OB Exam 2

What are the functions of culture?

(1) Boundary defining (2) conveys sense of identity (3) facilitates commitment to something larger than self-interest (4) enhances stability of social systems (5) sense-making and control mechanism that guides and shape employees attitudes and behaviors. When formal authority and control systems are reduced, culture is what guides employees in the right direction.

What are the different forces of change?

(1) Changing Nature of the Workforce: must adjust to immigration, multicultural environment, demographic, outsourcing (2) Technology (3) Economic Shocks: bankruptcy, acquisitions, recessions of companies ca affect jobs (4) Competition: must be able to develop new products quickly against other firms (5) Social Trends: changing, social media can bring more people to together to share cultures and ideas (6) World Politics: powers have changed and global market recessions.

Know the steps you should take to prepare for a negotiation

(1) Determine your BATNA (2)Improve your BATNA (3) Determine the other party's BATNA (4)Determine the Issue Mix- what's important to you in this situation, and don't let the other parties create the issues for you (5) Think of the Best Way to Position and Present Your Opening Offer (or Counteroffer). (6) Think About Possible Tricks ad How to Deal with Them

How can you overcome resistance to change?

(1) Education and Communication: reduces employee resistance by reducing confusions, and can "sell" the need for change if phrased properly (2) Participation: expertise getting involved can be meaningful contribution (3) Building Support and Commitment: new-skills training, support groups to ease anxiety for workers can help, employees are also more accepting of changes that are committed tot he organization as a whole so firing employees to show commitment can emotionally commit them. (4) Develop Positive Relationships: people are most willing to accept changes if they trust the managers implementing them (5) Implement Changes Fairly (6) Manipulation and Cooptation: twisting acts to make them more appealing is manipulation, and combining manipulation with participation is cooptation, it seeks to "buy-off" resistance leaders by giving them a key-role in the change; Inexpensive ways. to get them on board, but you will lose all trust if discovered (7) Coercion: application of direct threats on the resistors with intent to follow-up on threats.

What does a positive organizational culture do? How do you create a positive organizational culture? What are the limits of positive organizational culture?

(1) Emphasize employee strengths: show workers how they can work their best and what they are good at. (2) Rewarding more than punishing: most organizations are focused on extrinsic rewards such as pay and promotions, they forget about the smaller and cheaper rewards such as praise; catching employees doing something right (3) Emphasizing vitality and growth: recognize different between job and career, support how the employee makes the job more effective, and how the job makes the employee more effective. A positive culture is not necessarily a cure-all, not all cultures value being positive as much as US culture does, and even within US culture, there surely are limits to how far US companies should go. It can eventually seem coercive and Orwellian.

What are some socialization techniques and options? (For metamorphosis stage)

(1) Formal vs. Informal: orientations to get them used to culture is formal, or you can just informally throw the employee into the job (2) Individual vs. Collective: in groups or individually (3) Fixed vs. Variable: time sequence for being acclimated into a culture, whether its in preset stages or when one is "ready." (4) Serial vs. Random: using role models vs. having the employee figure everything out by themselves (5) Investiture vs, Divestiture: assuming all the qualities of a recruit are useful vs, taking away certain qualities of the individual.

What are the leadership strategies that enable positive deviance?

(1) Positive Climate: foster compassion, foster forgiveness, foster gratitude. (2) Positive Relationships: build energy networks and reinforce strengths. (3) Positive communication: obtain best-self feedback, use supportive communication. (4) Positive meaning: affect well-being, connect to personal values, highlight extended impact, build community

What are the 5 stages of the Conflict Process? Understand what happens in each phase, the antecedents, what happens the things that factor into it, etc. There is a lot of detail in this section; you are responsible for all of it.

(1) Potential Opposition or Incompatibility: appearance of conditions for conflict- communication, structure (leadership styles, group size, reward systems, dependence) and personal variables (emotions, values, personality). (2) Cognition and Personalization: here is where conflict issues tend to be defined through perceived or felt conflict, and also emotions play a major role here in shaping perceptions (positive emotions allow for potential, negative for hostility). (3) Intentions: intervene between people's perceptions and emotions, and their overt behavior; decision to act a given way. conflict begin because one party attributes the wrong intentions to the other group. Intentions are not always fixed either. (4) Behavior: conflict become visible here. Party's behavior can be aggressive or subtle, depending on the situation. (5) Outcomes: can be functional if they improve the group's performance or dysfunctional if it hinders performance.

What are the steps in the socialization process?

(1) Pre-arrival: recognizes that each individual arrives with a set of values, attitudes, expectations about organization (2) Encounter: confronts possibility that expectations may differ from reality. If they were fairly accurate, then this stage cements their perception but this is usually not the case. (3) Metamorphosis: to work out any problems from the encounter stage and acclimate tot the culture.

What are defining group properties? How does each one work within teams? Know the different aspects of each property (even if not specifically listed in bullets below) and why it is important.

(1) Roles: set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Our perception of roles is how we are supposed to act in a given situation based on stimuli around us, and sometimes complying with our perceptions and other's expectation of our roles can conflict, and conflict with 2 roles we have. (2) Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior shared by all members that express what they should and should not do under certain circumstances; influence behavior with minimum of external controls. Norms included in performance, social arrangement, resource allocation, appearance. (3) Status: socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others-it is a significant motivator and has major behavioral consequences when individual's perceive a disparity between what they believe their status is and what it actually is. (4) Size: total group performance can increase with the introduction of new members into a group, however, this can have diminishing returns for individual productivity; can lead to social loafing. (5) Cohesiveness: the degree to which members are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group; dependent on time together, high interactions, or external threats. High cohesiveness is good for group productivity, and works well with positive norms. can be encouraged through smaller groups, more agreement, increasing time members spend together, increase group status and perceived difficulty for attaining membership, competition, rewards, and physical isolation. (6) Diversity: degree to which members of the groups are similar to or different from each other. can increase group conflict, but can allow for problems to be solved in a unique way from differences in backgrounds and ideas. Fault-lines are divisions in groups based on differences in sex, are, age, experiences, education. they help people focus on results as opposed to differences in subgroups, and can help productivity.

How do you take a group of individuals and successfully craft them into a team?

(1) Selecting (Hiring Team Players): be sure candidates can fulfill roles and technical requirements, the best talent might not be the best choice. Personal traits also make people better options. (2) Training (Creating Team Players): Training specialists conduct exercises that allow employees to experience the satisfaction teamwork can provide- problem solving, conflict management, etc. (3) Rewarding (Providing Incentives to Be a Good Team Player): reward system must be reworked to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive ones. Promotions, pay-raises, and other forms of recognition should be given to individuals who work effectively as team members by training new colleagues, sharing information, helping resolve team conflicts, and mastering needed skills. Intrinsic rewards of things like camaraderie are also felt by employees.

What are the other contingency models? Does research show them to be effective or ineffective?

(1) Situational Leadership Theory: Focuses on followers; successful leaders depends on choosing the right leadership style contingent on the follower's readiness, the extent to which followers are willing and able to accomplish a specific task. Depends on 4 behaviors: If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task, leader needs to give better directions. Unable and willing, leader needs to display high-task orientation to compensate for followers lack of ability, and high relationship orientation to get the to "buy-into" the leader's desires. Able and unwilling, leader needs to use supportive and participative style. Able and Willing, leader doesn't need to do much. Intuitive appeal, and based on idea that leaders can compensate for follower's limited ability and motivation. Tests have been disappointing from internal ambiguities, and inconsistencies in the model. (2) Path-Goal Theory suggests that it is the leader's job to provide followers with information, support, or other resources necessary to achieve goals. Directive leadership is more satisfactory when tasks are ambiguous and stressful, and directive leadership is also likely to be perceived as redundant by employees with high ability and experience. Supportive leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks. it does have some merit, but the effectiveness of leaders depends on their followers.

What are some techniques from OD to bring about change?

(1) Survey Feedback: assessing attitudes held by organization members, identifying discrepancies among perception and p;ving these differences. data from questionnaires become springboards for identifying problems and clarifying issues that may be creating difficulties for people. (2) Process Consultation: outside consultants to assist a client , usually and manager, to perceive, understand, and act upon process events with which the manger must deal; consultants guide the manger into the solving the problem by himself. (3) Team Building: organizational increasingly rely on teams to accomplish work tasks; this uses high-interaction group activities to increase trust and openness among team members, improve coordination efforts, and increase team performance.; includes goal-setting, identifying roles/responsibilities, interpersonal relations. (4) Intergroup Development: concern is dysfunctional conflict in groups; seeks to change group's attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions about each other. Focuses on training sessions about occupation, departments, divisions in organization. emphasizes problem solving, groups meet independently and discuss problems then meet together and look for disparities in agreement, then integration phase develops solutions to improve relations between them. (5) Appreciative Inquiry: identify problem set or problems then look for solution, but accentuated the positives. Identify the most unquiet qualities and special strengths of an organization, which members can build upon to improve performance focusing on successes rather than problems (4 Steps) (a) Discovery: identify what are people's strengths (b) Dreaming: employees use information from the discovery phase to speculate on possible futures like what it will be like in 5 years. (c) Design: participants find a common vision of how the organization will look in the future and agree on its unique qualities. (d) Destiny: organization decides how to fulfill its dreams, they write action plans and develop implementations strategies.

What is the difference between a transactional and a transformational leader? What are the characteristics of each type of leader? What are the least effective leadership styles?

(Similar to contingency theories) Transactional: guide followers to goals by clarifying role and task requirements. They promise rewards for good performance and recognize accomplishments. Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards and corrects actions. Intervenes only if standards are not met. Laissez-Faire- allocates responsibilities, avoids making decisions. Transformational: inspires followers to transcend self-interests for good of organization. Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust. communicates high expectations, inspirational motivator, promotions problem solving and intellectual stimulation, and gives personal attention. Transformational leadership builds on transactional leadership- to be a good leader, you must have good transactional qualities AND transformational qualities. Least effective leadership styles are laissez-faire, management by exception, and contingent rewards, (transactional styles). Transformational are the most impactful and best for organizations (individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence- The 4 I's). Transformative leaders are more creative and encourage their followers to be more creative as well- creativity and empowerment are keys to success, and transformative leaders encourage self-efficacy in followers.

What are the different layers of culture?

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What are the different intentions in terms of conflict resolution (I called these strategies in class) - what are the dimensions upon which we can categorize them?

5 conflict handling intentions are a balance between assertiveness (pushing for own intention) and cooperativeness (supporting the other group intentions) Competing (Confrontation): when one person wants to satisfy his own interests regardless of impact on the other competing parties. Collaborating: when parties in conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of the parties in search of mutually beneficial outcomes. Avoiding: recognizing a conflict exists and pulling away from it. Accommodating: party who seeks to appease an opponent may be willing to place the opponent's interests above his own, sacrificing to maintain the relationship. Compromising (Delegation): no winner or loser, willingness to ration the object of the conflict and accept a solution with incomplete satisfaction on both party's concerns.

What is bureaucracy? What are some chief advantages of bureaucracy? What are the distinguishing features of bureaucracy?

A bureaucracy is characterized by highly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization, strictly formed rules and regulation, tasks grouped into functional departments, centralized authority, narrow span of control, and a chain of command decision making model. It performs standardized activities in a highly efficient manner. It cannot adapt to situations that do not fit the model/rules.

What makes a leader charismatic? How do they influence their followers? When is charismatic leadership most effective? What are some of the dark sides of charismatic leadership?

A leader is charismatic when they have a vision, are willing to take personal risks to achieve that vision, are sensitive to follower needs, and exhibit extraordinary behaviors. They also have heroic and extraordinary leadership abilities. Individual are born with traits to make them charismatic, but it can also be from personality aspects like extraversion, self-confident, and achievement-oriented. We can all become more charismatic. Charismatic leaders get followers by giving an appealing vision for some future goal, and accompanying vision statement. They use these to imprint on followers an overarching goal and purpose, and set a goal of support and cooperation. The leader also demonstrates emotional-inducing and unconventional behaviors to show courage and conviction. They are especially effective when it comes to high stress and chaotic situations, since people are looking to them for answers to their problems. They also appeal to people with low self-esteem since they can absorb the leader's direction rather than forms their own. The dark-side of these leaders is that they not always act in best interests of the company; they can be narcissistic and power-hungry.

What does a simple structure look like? An M-Form? Matrix? A virtual organization? A boundaryless organization? What are advantages and disadvantages of these different structures?

A simple structure has low departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization. An M-form is the structure like GE. An advantage of it is the ability to cover multiple platforms or business. A disadvantage is there may be an excess of autonomy in the organization. A matrix structure combines two forms of departmentalization; functional and product. It puts specialists together and breaks the unity-of-command concept. A virtual structure is a small core structure that outsources its major business functions. A boundary-less organization eliminate a chain of command, have limitless spans of control, and replace departments with empowered teams.

Know what the bargaining zone is and what the implications of it are

AKA settlement zone, represents the areas between parties' reservation points. we can reliably predict that the final settlement point lies above the seller's reservation point and below the buyer's reservation point. It determines if the agreement is feasible, and it's worthwhile to negotiate. In a positive bargaining zone, the reservation points of both parties overlap, while in a negative zone, they don't, and the parties should exercise their next best alternatives to agreement.

What can you do to create an effective team?

Assumes 3 things: teams differ in form and structure, teamwork is preferred, and effectiveness is measured through productivity, manager's ratings of team, and aggregate member satisfaction. CONTEXT: (1) Adequate Resources: support for group including timely information, proper equipment, adequate staffing, encouragement, and administrative assistance. (2) Leadership and Structure: agreeing on specifics of work and how they fit together to integrate individual skills requires leadership and structure, either from management or from team members. Teams that have shared-leadership and effectively delegate it are better than single-leadership structure. (3) Climate of Trust: members more likely to take risks and expose vulnerabilities when they trust each other as a team- trust is the foundation of leadership, it allows a team to accept and commit to the leader's goals and decisions. (4) Performance and Evaluation Systems: management should utilize hybrid performance systems to incorporate an individual member component and a group reward to recognize positive team outcomes. TEAM COMPOSITION: (1) Abilities of Members: team abilities set limits on what members can do and how effectively they will perform on a team high-ability team members and leaders are essential to successful group. (2) Personality of Members: teams that rate higher on mean levels of conscientiousness and openness to experience tend to perform better, and there must be a minimum level of team member agreeableness. Conscientious members are great at backing up other team members, and they're good at sensing when their support is truly needed. Groups that are filled with high-level conscientious members as opposed a mix of both low and high are much better to avoid group normalization dynamic, creating lower expectations. (3) Allocation of Roles: fill all roles, and managers assign most able, experienced, and conscientious workers to a team. (4) Diversity of Members: Organizational Demography suggests that diversity in attributes like age or date of joining should help predict turnover, and diversity can actually lead to high turnover, but can be very effective over time. (5) Size of Teams: 5-9 members is best for maintaining high cohesiveness, communication, and minimal loafing. (6) Member Preferences: managers would consider the individual working preferences of each member. TEAM PROCESSES: Potential Group Effectiveness+Process Gains-Process Losses=Actual Effectiveness (must exceed summation of all teams inputs) (1) Common Plan and Purpose: know mission, goals, and steps to achieve the goals. Reflexivity is effective team's ability to adjust master plan when necessary and reflect. (2) Specific Goals: turn common purpose into measurable, and realistic performance goals; they should be difficult to raise team performance. (3) Team Efficacy: confidence in themselves, they believe they can succeed. (4) Mental Models: mental representations of the key elements within a teams environment that team members share. (5) Conflict: not necessarily bad; Relationship conflict is, Task Conflict can be good to promote critical thinking and discussion. (6) Social Loafing: undermine this tendency by making members individually and jointly accountable for the team's purpose, goals, and approach.

How does ethical leadership play into authentic leadership and charismatic leadership? Why are authentic leaders effective?

Authentic leadership focuses on the moral aspects of being a leader- they share information, encourage open communication, and stick to deals while people have faith in them. Ethics and Authentic leadership go together since elders who treat their workers with fairness, by providing honest, frequent, and accurate information are seen as more effective. Leaders who are more humble also hep followers to understand the growth process for their own development. Their followers also have more organizational citizenship and address more problems with leaders. Charisma also has an ethical component, socialized charismatic leadership conveys other-centered. values by leaders who model ethical conduct- they bring about employee values in line with heir own values through their words and actions.

What is the bargaining surplus? Negotiating surplus?

Bargaining surplus: the amount of overlap between parties' reservation points. Measures by the value the negotiated agreement offers to both parties over the alternative of not reaching a solution. Negotiator's Surplus: difference between the negotiation's outcome and the reservation point.

What are the bases of power? Be able to understand examples if/when you see them. Which ones are personal power? Formal power? What kinds of sources of power are the most effective?

Bases of power are where power comes from. Formal power is based on an individual's position in an organization (Coercive, Reward, Legitimate). Coercive Power: depends on fear of negative results from failing to comply. On physical level it rests on pain, threat of pain, withholding important things. On organizational level, it depends on if someone can take your job away from you, or withhold key information. Reward Power: people comply because it produces positive benefits; someone who can distribute rewards to other will have power over them and is seen as valuable. Legitimate Power: represents formal authority to control and use organizational resources based on structural positions in the organization. Personal Power is based on individual's unique characteristics (Expert, Referent). Expert Power: influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, knowledge. Referent Power: identification with a person you look up to and admire, and they have power over you since you want to please them. The most effective power bases are Personal powers, since Expert and Referent power positively relate to employee's satisfaction with supervision, organizational commitment, and performance while reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated. Coercive is negatively related to job satisfaction.

What are Behavioral theories? What are the dimensions of behavior that account for most of the effective leadership behavior? What might account for mixed effectiveness results from research studies?

Behavioral Theories imply that we can determine leadership effectiveness by leader behavior, and perhaps train people to be leaders. the 2 dimensions are (1) Initiating Structure: extent to which a leader is likely to design and construct his role and the roles of employee in order to reach goals. Behaviors include organizing work, work relationships, and goals. Relates to more productivity and positive evaluations. (2) Consideration: extent to which a person's job relationships are characterized bu mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feeling. Leaders with high consideration help employees with personal problems, is friendly and approachable, treats all employees as equals, and expresses appreciation and support. Relates to more job satisfaction and motivation. There are mixed reviews from differences in cultural preferences- leaders high in consideration succeed best in countries where cultural values do not favor unilateral decision making. Initiating Structure leaders do better in autocratic cultures. Identifying traits and behaviors do not guarantee success, it depends on the context and the ways the 3 factors interact as well.

What is BATNA? Why is it important?

Best Alternative To Negotiated Agreement. it determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement. Any offer that you receive that is better than your BATNA is better than an impasse. You shouldn't expect success in your negotiating efforts unless you're able to make the other side an offer that it finds attractive than its BATNA. if you know what the other party's BATNA is, you might be able to elicit a change even if you're not able to meet it.

What happens in the punctuated equilibrium model? What are the implications of this model?

Characterized by long periods of inertia with brief revolutionary changed by member's awareness of deadlines. It is suited to finite quality of temporary task groups working under time-deadline. The first meeting sets the group's direction, its then unlikely to be reexamined for the first half of the group's life, and then period of integrity begins. about halfway through the life, the group experiences radical changes in perspective and ideas, followed by a second phase of inertia. the last meeting of the group is a burst of activity to finish the work in the group.

How does a culture start? What kinds of things do the founders have influence over that impact culture? How is organizational culture perpetuated? What makes it hard to change?

Culture is founded in 3 ways: (1) founders hire and keep only employees who think and feel the same way they do (2) they indoctrinate and socialize employees to their way of thinking/feeling (3) founder's own behavior encourages employees to identify with them and internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions. Founder's personality is embedded in the culture if the company succeeds. Culture can be sustained through: (1) Selection: identify and hire individuals with knowledge applicable to the organization, and this can also let the applicants know if the company will be a good fit for them. (2) Top Management: establish norms (3) Socialization: help employees adapt to existing culture of organization.

What are some tactics you can take to influence and persuade others?

Described in #4

What is groupshift?

Describes the way group members tend to exaggerate their initial positions when discussion alternatives and arriving at a solution. Caution dominates sometimes, and people become more conservative, or they choose to take on risks. Can lead to group polarization, which causes people to take the extreme-side on a decision, and can be predicted by member's pre-disposition towards one side, which is usually exaggerated though discussions.

Integrative vs. Distributive Bargaining

Distributive Bargaining: operates under zero-sum conditions, meaning that any gain is at the expense of someone else; you are negotiating over a fixed-pie. Both parties have opposite interests, share low information, and in this short-term duration focus on their own positions. It's best to make the first offer here to appear powerful and take advantage of the anchoring bias. Integrative Bargaining: assumes one or more of the possible settlements can create a win-win solution. It focuses on expanding the pie so that both sides are satisfied, and that both the party's interests are taken into account. High information sharing, and long-term relationships.

Understand what a dominant culture is and what subcultures are.

Dominant Culture: represents the core values that a majority of the members in an organization share and give it a distinct personality. Subculture: develops in large organizations to reflect common problems or experiences members face in the same department/location. A department can have a subculture that contains core values from the dominant culture and additional values unique to members of that department. It is the "shared meaning" aspect of culture that makes it a powerful device for guiding and shaping behavior.

What are the different loci of conflict?

Dyadic Conflict (conflict between 3 people), Intragroup Conflict (within a group), Intergroup Conflict (between groups).

How does self-monitoring impact power and political behavior?

Employees who are self-monitors, have high power needs, and engage in political behavior are more sensitive to social cues, exhibit high levels of social conformity, and are more likely to be skilled in political behavior. They are more likely to take proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. Individual;s investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectation of success influence the degree too which she will pursue illegitimate means of political action. More alternative job opportunities will make an individual pursue more illegitimate political actions.

Know the refocusing questions used for identifying integrative options

Expanding the pie: How can both parties get what they are demanding?Is there a resource shortage, and how can the resource be expanded? Logrolling: what issues are of higher and lower importance to myself and the other party? what's the hierarchy of these issues? Nonspecific Compensation: What are the other party's goals and values and what can I do to satisfy them?Bridging: what underlying concerns are satisfied by the other party's and my proposal? what are the priorities and how can they be served? Cost-Cutting: what are the risks and costs of the decision, and how can they be mitigated? Specific Compensation: what goals and values are served by the other party's proposal? can they be served in another way?

What do positive leaders do? This is separate from the characteristics of PL.

Few organizations perform on the right side of the continuum, the part that encourages behaving extraordinarily, and they are positively deviant. This entail always earning more revenue than the industry average for certain number of years, and achieving the best of human performance. They foster a positive climate where strong relationships, open and honest communication, and meaningfulness of work were emphasized, and allow people with strong positive attitudes to create positive energy networks and mentoring relations. They avoid the negative affects of criticism and are more supportive in their communication which encourages more people to come out when there are problems. They genuinely care about employees, and their personal lives, show empathy. Emphasize the organization's forgiveness, trust, and integrity as expected behaviors. Positive leaders focus on organizational flourishing, enabling the best human condition and creating exceptionally positive outcomes, not merely resolving problems, overcoming obstacles, increasing competitiveness, or even attaining profitability. Positive leaders also enable extraordinary performance by implementing the 4 strategies through a Personal Management Interview Program (PMI)- interviews for people to discuss their roles and are regularly scheduled to continue positive climates and relationships. To implement the 4 strategies, the 2 step process of (1) Diagnosing Current Practices, and (2) Planning on Implementation (take 2-3 behaviors that can increase positivity and effectiveness in each of the 5 positive leadership strategies (Encourage compassion, Encourage forgiveness, Encourage gratitude,Foster positive energy, and Capitalize on others strengths) -also proved best-self feedback, use supportive communication, enhance the meaningfulness of the work, and implement PMI.

Understand the difference between formal and informal groups.

Formal Groups: defined by organization's structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks. The behaviors team members should engage in are stipulated by and directed towards organizational goals. Informal Groups: no formal structure, nor organizational goal. They meet the need for social contact, and are informal meetings which deeply effect behavior and performance.

What is the five-stage group development model? Know what happens in each stage.

Forming Stage: uncertainty about groups purple, structure, and leadership; members determine acceptable behavior for themselves in the group by trial and error. The stage is complete when member have begun to think of themselves as a group. Storming Stage: intragroup conflict, members accept the group but resists the constraints that it puts on individuality. there is conflict over who will control the group, but when this stage is complete, there is a clear hierarchy of leadership. Norming Stage: strong senes of group identity and camaraderie, to is complete once the group establishes a common set of expectations and behaviors, and structure is solidified. Performing Stage: structure is fully functional, group energy advanced from understanding each other to performing the task at hand. (last stage for permanent work groups). Adjourning Stage: (last step for group with limited work) wraps up activities and prepare for disbanding. In this process, strong desires to succeed achieve higher performance. Positive social focus achieve Performing Stage more rapidly. Transition from stages may be simultaneously and not clearly.

Know the following kinds of conflict: functional, dysfunctional, task, process, relationship. What does each type of conflict deal with? How do the different types of conflict relate to each other?

Functional Conflict supports the goals of the groups, improves performance and is constructive. Dysfunctional Conflict hinder group performance and is destructive to the group. Task Conflict relates to content and goals of the work. Relationship Conflict focus on interpersonal relationships; always dysfunctional from personality clashes. Process Conflict is how the work gets done. When interacting with relationship conflict, task conflict usually was more dysfunctional than when it is alone and generally functional.

What is group think? What are the symptoms of group think? How can a manager minimize groupthink?

Groupthink relates to norms and describes situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views; occurs most when there is a clear group identity. Symptoms include members rationalizing any resistance to assumptions they've made, members applying direct pressure on those who express doubts about any of the group's shared views, members who have differing views avoid deviating from group consensus, and there is an illusion of unanimity, people who don't say anything are assumed to be agreeing. To minimize groupthink, managers can monitor group size to avoid intimidation, encourage leaders to play an impartial role, appoint one members to play role of devil's advocate, require members to focus n negatives of alternatives that makes the group less likely to stifle dissenting views and more likely to gain objective valuations.

How do people respond to positive and negative stimuli? What are the consequences of this in terms of managing relationships?

Human beings react more strongly to negative things that positive things. They learn early in life to be vigilant in responding to the negative and to ignore natural heliotropic tendencies. Thus, achieving positive deviations is not dependent on completely positive conditions, just like failure is not totally dependent on negative conditions. because people pay more attention to harm than good, positive leadership is not the most common form of leadership.

What is impression management? What are some IM techniques you can use? What are benefits and drawbacks of IM?

Impression Management is a type of political behavior designed to alter another's immediate perception of us; evidence suggests that the effectiveness of impression management techniques depend on the setting. Conformity: agreeing with someone else's viewpoint to gain approval (ingratiation). Favors: doing something nice for someone to get approval (ingratiation). Excuses: explanation of an event that caused another event to reduce severity of issue (defensive). Apologies: admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action (defensive). Self-Promotion: make yourself look best and reduce your worst qualities (self-focused). Enhancement: claiming something you did was better than everyone else thinks (self-focused). Flattery: compliment others to seem more likable (assertive). Exemplification: doing more than needed to show how dedicated and working you are (assertive). People generally don't like to know that they are being manipulated so getting caught using them is bad. Self-Promotion is more important to viewing success than other ingratiating tactics, however, it can also backfire when they receive lower performance ratings. Another issue is that cultures perceive the tactics differently, like how Chinese managers view gentle persuasion as less effective than US managers.

What are some organizational characteristics that impact the effect that conflict has on performance? How do the different loci of conflict interact with each other?

In order for Intragroup task conflict to influence performance of the team, it is important that the teams have a supportive climate where mistakes aren't penalized and team members are cooperative. Intergroup conflict seems almost inevitable since there will always be groups that are competing, but there are times when it is helpful and other times when it is hurtful. Higher levels of intergroup conflict cause people in the group to comply with norms of the team. Group members who are relatively peripheral in their own group were better at resolving conflicts between their own group and another one, but this only happened when those peripheral members were still accountable for their group. Thus, being at the core of your work group does not necessarily make you the best person to manage conflict with other groups.

What are the sources of resistance to change?

Individual Sources: Habit, Security, Fear of the Unknown, Economic Factors, Selective Information Processing; Organizational Sources: Structural Inertia, Group Inertia, Threat to Established Power Relationships, Limited Focus on Change, Threat to Expertise

Why are integrative negotiations better? What are the barriers for doing it? What are some tactics for trying to make a negotiation more integrative? (you will find the answers to this last question in all 3 readings). How can you use these tactics in situations with low trust?

Integrative negotiations are better because it forms longer lasting relationships, and allows both parties to leave the table feeling they have achieved a victory. When you win, your opponent also feels good about the negotiation, while in Distributive Negotiations, the other party is a loser and animosity is created. It super hard to use integrative, since their are rarely any situations where both companies can win, so a win-at any cost mentality is usually taken. Negotiations can become more integrative when both sides of the party look into their underlying interests. Compromise is bad here, since it reduces pressure to bargain integratively; people settle for less than they could have obtained if they had been forced to consider the other party's interests, and lose their creativity.

What are the techniques of group decision making? Know what interacting groups, brain storming, and the nominal group technique are.

Interacting Groups: members meet face to face to discuss verbally and nonverbally- people can censor themselves and not present true ideas. Brainstorming can over come the pressures of conformity by allowing groups of people to share their ideas while withholding criticisms, but it is not very efficient, since from "production blocking" people don't think while others are speaking and this hinders idea generation. The Nominal Group Technique restrict discussion until after everyone presents. Each members writes down his ideas, then present in front of everyone in silence, then everyone discuses, votes, and the highest voted idea gets implemented. This does not restrict independent thinking, and tends to outperform brainstorming groups.

What happens in Kotter's 8 step plan? How do his steps map onto Lewin's model?

Kotter built on Lewin's model by giving more steps to change that listed common mistakes that managers made while trying to initiate change. 1-4 are unfreezing stage, 5-7 are movement, and 8 is refreeze. (1) establish urgency by creating compelling reason for why change is needed (2) form coalition with enough power to lead the change (3) create new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision (4) communicate the vision through the organization (5) empower others to to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk taking and creative problem solving (6) plan for, create, and reward ST "wins" that move the organization toward the new vision (7) consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new programs (8) reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors and organizational success.

How does organization size impact structure?

Larger organizations tend to be more specialized and have more vertical levels. It also has more rules and regulation. Once a company hits a certain size, growth does not have much of an effect.

What is Lewin's three-step model of change? How do you move from equilibrium to unfreezing?

Lewin argued that successful change in an organization should follow 3 steps: (1) Unfreezing: move from the equilibrium state of status quo to overcome pressures of resistance and conformity. This is done through Driving Forces, which direct behavior away from the status quo, Restraining Forces which hinder movement from status quo should be decreased, and combine the 2 approaches could work as well. (2) Movement: to be effective, organizations must move quickly, and those that build up to change tend to be less effective. (3) Refreezing: change will be short-lived unless implemented, and employees will revert back to previous equilibrium state. Stabilize new situations by balancing driving and restraining forces.

How can resistance of change surface?

Management can most likely handle Overt and Immediate Resistance like complaints, a work slowdown, or a strike threat. Greater challenge to manage Implicit or Deferred; These responses- loss of motivation, increased errors or absenteeism, are more subtle and more difficult to recognize what they are. Deferred actions may surface weeks, months, or even years later and thus cloud the link between he change and the reaction to it

Know the characteristics of mechanistic and organic organizations.

Mechanistic is like a bureaucracy. It has a highly standardized process for work, high formalization, and more managerial hierarchy. Organic is like a boundarlyess organization. It's flat, has fewer formal procedures for making decisions, has multiple decision makers, and favors flexible practices.

Know the different components of negotiation

Negotiation is a process that occurs when 2 or more parties decide how to allocate scarce resources.

How can you create a culture that embraces change and innovation? What are the sources of innovation? What are the structural barriers that promote it?

No guaranteed formula, certain characteristics surface repeatedly when researchers study organizations. Innovation is a specialized kind of change, isa new idea applied to initiating or improving product, process, or service; so all innovations imply change, but not all changes are innovation or lead to significant improvements. Structural variables have been most studied potential source of innovation: (1) Organic Structures: positively influence innovation; lower in vertical differentiation, formalization, and centralization, organic organizations facilitate the flexibility, adaptation, and cross-fertilization that makes adoptions easier. (2) Long Tenure: provide legitimacy and knowledge of how to accomplish tasks and obtain desired outcomes (3) Slack Resources: abundance of resources allow organization to afford to purchase innovations, bear the cost of instituting them, and absorb failures (4) Inter-unit Communication: high users of committees, task forces, cross-funcional teams, and other mechanisms that facilitate interaction across departmental lines. Organizations tend to have similar cultures, encourage experimentation, reward both successes and failures, and celebrate mistakes to a healthy degree.

How are norms established? What is deviant behavior as defined by your textbook?

Norms are established through groups accepting forms of behavior, and the norms influence employee behavior, and can also impact the conformity of workers, forcing them to act ac certain way in order to feel accepted by a groups standards. People conform to important groups to which they want to belong to, these groups are called reference groups, and these people are aware of other members, and defines himself as a member and feel group members are significant to him. Deviant Workplace behavior is voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms, and in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organizations and members.

How do you create an ethical organizational culture?

Organization that is likely to shape high ethical standards in employees is high in risk tolerance, low in aggressiveness, and focused on means and outcomes; it must have powerful and positive influence on employees. (1) Be a visible role model (2) Communicate ethical expectations (3) Provide Ethical training (4) Visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones (5) Provide protective mechanisms

What is organizational development? What do OD methods value? What is the emphasis and focus on?

Organizational Development (OD) is a collection of change methods that try to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being. It values human an organizational growth, collaborative and participative processes, an spirit of inquiry; borrows heavily from modern philosophy and how people see the environment. Underlying values: (1) Respect for people (2) Trust and support (3) power equalization (4) confrontation (5) participation

What is culture? What are the primary characteristics of organizational culture?

Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organizations from other organizations. (1) innovation/risk taking (2) Attention to detail (3) Outcome Orientation: degree of focusing on results vs. how to get to outcomes (4) People Orientation: Degree of focusing on outcomes of people in organizations (5) Team Orientations: degree ton which activities focused on teams rather than individuals (6) aggressiveness (7) stability

What is organizational structure? What are the elements of structure that one must consider when designing an organization's structure? Know what these are, what they mean. What are the impacts of these elements? If you are too strong/too narrow in one, what happens? Too broad/too weak in another? How do these elements impact employee attitudes and behaviors?

Organizational structure defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated. The key elements of organizational structure are work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization and decentralization, and formalization. Work specialization is the degree to which activities are divided into separate jobs. Departmentalization is the basis by which jobs are grouped typically by the functions performed. Chain of command is an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom. Span of control determines the number of levels and managers an organization creates. Centralization and decentralization are the degrees to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. Formalization is the degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized. Of workers, become to specialized they become affected by human diseconomies. These elements give workers a feeling of purpose if their job is specialized and recognized by the company because their job is under their autonomy in a sense.

Know about individual differences in negotiations, including national culture

People from different cultures negotiate differently, and the success depends on the context. People negotiate more effectively within cultures than in-between them. It also appears that cross-cultural negotiations should have its negotiators be in high-openness. Since emotions are culturally sensitive, negotiators also need to be aware of this. Women also tend to be less-assertive and more cooperative to negotiate with. Men place a higher value on power, success, and recognition, whereas women place a higher value on compassion and altruism.

How do you set a reservation price? What are some issues you need to think about? What are some dangers in not setting a reservation price/point ahead of time?

Point at which a negotiator is indifferent between reaching a settlement and walking away from the bargaining table. if not assessed, people could agree to terms that are worse for them than what they could attain by engaging in a different course of action, or people reject offers that are better than any other alternatives. A person's reservation price should also not change unless the situation changes. Also, beware that the other party doesn't talk you out of your BATNA. another issue is focusing on a focal point grounded in no basis that is before making the reservation point after negotiating. Buyers can also use their reservation point as their target point, which could lead to agreeing to a weaker negotiation decision. Also beware of splitting the difference, because that could mean you are in a disadvantageous position.

What organizational cultural factors impact the prominence of politicking in organizational life?

Politicking is when individuals taint facts to support their goals and interests in organizations. Politicking is likely when: When there is an opportunity for promotions, any changes, especially those that imply significant reallocations of resources. In cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum (win/lose) reward allocation processes, democratic decision making, high pressure for performance, and self-serving senior managers. Subjective performance criteria leads to ambiguity and can cause politicking. Zero-Sum approach is a pie-allocation method where gains to one person means losses to another. When people see top people in company engaging in political activity and succeeding, more intent for politicking.

What is positive leadership? What does positive leadership examine? What are the characteristics of positive leadership?

Positive leadership is the way that leader enable positively deviant performance, foster an affirmative orientation in organizations, and engender a focus on virtuousness and he best of the human condition. It emphasizes 3 different orientations: (1) Positively deviant performance: emphasis on outcomes that dramatically exceed common or expected performance. (2) Affirmative Bias: focus on strengths and capabilities and on affirming human potential. (3) Facilitating the Best Human Condition: believes all humans are good intrinsically, and focuses on attaining virtues.

How does power affect people?

Power can lead people to place their own interests ahead of others since it causes them to focus on their self-interests and place more weight on their own goals. Powerful people react to any challenges to their competence, and they are likely to make self-interested decisions when faced with a moral hazard. Power can also lead to overconfidence decision making. Personality also effects power effect, if we are anxious, we are less likely to be affected by power since we don't think it benefits us. People who abuse power are those who are low in status and gain power. Power led to self-interested behavior only for those with a weak moral identity. For those with a strong moral identity, power enhanced their moral awareness.

What is power? What concepts are inherent in the definition of power?

Power refers to the capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes. Someone can have power and not use it, since it is a capacity/potential. The most important aspect of power is dependence, A's power is greater the more dependent B is on A. Someone can only have power if he controls something you want, if your alternatives are highly limited, and you place high degree of important on the outcome.

What are the steps in negotiation?

Preparation and Planning: Who is involved? what are your goals? think of the other party's goals. BATNA. Definition of Ground Rules: who will do the act, where and when it will take place. Clarification and Justification: does not need to be confrontational, it can be both parties explaining their positions and why important/how arrived at original demands. Bargaining and Problem Solving: essence of the negotiation, where both parties give-and-take demands. Closure and Implementation: formalize the agreement and develop procedures for implementing and monitoring it.

What are the different types of teams? When would you want to use each kind? What are some benefits and drawbacks of each type?

Problem-Solving Teams: discuss improvements and solutions; rarely have authority to implement any of their suggestions, but if their recommendations are paired with implementation processes, some significant improvements can be realized. Self-Managed Work Teams: groups of employees (10-15) who perform highly related or interdependent jobs; these teams take on supervisory responsibilities. Supervisory positions take on less importance since the team members evaluate each others performance. Not effective when there is conflict from power struggles, and are also responsive to rewards. Cross-Functional Teams: made up of employees from the same hierarchal level but different work areas who come together to accomplish a task. Allows people from diverse work backgrounds to come together to solve problems and create ideas; hard to manage from high need for coordination, and it takes time to build trust for teamwork and varying perspectives. Great for face-to-face collaborative efforts of individuals with diverse skills from variety of disciplines. Virtual Teams: use computer technology to link members together, and collaborate online. To be effective, there must be trust, closely monitored team progress, and publicized team efforts and products. Members can feel dissatisfied or isolated from lack of interpersonal communication, and low-levels of virtual communication results in higher levels of info sharing, but high-levels of virtual communication hinders it. Multiteam Systems:collections of 2 or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal, "team of teams." They perform well with Boundary-Spanners, who coordinate with members of other sub teams and reduce the need for some team member communication. The best option when team has become too large to be effective, or when teams with distinct functions needs to be highly coordinated.

What is conflict? What are the two views of conflict? Understand the difference between these two views. What are some criticisms of each view?

Process that begins when one party perceives another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something the first party cares about. The Traditional View of conflict is that all conflict is bad and dysfunctional from a lack of trust, communication, and failure of managers. However, some conflict is actually inevitable, and can actually be used to improve organizational performance. The Interactionist View of conflict encourages conflict on the grounds that a perfectly harmonious group is prone to becoming static and unresponsive to needs for change and innovation. Not all conflict is good, but functional conflict can improve a group's performance, while dysfunctional conflict can destroy the group.

What is the Fiedler contingency model? What are the steps of this model? What are the things you need to think about in each step? When does a leader have more control?

Proposes that effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader's style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader control. The Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire identifies leadership style by measuring wether a person is task-oriented or relationship-oriented. Takes into account all the co-workers, and if you describe the ones you are least able to work with as favorable (high LPC) then you are relationship oriented. If you describe them as bad, then task-oriented. In the model, fit must be found between the organizational situation and the leader's style for effectiveness; if not, situations must be modified or leaders replaced for optimal effectiveness. There are 3 contingency or situational dimensions to assess situations: (1) Leader-Member Relations: degree fo confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leaders (2) Task Structure: degree to which job assignments are structured or unstructured (3) Position Power: degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases. A higher task structure means more procedures are added, which creates stronger position power, thus giving the leader more control. The model considers the individual's leadership structure as fixed, so the only ways to improve effectiveness is to replace the leader or change the situation by restructuring tasks/ increase leader's power.

What impact do the different kinds of conflict have on the organization?

Relationship conflict is almost always dysfunctional, and psychologically draining to deal with since its the clashing of personalities. Task conflict among top management teams was positively associated with performance, but task conflict in lower sectors was negative. conflict occurring at the same time also has an impact. Task and relationship conflict at the same time makes task more negative than if task was just alone. If task conflict is low, then people actually aren't addressing important issues, but if its too high, then it will develop into relationship conflict. Moderate levels of task conflict can lead to creativity. Process Conflict removes around delegation and roles, leaving some members marginalized. It can become personal and develop into relationship conflict. The fighting over role also takes away from productivity.

Understand what positive deviance looks like, know examples.

Represents intentional behaviors that depart from the norm of a reference group in honorable ways. The achievements exceed every knowledge expert's predictions of performance, such as CH2MHILL completing the Nuclear Production Factory clean-up in 10 years instead of 70, and $30 billion under budget.

What impact does resistance to change have on the organization?

Resistance to change can be positive if it leads to open discussion and debate; open discussions are better than silence.apathy once it shows that the firm is engaged in the process of change. When members treat resistance only as a threat to be internalized, rather than as a point of discussion, it increases dysfunctional conflict. Not all change is good, it can lead to risky decisions, and have greater magnitude than expected.

Understand the strengths, weaknesses of group decision making, and when groups are more effective than individuals.

STRENGTHS: Groups generate more complex information and knowledge- increased diversity of views, and lead to increased acceptance of solutions. WEAKNESSES: more time consuming, and there are conformity pressures which cause people, to avoid disagreeing. It can be dominated by only few members, and ambiguous responsibility for the outcome hinders involvement and commitment. EFFECTIVE vs. EFFICIENCY: group decision are more accurate than individual decisions, but less accurate than judgments of individuals. individuals are faster, but groups are more creative. Effectiveness means the degree of acceptance the final solution achieves, then the group is better. Group decision takes much longer than single work, an exception being when an individual has to take into consideration others opinions and search through files and research. Manager must asses whether increases in effectiveness can more and offset the reduction in efficiency.

What is servant leadership? What are positive outcomes of servant leadership?

Servant leaders go beyond they self-interest and focus on opportunities to help followers grow and develop. They don't use power to achieve ends; they emphasize persuasion. These behaviors include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing follower's potential. Servant leadership resulted in higher levels of commitment to the supervisor, self-efficacy, and perceptions of justice, and more organizational citizenship. This leadership also increases team potency (belief that team has above-average skills) which leads to higher group performance. Higher OCB increases growth and advancement, which creates higher creativity. Can also be more prevalent in certain cultures, like Eastern Asia.

What is organizational climate? What are the impacts of organizational climate?

Shared perceptions members have about organization and work environment; (team spirit) When everyone has the same feelings about how well things are working or about what is important, their attitudes can increase job satisfaction, involvement, commitment, and motivation, customer satisfaction, and financial performance. A person win a positive climate will think about doing good things more, in diversity climate they will be more willing to work with different cultures and demographic backgrounds. They also impact habits which can improve safety for example.

How do you get status? How does status impact groups?

Status is determined by the power a person wields over others, a person's ability to contribute to group goals (higher is more power), and individual's positive and beneficial characteristics. High-status individuals are often given more freedom to deviate away from norms than lower ranked members, and they are also better at resisting conformity pressures. They are more assertive than lower ranked members, which can cause issues for productivity in the workplace because the lower ranked members participate less actively and they might have good ideas that they do not share.

What is a strong culture? What are the characteristics of a strong culture? (The lecture goes into more detail than the book, but they complement each other) What are some of the benefits of a strong culture? What are some barriers to establishing a strong culture? What are some downsides of strong cultures?

Strong Culture: an organization's core values are intensely held and widely shared- the more members who accept the core values and greater their commitment, the stronger the culture and the greater its influence on member behavior. It should reduce employee turnover because it demonstrates high agreement about what the organization represents, this builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organizational commitment. When team managers and team members disagree about perceptions of organizational support, there are more negative moods among team members, and performance is lower. Formalization is internalized through a strong culture, since people will follow rules and norms by themselves without rigid constructs.

Go with the terms I used in my lecture and in "What To Do Before Negotiation" for target price/reservation price (or "point")

Target Price: goal.goal price that you hope to achieve at the end of a negotiation; needs to be realistic and specific Reservation Price: what point you can walk away with (maximum price you will pay) This will need to be higher if you have a weak BATNA.

Why do organizations use teams? What are some benefits of teams? When might you not want to use a team?

Teams are a way for companies to optimize employee talents. Teams are more responsive and flexible to changing events than regular departments or permanent groups, and they can assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband efficiently. They are effective means for management to democratize organizations, facilitate employee participation, and increase employee involvement. The downside is that teams can be swayed by fads and herd mentality.

What is Leadership?

The ability to influence a group towards the achievement of a vision or set of goals. Not all managers are leaders, not all leaders are managers. Non-sanctioned Leadership- the ability to influence that arises outside the structure of the organization is sometimes very important to success. Organizations need strong leadership and strong management for optimal effectiveness.

Know the dimensions of the organizational environment

The are organizational strategies, size, technology, and environment. Strategies include innovation, cost-minimization, and imitation. Size (explained before). Technology is the transfer of inputs into outputs. Environment includes outside institutions or forces than can affect its performance such as suppliers, customers, government regulatory agencies, and public pressure groups.

What leads to social loafing? What situations have less social loafing than others?

The tendency of individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone. It directly challenges the assumption that the productivity of the group as a whole should at least equal the sum of the productivity of the individuals in it. It can be caused by the belief that others in the group are not carrying their fair share- seeing others being lazy causes you to reduce effort. Social loafers must also be seen as those who are working in exploitative manner, as in trying to benefit from the hard work of others. The diffusion of responsibility and the cloudiness in seeing direct work for group projects can also prevent people from being called out for being loafers. It has a western bias, and is more prevalent in self-interest societies. Collectivist countries like China and Israel have no social loafers since they work for a shared outcome. Loafing can be prevented by (1) setting group goals, (2) increase intergroup competitions which focuses on shared outcome, (3) engage in peer evaluation to see individual contribution, (4) select members with high motivation and like working in groups, (5) base group rewards on each member;s contributions.

What factors determine whether teams are successful?

The work of teams are successful and the best option when (1) the work can be better done as a team than as one person (2) work creates a common purpose/goals for people in the group that is more than. the aggregate of individual goals. (3) if members of the group are interdependent- the success of the whole depends on each person, and the success of each one depends on the success of others.

What are some ways that organizations can counteract the negative influence of downsizing?

They are investment, communication, participation, and assistance. Investment is when companies that downsize focus on core competencies when they invest in high-involvement work practices afterward. Communication is when they talk about downsizing early to warn people. Participation is when employees can do something about downsizing. Assistance is when the companies gives them severance pay and packages.

What are tactics you can use in a negotiation? What are the implications of these tactics in a distributive negotiation? An integrative negotiation? How effective are they? When might you want to use them?

Threats: can be effective and can be very effective at getting concessions since it doesn't make an offer less attractive. Harassment: immediate punishment for not complying. Both of these work, but cause resentment and animosity. Positional Commitment: hold firm an offer and make no additional concessions. usually combined with a threat to break off negotiations if the other part does not accept the offer. They put be credible in order to be effective. Persuasive Arguments: aim of changing a target's attitude towards an issue. this can be done by showing how the interests of both parties are included in the deal. Using all these tactics can lad to victory but generally at a high cost.

What are trait theories of leadership? What impacts do traits have on leadership?

Trait Theories focus on persona qualities and characteristics, some of which have been shown to be predictive of leadership ability. Extraversion is the most predictive trait, but more towards emergence, not towards effectiveness. Leaders who like being around people and are able to assert themselves (extravert), who are disciplined and able to keep commitments they made (conscientious), and who are creative and flexible (openness) have an advantage when it comes to leadership. Traits help us predict leadership, and the emergence of leaders, but not so much the difference between effective and ineffective leaders.

Why is trust so important in leadership?

Truly is a physiological state that exists when you agree to make yourself more vulnerable to another person because you have positive expectation about how things are going to turn out. People are unlikely to look up to someone they perceive as dishonest or may take advantage of them. Trust encourages taking more risks, facilitates information sharing/ speaking out to solve problems, making groups more effective from motivation to help each other out more, and increasing productivity since employees who trust supervisor work harder and get higher performance ratings.

Summary of exhibit 14-6

When conflict is low, there is a static group, it is dysfunctional, and the outcome of the groups are low. When unit conflict is high, there is too much dysfunctional conflict, its disruptive and chaotic, and outcomes are low. When conflict is optimal, the connect is functional, and the units is innovative, self-critical and innovative. the outcome is high.

What are the differences between a team and a group? A work group versus a work team? What are some similarities?

Work Group: interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help each member perform within that member's area of responsibility. These have no need to engage in collective work with joint effort, so performance is just everyone's work added together, no synergy. Work Team: generates positive synergy with coordinated effort; individual efforts result in a level of performance greater than the sum of those individual inputs. Both Teams/Groups have behavioral expectations, collective normalization efforts, active group dynamics, and some level of decision making. They generate ideas, pool resources, or coordinate logistics for schedules, but for work groups, this effort is gathering information for decision makers outside the group. Work Team is a subset of Work Group, the team is constructed to be purposeful.

Understand the role of information and power in a negotiation

You can learn about the other party's reservation point, and understand exactly what they want and play to your advantage. Power can also give you an advantage in negotiations especially coercive and reward power. Legitimate, Referent, and Expert power all make you seem like a more significant individual and thus give you a greater sense of authority to negotiate and get what you want. The most important source of power in a negotiation is your BATNA, or the more attractive alternative option that you can use to extract a larger share of the bargaining surplus.

What are qualities you should look for when selecting leader? What are effective ways to develop them?

You can select leaders by reviewing the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to do the job effectively. Personality tests can identify the traits associated with leadership like extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. high-self monitors are better at reading situations and adjusting their behavior accordingly. Candidates with high emotional intelligence should also have an advantage. especially insinuations retraining transformational leadership. To get the most out of your training for leaders, you should work with high self-monitors with flexibly to change their behaviors, teach implementation skills, teach trust and mentoring skills, especially situational-analysis skills, evaluate situations, and modify them to better fit their style, and assess which leadership behaviors might be most effective in given situations. modeling exercises and reviewing leadership after Ley organizational events is also important.

What effect do things happening in the environment (culture, org performance, etc.) have on perceptions of leadership?

company performance can lead to changing perceptions of leadership- employee perceptions of leader's behaviors are significant predictors of whether they blame the leader for failure, regardless of how the leader assess himself. Attribution theory suggests that it is important to project appearance of being a leader rather than focusing on actual accomplishment- easier to shape people into thinking you are someone and the the view you as effective leader.

Know the power tactics and which ones are most effective for whom.

power tactics are ways that people can influence others. Legitimacy: relying on authority position, saying that a request accords with organizational policies. Rational Persuasion: present logical/factual evidence to demonstrate request reasonable. Inspirational Appeals: develop emotional commitment by appealing to target's values, needs, hopes, aspirations. Consultation: increasing support by involving the target in deciding how you will accomplish your plan. Exchange: reward target with benefits in exchange for following request. Personal Appeals: ask for compliance based on friendship/loyalty. Ingratiation: using flattery, praise, friendly behavior before making request. Pressure: use warnings, repeated demands, threats. Coalitions: enlist aid or support of others for persuasion. Rational Persuasion, Inspirational Appeals, and Consultation most effective for large audience who is highly invested in outcomes of decisions. Pressure usually backfires, and rational persuasion is the only factor that is effective across organizational levels. People especially likely to comply with softer tactics (personal/inspiration appeal, rational, consultation) and tend to be more intrinsically motivated, high self-esteem, greater desire for control.