some common causes of ketosis?

-very low carbohydrate diets -starvation -uncontrolled diabetes mellitus -chronic alcoholism

What are some examples of nutritive sweeteners used in foods?

-white sugar -brown sugar -honey -maple syrup -glucose -fructose -xylitol -sorbitol -mannitol

Type ___ diabetes is caused by decreased pancreatic release of insulin.

1

The RDA of carbohydrate is _______ grams per day for individuals aged 1 year and older.

130 grams

Type ___ diabetes, target cells (e.g. fat and muscle cells) lose the ability to respond normally to insulin.

2

Normally, the body can store only about _____ to _____ grams of glycogen at a time.

200 to 500 grams

Trehalose is absorbed completely and provides ____ kilocalories per gram but produces a lower glycemic response than glucose.

4

When digested and absorbed, aspartame provides ___ kilocalories per gram. However, aspartame is so many times sweeter than sucrose that the amount use to sweeten foods contributes virtually zero calories to the diet, and it does not promote tooth decay.

4

The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for carbohydrate is ____ to ____ percent of kilocalories.

45-65%

To prevent ketosis, the body needs a minimum of _____ to _____ grams of carbohydrate daily.

50-100 grams

Chemical bonds linking two monosaccharides (glycosidic bonds) that can be broken by human intestinal enzymes, releasing the individual monosaccharides. Maltose and sucrose contain ________ bonds.

Alpha bonds

A branched-chain polysaccharide composed of glucose units.

Amylopectin

A straight-chain polysaccharide composed of glucose units.

Amylose

Functional fiber, consisting of branched polysaccharide chains of glucose, that helps lower blood cholesterol levels. Found in barley and oats.

B-glucans

______________ are polysaccharides of branched glucose units. These fibers are found in large amounts in barley and oats.

B-glucans

Chemical bonds linking two monosaccharides (glycosidic bonds) that cannot be broken by human intestinal enzymes. Cellulose contains ________ bonds.

Beta bonds

__________ are organic compounds that contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in the ratio of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atoms for every one carbon atom. (CH2O)

Carbohydrates

___________ stimulates the breakdown of glycogen stores to release glucose into the bloodstream. It also stimulates gluconeogenesis, or synthesis of glucose from protein.

Glucagon

A common monosaccharide containing six carbons that is present int he blood; also known as dextrose or blood sugar. It is a component of the disaccharides sucrose, lactose, and maltose and various complex carbohydrates.

Glucose

________ makes up at least one of the to sugar molecules in every disaccharide.

Glucose

____________ is the primary fuel for most cells in the body and the preferred fuel for the brain, red blood cells, nervous system, fetus, and placenta.

Glucose

A very large, highly branched polysaccharide composed of multiple glucose units. Sometimes called animal starch, this is the primary storage form of glucose in animals.

Glycogen

__________, also called animal starch, is the storage form of carbohydrate in living animals.

Glycogen

Nonnutritive sweetener derived from licorice root. Has a licorice flavor and is 50 to 100 times sweeter than sucrose.

Glycyrrhizin

___________, an extract of licorice root, is 50 to 100 times sweeter than sucrose, but its pronounced licorice flavor and tendency to increase blood pressure limit widespread use.

Glycyrrhizin

Produced by beta cells in the pancreas, this polypeptide hormone stimulates the uptake of blood glucose into muscle and adipose cells, the synthesis of glycogen in the liver, and various other processes.

Insulin

__________ acts like a key, "unlocking" the cells of the body and allowing glucose to enter and fuel them.

Insulin

Molecules formed when insufficient carbohydrate is available to completely metabolize fat. Formation of ___________ it promoted by a low glucose level and high acetyl CoA level within cells.

Ketone bodies

Abnormally high concentration of ketone bodies in body tissues and fluids

Ketosis

A disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; also called milk sugar because it is the major sugar in milk and dairy products.

Lactose

____________, or milk sugar, is composed of one molecule of glucose and on molecule of galactose. It gives milk and other dairy products a slightly sweet tastes

Lactose

___________ are not carbohydrates. Rather, these non digestible substances make up the woody parts of vegetables such as carrots and broccoli and the seeds of fruits such as strawberries.

Lignins

A disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules; Sometimes called malt sugar.

Maltose

__________ is composed of tow glucose molecules. It seldom occurs naturally in foods but is formed whenever long molecules of starch break down.

Maltose

_______________ consist of a single sugar molecule.

Monosaccharides

What legumes are rich in dietary fiber?

Most legumes

Substances that impart sweetness to foods and that can be absorbed and yield energy in the body. Simple sugars, sugar alcohols, and high-frucotse corn syrup are the most common nutritive sweeteners used in food products.

Nutritive sweeteners

____________ are digestible carbohydrates and therefore provide energy. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and sugar alcohols from either natural or refined sources.

Nutritive sweeteners

Short carbohydrate chains composed of 3 to 10 sugar molecules.

Oligosaccharides

___________ are short carbohydrate chains of 3 to 10 sugar molecules. They are found naturally, at least in small amounts, in many plant foods, such as onions, legumes, wheat, asparagus, and jicama.

Oligosaccharides

Starch-digesting enzyme secreted by the pancreas.

Pancreatic amylase

_____________ continues the digestion of starch, breaking it into many units of the disaccharide maltose.

Pancreatic amylase

A type of dietary fiber found in fruits.

Pectins

__________ are gel-forming polysaccharides found in all plants, especially fruits.

Pectins

Sugar molecules containing five carbon atoms.

Pentoses

_________ are single sugar molecules that contain five carbons. Although they are present in foods in only small quantities, they are essential components of nucleic acids, the genetic material of life.

Pentoses

__________ foods are our main dietary sources carbohydrates.

Plant foods (grains, legumes, and vegetables)

Long carbohydrate chains composed of more than 10 sugar molecules. They can be straight or branched.

Polysaccharides

_______________ are long carbohydrate chains of monosaccharides. Some form straight chains, whereas others branch off in all directions.

Polysaccharides

____________ is a mucilage that becomes very viscous when mixed with water. It is the main component in the laxative Metamucil and is being added to some breakfast cereals.

Psyllium

Composed of monosaccharides and disaccharides that have been extracted and pressed from other foods.

Refined sweeteners

___________ are monosaccharides and disaccharides that have been extracted from plant foods.

Refined sweeteners

A dietary supplement, not approved for use as a sweetener, that is extracted and refined from Stevia Rebaudiana Leaves.

Stevioside

__________ is derived from the stevia plant found in South America. This substance is 300 times sweeter than sucrose, but its metabolism in the body has not been completely investigated.

Stevioside (also known as stevia)

An artificial sweetener made from sucrose; it was approved for use in the United States in 1998 and has been used in Canada since 1992. It is a nonnutritive and about 600 times sweeter than sugar.

Sucralose

This artificial sweetener is sold under the trade name Splenda.

Sucralose

A disaccharide composed of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose joined together. Also known as table sugar.

Sucrose

____________, most familiar to us as table sugar, is composed of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose. It provides some of the natural sweetness of honey, maple syrup, fruits, and vegetables.

Sucrose

Compounds formed from monosaccharides by replacing a hydrogen atom with a hydroxyl group (-OH); commonly used as nutritive sweeteners. Also called polyols.

Sugar alcohols

An artificial sweetener that is 200 times sweeter than common table sugar (sucrose). Because it is not digested and absorbed by the body, _____________ contributes no calories to the diet and yields no energy when consumed.

acesulfame K

Marketed under the brand name Sunette, ________ is about 200 times sweeter than table sugar. It provides no energy because the body cannot digest it.

acesulfame K

Glycogens structure is similar to ____________ structure. (long, highly branched chains of glucose), but glycogen is much more highly branched.

amylopectin

An artificial sweetener composed of two amino acids and methanol. It is 200 times sweeter than sucrose. Its trade name is NutraSweet.

aspartame

The artificial sweetener __________ is a combination of two amino acids: phenylalanine and aspartic acid.

aspartame

Maltose is fermented in the production of ________.

beer

B-glucans is especially effective in lowering __________ levels.

blood cholesterol

Insulin and glucagon, two hormones produced by the pancreas, closely regulates ___________ levels.

blood glucose

The amount of glucose in the blood at any given time. Also known as blood sugar levels.

blood glucose levels

The body closely regulates ______________ levels (also known as blood sugar levels) to maintain an adequate supply of glucose for cells.

blood glucose levels

The _______ is composed of layers of protective coating around the grain kernel and is rich in dietary fiber.

bran

The layers of protective coating around the grain kernel that are rich in dietary fiber and nutrients.

bran

A _________ reaction chemically joins two monosaccharides while removing an H from one sugar molecule and an OH from the other to form water (H2O).

condensation

Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides chemically joined by a process called ___________.

condensation

In chemistry, a reaction in which a covalent bond is formed between two molecules by removal of a water molecule.

condensation

An artificial sweetener derived from lactose that has the same sweetness as sucrose with only half the calories.

d-tagatose

When people have ________, their bodies either do not produce enough insulin or do not use insulin properly.

diabetes mellitus

An excessive intake of sugar alcohols can cause ____________.

diarrhea

All types of plant foods, including fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains, contain ___________.

dietary fiber

Nonnutritive sweeteners derived form bioflavonoids of citrus fruits. Approximately 300 to 2,000 times sweeter than sucrose and have a licorice aftertaste.

dihydrochalcones (DHCs)

Carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharide units linked by a glycosidic bond.

disaccharides

The ___________ is the largest, middle portion of the grain kernel. It is high in starched provides food for the growing plant embryo.

endosperm

The largest, middle portion of a grain kernel. The ___________ is high in starch to provide food for the growing plant embryo.

endosperm

Released by the adrenal glands in response to sudden stress or danger, ____________ is also called the fight-or-flight hormone.

epinephrine

T/F: Fiber is found in animal foods.

false

A common monosaccharide containing six carbons that is naturally present in honey and many fruits; often added to foods in the form of high fructose corn syrup. Also called levulose or fruit sugar.

fructose

Also called levulose or fruit sugar, __________ tastes the sweetest of all sugars and occurs naturally in fruits and vegetables.

fructose

A monosaccharide containing six carbons that can be converted into glucose in the body. In foods and living systems, _________ usually is joined with other monosaccharides.

galactose

The ______, the innermost part at the base of the kernel, is the portion that grows into a new plant. It is rich in proteins, oils, vitamins, and minerals.

germ

The innermost part of a grain, located at the base of the kernel, that can grow into a new plant.

germ

The monosaccharide __________ is the most abundant simple carbohydrate unit in nature. It plays a key role in both food and the body. Also referred to as dextrose.

glucose

_______ is virtually the only fuel used by the brain, except during prolonged starvation, when the ________ supply is low.

glucose

A measure of the effect of food on blood glucose levels. It is the ratio of the blood glucose value after eating a particular food to the value after eating the same amount of white bread or glucose.

glycemic index

The ______________ measures the effect of a food on blood glucose levels.

glycemic index

The bonds that link glucose molecules in complex carbohydrates are called __________ bonds.

glycosidic bonds

Dietary fibers, which contain galactose and other monosaccharides, found between plant cell walls.

gums

A group of large polysaccharides in dietary fiber that are fermented more easily than cellulose.

hemicelluloses

The _______________ are a diverse group of polysaccharides that vary from plant to plant. They are mixed with cellulose in plant cell walls.

hemicelluloses

Human milk has a _________ concentration of lactose than cow's milk.

higher

The inedible covering of a grain kernel. Also known as the chaff.

husk

A __________ reaction separates disaccharides into monosaccharides. During this reaction, the addition of a molecule of water splits the bond between the two sugar molecules, proving the H and OH groups necessary for the sugars to exist as monosaccharides.

hydrolysis

The digestion of carbohydrates involves ____________ reactions.

hydrolysis

Insoluble fibers composed of multi-ring alcohol units that constitute the only noncarbohydrate component of dietary fiber.

lignins

Human digestive enzymes in the mouth and small intestine break down starch into _________.

maltose

Any sugars that are broken down further during digestion and have the general formula CnH2nOn, where n=3 to 7.

monosaccharides

Gelatinous soluble fibers containing galactose, mannose, and other monosaccharides; found in seaweed.

mucilages

An artificial sweetener similar to aspartame, but one that is sweeter and does not require a warning label for phenylkentonurics.

neotame

Gram for gram, most ___________ (also called artificial sweeteners) are many times sweeter than nutritive sweeteners are.

nonnutritive sweeteners

Substances that impart sweetness to foods but supply little or no energy to the body; also called artificial sweeteners or alternative sweeteners. They include acesulfame, aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose.

nonnutritive sweeteners

Human milk contains large amounts of complex _________, which, for breastfed infants, serve a function similar to dietary fiber in adults; making stools easier to pass.

oligosaccharides

An inherited disorder caused by a lack or deficiency of the enzyme that converts phenylalanine to tyrosine.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

People with the genetic disease called ___________ cannot properly metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine, so they must carefully monitor their phenylalanine intake from all sources, including aspartame.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

These sweeteners are not as sweet as sucrose, but they do have the advantage of being less likely to cause tooth decay.

polyols

The dried husk of the psyllium seed.

psyllium

Starch that is not digested is called ______________.

resisted starch

An artificial sweetener that tastes about 300 to 700 times sweeter than sucrose.

saccharin

Oligosaccharides in human milk also provide _________, a compound essential for normal brain development.

sialic acid

Sugars composed of a single sugar molecule (monosaccharide) or two joined sugar molecules (disaccharides).

simple carbohydrates

Most carbohydrate digestion takes place in the ____________.

small intestine

Plants store energy as ________ for use during growth and reproduction.

starch

The major storage form of carbohydrate in plants; It is composed of long chains of glucose molecules in a straight (amylose) or branching (amylopectin) arrangement.

starch

Manufacturers use ____________ to sweeten sugar-free products, such as gum and mints, and to add bulk and texture, provide a cooling sensation in the mouth, and retain moisture in foods.

sugar alcohols

Glucose imparts a mildly _______ flavor to food.

sweet

Mixture of sweet-tasting proteins from a West African fruit. Approximately 2,000 times sweeter than sucrose and has a licorice aftertaste. Breaks down when heated to cooking temperatures.

thaumatin

A disaccharide of two glucose molecules, but with a linkage different from maltose. Used as a food additive and sweetener.

trehalose

Starch takes two main forms in plants: __________ and __________.

-amylose -amylopectin

T/F: Heat affects acesulfame L, so it can not be used in cooking.

False (heat doesn't affect it and it can be used in cooking)

Isolated nondigestable carbohydrates, including some manufactured carbohydrates, that have beneficial effects in humans.

Functional fiber

___________ refers to isolated, nondigestable carbohydrates that have beneficial physiological effects in humans.

Functional fiber

What are some rich sources of starch?

GRAINS -wheat -rice -corn -oats -millet -barley LEGUMES -peas -beans -lentils TUBERS -potatoes -yams -cassava

____________ rarely occurs as a monosaccharide in food. It usually is chemically bonded to glucose to form lactose, the primary sugar in milk.

Galactose

Produced by alpha cells in the pancreas, this polypeptide hormone promotes the breakdown of liver glycogen to glucose, thereby increasing blood glucose. ________ secretion is stimulated by low blood glucose levels and by growth hormone.

Glucagon

The RDA for carbohydrate rises to _______ grams per day for pregnancy and ________ grams per day during lactation.

-175 grams -210 grams

The Daily Value for carbohydrates is ______ grams per day, representing _____ percent of the calories in a 2,000 kilocalorie diet.

-300 grams -60%

The adequate intake (AI) value for total fiber is _____ grams per day for men aged 19 to 50 years, and _____ grams per day for women in the same age group.

-38 grams -25 grams

What are some examples of ketone bodies?

-Acetone -Acetoacetate -Beta-Hydroxybutyrae

What are some nuts and seeds that are rich in dietary fiber?

-Almonds -Peanuts -Pecans -Sesame seeds -Sunflower seeds -Walnuts

Wheat flour continas higher proportion of ___________, whereas cornstarch contains a higher proportion of ____________.

-Amylose -Amylopectin

____________ is made up of long, unbranched chains of glucose molecules, whereas _____________ is made up of branched chains of glucose molecules.

-Amylose -amylopectin

What are some fruits that are rich in dietary fiber?

-Apples -Bananas -Berries -Cherries -Cranberries -Grapefruit -Mangos -Oranges -Pears

What are some vegetables that are rich in dietary fiber?

-Asparagus -Broccoli -Brussel Sprouts -Carrots -Green Peppers -Red Cabbage -Spinach -Sprouts

What are some grains that are rich in dietary fiber?

-Brown rice -Oat bran -Oatmeal -Wheat-bran cereals -Whole-wheat breads

__________ and ___________ are polysaccharides found in the exoskeletons of crabs and lobsters and in the cell walls of most fungi. They are primarily consumed in supplement form. Although they are marketed as useful for weight control, published research does not support this claim.

-Chitin -Chitosan

What are some tips to increase fiber intake?

-Eat more whole-grain breads, cereals, pasta, and rice, as well as more fruits, vegetables, and legumes. -Eat fruits and vegetables with the peel, if possible. The peel is high in fiber. -Add fruits to muffins and pancakes -Add legumes; such as lentils and pinto, navy, kidney, and black beans; to casseroles and mixed dishes as a meat substitute. -Substitute whole-grain flour for all-purpose flour in recipes whenever possible -use brown rice instead of white rice -substitute oas for flour in crumb toppings -choose high-fiber cereals -Choose whole fruits rather than fruit juices

What disaccharides are important in human nutrition?

-Sucrose (common table sugar) -Lactose (major sugar in milk) -Maltose (product of starch digestion)

A straight-chain polysaccharide composed of hundreds of glucose units linked by beta bounds. It is nondigestible by humans and a component of dietary fiber.

Cellulose

_____________ gives plant cell walls their strength and rigidity. It forms the woody fibers that support tall trees. It also forms the brittle shafts of hay and straw and the stringy threads in celery.

Cellulose

A long-chain structural polysaccharide of slightly modified glucose. Found in the hard exterior skeletons of insects, crustaceans, and other invertebrates; also occurs in the cell walls of fungi.

Chitin

Polysaccharide derived from chitin.

Chitosan

Chains of more than two monosaccharides. May be oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.

Complex carbohydrates

____________ are chains of more than two sugar molecules.

Complex carbohydrates

Destruction of the enamel surface of teeth caused by acids resulting from bacterial breakdown of sugars in the mouth.

Dental caries

A chronic disease in which uptake of blood glucose by body cells is impaired, resulting in high glucose levels in the blood and urine.

Diabetes mellitus

Carbohydrates and lignins that are naturally in plants and are nondigestible; that is, they are not digested and absorbed in the human small intestine.

Dietary fiber

_________ consists of non digestible carbohydrates and lignins that are intact and intrinsic in plants.

Dietary fiber

______________ consist of two sugar molecules chemically joined together.

Disaccharides

A hormone released in response to stress or sudden danger, epinephrine raises blood glucose levels to ready the body for "fight or flight." Also called adrenaline.

Epinephrine

____________ this hormone exerts effects similar to glucagon to ensure that all body cells have adequate energy for emergencies.

Epinephrine

What are liver glycogen stores used for?

To maintain normal blood glucose levels and account for about one-third of the body's total glycogen stores.

What is the one major role of glucose?

To supply energy for the body.

__________ is the sum of dietary fiber and functional fiber.

Total fiber

T/F: Because heating destroys the sweetening power of aspartame, this sweetener cannot be used in products that require cooking.

True

T/F: Human enzymes easily break alpha bonds, making glucose available from the polysaccharides starch and glycogen.

True

T/F: Our bodies don't have enzymes to break most beta bonds, such as those that link the glucose molecules in cellulose, a non digestible polysaccharide.

True

What are muscle glycogen stores used for?

Used to fuel muscle activity and account for about two-thirds of the body's total glycogen stores.