OB Final Exam

Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, Adjourning/Transforming

- * Bruce W. Tuckman *

Soft/Hard influence tactics

- Influence behavior - Persuade hearts and minds - Start soft, win supporters

BATNA

- Investigation - Determine your BATNA - Presentation - Bargaining - Closure

motivators

- achievement - recognition - interesting work - increased responsibility - advancement and growth - are the conditions that truly encourage employees to try harder

Incentives

- piece work -- paid so much per widget -- do as many widgets as they can, but low quality and will steal other peoples widgets -- employees are paid on the basis of individual output they produce. -- manufacturing jobs & white-collar jobs -- increased # of errors due to trying to work as quickly as possible - individual bonus -- happens just once -- bonuses are one time rewards that follow specific accomplishments of employees. For example, an employee who reaches the quarterly goals set for her may be rewarded with a lump sum bonus. Employee motivation resulting from a bonus is generally related to the degree of advanced knowledge regarding bonus specifics - merit pay -- get a raise because of what you did last year and it doesn't change -- involves giving employees a permanent pay raise based on past performance -- typically where performance appraisals are used - commission -- hungry annoying sharks, don't put them on full commission if you don't want to annoy your customers-- give some otherwise they don't do anything but not fully commission -- In many companies, the paycheck of sales employees is a combination of a base salary and commissions. -- sales commissions involve rewarding sales employees with a percentage of sales volume or profits generated. Sales commissions should be designed carefully to be consistent with company objectives. For example, employees who are heavily rewarded with commissions may neglect customers who have a low probability of making a quick purchase. If only sales volume (as opposed to profitability) is rewarded, employees may start discounting merchandise too heavily, or start neglecting existing customers who require a lot of attention. Therefore, the blend of straight salary and commissions needs to be managed carefully - awards -- Some companies manage to create effective incentive systems on a small budget while downplaying the importance of large bonuses. It is possible to motivate employees through awards, plaques, or other symbolic methods of recognition to the degree these methods convey sincere appreciation for employee contributions - team bonus -- people will mooch off of other people -- In situations in which empl oyees should cooperate with each other and isolating employee performance is more difficult, companies are increasingly resorting to tying employee pay to team performance. For example, in 2007, Wal - Mart gave bonuses to around 80% of their associates based on store performance. If employees have a reasonable ability to influence their team's performance level, these programs may be effective. - gain sharing -- works to motivate whole company-- not very fair because people in the company have little effect on what happens -- gainsharing is a companywide program in which employees are rewarded for performance gains compared to past performance. These gains may take the form of reducing labor costs compared to estimates or reducing overall costs compared to past years' figures. These improv ements are achieved through employee suggestions and participation in management through employee committees. - profit sharing -- Profit sharing programs involve sharing a percentage of company profits with all employees. These programs are companywide incentives and are not very effective in tying employee pay to individual effort, because each employee will have a limited role in influencing company profitability. At the same time, these programs may be more effective in creating loyalty and commitment to the company by recognizing all employees for their contributions throughout the year. - stock options -- good for small companies -- a stock option gives an employee the right, but not the obligation, to purchase company stocks at a predetermined price. For example, a company would commit to sell company stock to employees or managers 2 years in the future at $30 per share. If the company's actual stock price in 2 years is $60, employees would make a profit by exercising their options at $30 and then selling them in the stock market. The purpose of stock options is to align company and employee interests by making employees owners. However, options are not very useful for this purpose, because employees tend to sell the stock instead of holding onto it. In the past, options were given to a wide variety of employees, including CEOs, high performers, and in some companies all employees.

Minnesota Multiphase

-- nearly 600 true/false questions -- copyright owned by the regents -- best personality test in use -- invented here -- deep level and superficial level diversity -- comes form U of M twin cities -- too complicated so use OCEAN

Centralized/Decentralized

Centralization - importance of task -- cost of mistakes - preparation of worker -- likelihood of success = degree of control delegated - ARMY = very little - Best Buy = very much - Also, formalization... - Centralization is the degree to which decision making authority is concentrated at higher levels in an organization. In centralized companies, many important decisions are made at higher levels of the hierarchy, whereas in decentralized companies, decisions are made and problems are solved at lower levels by employees who are closer to the problem in question. As an employee, where would you feel more comfortable and productive? If your answer is "decentralized," you are not alone. Decentralized companies give more authority to lower level employees, resulting in a sense of empowerment. Decisions are often faster, and employees believe that decentralized companies provide greater lev els of procedural fairness to employees. Job candidates are more likely to be attracted to decentralized organizations. Because centralized organizations assign decision making responsibility to higher level managers, there are greater demands on the menta l and physical capabilities of CEOs and other high - level managers. Despite many perceived disadvantages, centralization may lead to more efficient operations, particularly if the company is operating in a stable environment - Many companies find that the centralization of operations leads to inefficiencies in decision making. For example, in the 1980s, Caterpillar Inc. suffered the consequences of centralized decision making. At the time, all pricing decisions were made in the corporate headquarters in Peoria, Illinois. This meant that when a sales representative working in Africa wanted to give a discount on a product, they needed to check with headquarters. Headquarters did not always have accurate or timely information about the subsidiary markets to make an effective decision. The dramatic reorganization of the company sought to avoid problems such as these. At the other end of the spectrum, organizations can suffer from extreme decentralization. For example, some analysts believe that the Federa l Bureau of Investigation (FBI) experiences some problems because all its structure and systems are based on the assumption that crime needs to be caught after it happens. Over time, this assumption led to a situation in which, instead of following an over arching strategy, each unit is completely decentralized, and field agents determine how investigations should be pursued. It has been argued that due to the change in the nature of crimes, the FBI's need to gather accurate intelligence before a crime is co mmitted requires more centralized decision making and strategy development - Hitting the right balance between decentralization and centralization is a challenge for many organizations. At the Home Depot Inc., the retail giant with over 2,000 stores across the United States, Canada, Mexico, and China, one of the major changes their former CEO Robert Nardelli did was to centralize most of its operations. Before the transition, Home Depot store managers made a number of decisions autonomously and each store had an entrepreneurial culture. Nardelli's changes initially saved the company a lot of money. For example, for a company of that size, centralizing purchasing operations led to big cost savings, because the company could negotiate significant discounts from suppliers. At the same time, many analysts think that the centralization we nt too far, leading to the loss of the service - oriented culture at the stores

Bargaining (4)

During the bargaining phase, each party discusses their goals and seeks to get an agreement. A natural part of this process is making concessions , namely, giving up one thing to get something else in return. Making a concession is not a sign of weakness — parties expect to give up some of their goals. Rather, concessions demonstrate cooperativeness and help move the negotiation toward its conclusion. Making concessions is particularly important in tense union - management disputes, which can get bogged down by old issues. Making a concession shows forward movement and process, and it allays concerns about rigidity or closed - mindedness. What would a typical concession be? C oncessions are often in the areas of money, time, resources, responsibilities, or autonomy. When negotiating for the purchase of products, for example, you might agree to pay a higher price in exchange for getting the products sooner. Alternatively, you co uld ask to pay a lower price in exchange for giving the manufacturer more time or flexibility in when they deliver the product.One key to the bargaining phase is to ask questions. Don't simply take a statement such as "we can't do that" at face value. Ra ther, try to find out why the party has that constraint. Let's take a look at an example. Say that you're a retailer and you want to buy patio furniture from a manufacturer. You want to have the sets in time for spring sales. During the negotiations, your goal is to get the lowest price with the earliest delivery date. The manufacturer, of course, wants to get the highest price with the longest lead time before delivery. As negotiations stall, you evaluate your options to decide what's more important: a sli ghtly lower price or a slightly longer delivery date? You do a quick calculation. The manufacturer has offered to deliver the products by April 30, but you know that some of your customers make their patio furniture selection early in the spring, and missi ng those early sales could cost you $1 million. So, you suggest that you can accept the April 30 delivery date if the manufacturer will agree to drop the price by $1 million. "I appreciate the offer," the manufacturer replies, "but I can't accommodate such a large price cut." Instead of leaving it at that, you ask, "I'm surprised that a 2 - month delivery would be so costly to you. Tell me more about your manufacturing process so that I can understand why you can't manufacture the products in that time fr ame." " Manufacturing the products in that time frame is not the problem," the manufacturer replies, "but getting them shipped from Asia is what's expensive for us." When you hear that, a light bulb goes off. You know that your firm has favorable contract s with shipping companies because of the high volume of business the firm gives them. You make the following counteroffer: "Why don't we agree that my company will arrange and pay for the shipper, and you agree to have the products ready to ship on March 3 0 for $10.5 million instead of $11 million?" The manufacturer accepts the offer — the biggest expense and constraint (the shipping) has been lifted. You, in turn, have saved money as well

Determine your BATNA (2)

One important part of the investigation and planning phase is to determine your BATNA , which is an acronym that stands for the "best alternative to a negotiated agreement." Roger Fisher and William Ury coined this phrase in their book Getting to Yes: Negotiating without Giving In . Thinking through your BATNA is important to helping you de cide whether to accept an offer you receive during the negotiation. You need to know what your alternatives are. If you have various alternatives, you can look at the proposed deal more critically. Could you get a better outcome than the proposed deal? You r BATNA will help you reject an unfavorable deal. On the other hand, if the deal is better than another outcome you could get (that is, better than your BATNA), then you should accept it. Think about it in common sense terms: When you know your opponent i s desperate for a deal, you can demand much more. If it looks like they have a lot of other options outside the negotiation, you'll be more likely to make concessions. As Fisher and Ury said, "The reason you negotiate is to produce something better than the results you can obtain without negotiating. What are those results? What is that alternative? What is your BATNA — your Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement? That is the standard against which any proposed agreement should be measured." The party with the best BATNA has the best negotiating position, so try to improve your BATNA whenever possible by exploring possible alternatives. [3] Going back to the example of your new job negotiation, consider your options to the offer you receive. If your pay is lower than what you want, what alternatives do you have? A job with another company? Looking for another job? Going back to school? While you're thinking about your BATNA, take so me time to think about the other party's BATNA. Do they have an employee who could readily replace you? Once you've gotten a clear understanding of your own goals, investigate the person you'll be negotiating with. What does that person (or company) want? Put yourself in the other party's shoes. What alternatives could they have? For example, in the job negotiations, the other side wants a good employee at a fair price. That may lead you to do research on salary levels: What is the pay rate for the positio n you're seeking? What is the culture of the company? Greenpeace's goals are to safeguard the environment by getting large companies and organizations to adopt more environmentally friendly practices such as using fewer plastic components. Part of the back ground research Greenpeace engages in involves uncovering facts. For instance, medical device makers are using harmful PVCs as a tubing material because PVCs are inexpensive. But are there alternatives to PVCs that are also cost - effective? Greenpeace's res earch found that yes, there are. Knowing this lets Greenpeace counter those arguments and puts Greenpeace in a stronger position to achieve its goals

Alternate Dispute Resolution

- Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) includes mediation, arbitration, and other ways of resolving conflicts with the help of a specially trained, neutral third party without the need for a formal trial or hearing. [21] Many companies find this effective in dealing with challenging problems. For example, Eastman Kodak Company added an alternative dispute resolution panel of internal employees to help them handle cases of perceived discriminat ion and hopefully stop a conflict from escalating - Ombudsman -- a government official who hears and investigates complaints by private citizens against other officials or government agencies - Facilitation -- to make easier or less difficult; help forward - Mediation -- mediator will pick number between two offers and you have to take those numbers -- In mediation , an outside third party (the mediator) enters the situation with the goal of assisting the parties in reaching an agreement. The mediator can facilitate, suggest, and recommend . The mediator works with both parties to reach a solution but does not represent either side. Rather, the mediator's role is to help the parties share feelings, air and verify facts, exchange perceptions, and work toward agreements. Susan Podziba, a media tion expert, has helped get groups that sometimes have a hard time seeing the other side's point of view to open up and talk to one another. Her work includes such groups as pro - choice and pro - life advocates, individuals from Israel and Palestine, as well as fishermen and environmentalists. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, "Mediation gives the parties the opportunity to discuss the issues raised in the charge, clear up misunderstandings, determine the underlying interests or co ncerns, find areas of agreement and, ultimately, to incorporate those areas of agreements into resolutions. A mediator does not resolve the charge or impose a decision on the parties. Instead, the mediator helps the parties to agree on a mutually acceptabl e resolution. The mediation process is strictly confidential." One of the advantages of mediation is that the mediator helps the parties design their own solutions, including resolving issues that are important to both parties, not just the ones under specific dispute. Interestingly, sometimes mediation solves a conflict even if no resolution is reached. Here's a quote from Avis Ridley - Thomas, the founder and administrator of the Los Angeles City Attorney's Dispute Resolution Program, who explains, "Ev en if there is no agreement reached in mediation, people are happy that they engaged in the process. It often opens up the possibility for resolution in ways that people had not anticipated." An independent survey showed 96% of all respondents and 91% of all charging parties who used mediation would use it again if offered - Arbitration -- is they will either take your offer or the other persons, no middle ground -- In contrast to mediation, in which parties work with the mediator to arrive at a solution, in arbitration the parties submit the dispute to the third - party arbitrator. It is the arbitrator who makes the final decision. The arbitrator is a neutral third party, but the decision made by the arbitrator is final (the decision is called the "award"). Awards are made in writing and are binding to the parties involved in the case. Ar bitration is often used in union - management grievance conflicts * Know difference between mediation and arbitration -- easily confused and will be on test - Arbitration-Mediation -- It is common to see mediation followed by arbitration. An alternative technique is to follow the arbitration with mediation. The format of this conflict resolution appr oach is to have both sides formally make their cases before an arbitrator. The arbitrator then makes a decision and places it in a sealed envelope. Following this, the two parties work through mediation. If they are unable to reach an agreement on their ow n, the arbitration decisions become binding. Researchers using this technique found that it led to voluntary agreements between the two parties 71% of the time versus 50% for mediation followed by arbitration

Organizations reduce stress

- Employee assistance program -- there are times when life outside work causes stress in ways that will impact our lives at work and beyond. These situations may include the death of a loved one, serious illness, drug and alcohol dependencies, depression, or legal or financial problems th at are impinging on our work lives. Although treating such stressors is beyond the scope of an organization or a manager, many companies offer their employees outside sources of emotional counseling. Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) are often offered to workers as an adjunct to a company-provided health care plan. Small companies in particular use outside employee assistance programs, because they don't have the needed expertise in-house. As their name implies, EAPs offer help in dealing with crises in the workplace and beyond. EAPs are often used to help workers who have substance abuse problems - Fair work environments -- work environments that are unfair and unpredictable have been labeled "toxic workplaces." A toxic workplace is one in which a company does not value its employees or treat them fairly. Statistically, organizations that value employees are more profitable than those that do not. Research shows that working in an environment that is seen as fair helps to buffer the effects of stress. This reduced stress may be because employees feel a greater sense of status and self-esteem or due to a greater sense of trust within the organization. These findings hold for outcomes individuals receive as well as the process for distributing those outcomes. Whatever the case, it is clear that organizations have many reasons to create work environments characterized by fairness, including lower stress levels for employees. In fact, one study showed that training supervisors to be more interpersonally sensitive even helped nurses feel less stressed about a pay cut - Clear expectations -- One way to reduce stress is to state your expectations clearly. Workers who have clear descriptions of their jobs experience less stress than those whose jobs are ill defined. The same thing goes for individual tasks. Can you imagine the benefits of working in a place where every assignment was clear and employees were content and focused on their work? It would be a great place to work as a manager, too. Stress can be contagious, but as we've seen above, this kind of happiness can be contagious, too. Creating clear expectations doesn't have to be a top-down event. Managers may be unaware that their directives are increasing their subordinates' stress by upping their confusion. In this case, a gentle conversation that steers a project in a clearer direction can be a simple but powerful way to reduce stress. In the interest of reducing stress on all sides, it's important to frame situations as opportunities for solutions as opposed to sources of anger - Telecommuting -- refers to working remotely. For example, some employees work from home, a remote satellite office, or from a coffee shop for some portion of the workweek. Being able to work away from the office is one option that can decrease stress for some employees. Of course, while an estimated 45 million individuals telecommute each year, telecommuting is not for everyone - Sabbaticals -- (paid time off from the normal routine at work) have long been a sacred ritual practiced by universities to help faculty stay current, work on large research projects, and recharge every 5 to 8 years. However, many companies such as Genentech Inc., Container Store Inc., and eBay Inc. are now in the practice of granting paid sabbaticals to their employees.

job enlargement

- horizontal -- doing different jobs that are ranked the same -- refers to expanding the tasks performed by employees to add more variety. By giving employees several different tasks to be performed, as opposed to limiting their activities to a small number of tasks, organizations hope to reduce boredom and monotony as well as utilize human resources more effectively

Lewin

- unfreeze - change - refreeze

communication

- verbal - written - nonverbal

Team =

Group + Synergy

SN (sensing/intuition)

S: those who rely on their five senses to perceive the external environment I: those who rely on their intuition and hunches to perceive the external environment

organizational behavior

defined as the systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act within the organization where they work

big 5 personality traits

- openness - conscientiousness - extraversion - agreeableness - neuroticism - what corporate America likes--> prefers CEA - neuroticism can also be called emotional stability (modern textbooks)

Need for achievement

- want to achieve and thats what they are driven by - horrible bosses - want achievement they can see-- you want them to achieve what you want to achieve - wait until grass is 6 inches long so they can see how much they achieved when they mowed it

Deep vs Surface level diversity

Deep: - values - attitudes - beliefs Surface: - gender - race - age - physical disabilities - talked about more often because it is easier to see - Individuals often initially judge others based on surface level diversity. Over time, this effect tends to fade and is replaced by deep level traits such as similarity in values and attitudes - it seems that people who are different from others may feel isolated during their early tenure when they are dissimilar to the rest of the team, but these effects tend to disappear as people stay longer and get to know other employees. - Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory -- nearly 600 true/false questions -- copyright owned by the regents

Composition

- Size -- Interestingly, research has shown that regardless of team size, the most active team member speaks 43% of the time. The difference is that the team member who participates the least in a 3-person team is still active 23% of the time versus only 3% in a 10-person team. When deciding team size, a good rule of thumb is a size of two to twenty members. Research shows that groups with more than 20 members have less cooperation. The majority of teams have 10 members or less, because the larger the team, the harder it is to coordinate and interact as a team. With fewer individuals, team members are more able to work through differences and agree on a common plan of action. They have a clearer understanding of others' roles and greater accountability to fulfill their roles (remember social loafing?). Some tasks, however, require larger team sizes because of the need for diverse skills or because of the complexity of the task. In those cases, the best solution is to create subteams in which one member from each subteam is a member of a larger coordinating team. The relationship between team size and performance seems to greatly depend on the level of task interdependence, with some studies finding larger teams outproducing smaller teams and other studies finding just the opposite. The bottom line is that team size should be matched to the goals of the team - KSAs (knowledge, skills, abilities) -- a key consideration when forming a team is to ensure that all the team members are qualified for the roles they will fill for the team. This process often entails understanding the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) of team members as well as the personality traits needed before starting the selection process. When talking to potential team members, be sure to communicate the job requirements and norms of the team. To the degree that this is not possible, such as when already existing groups are utilized, think of ways to train the team members as much as possible to help ensure success. In addition to task knowledge, research has shown that individuals who understand the concepts covered in this chapter and in this book, such as conflict resolution, motivation, planning, and leadership, actually perform better on their jobs. This finding holds for a variety of jobs, including being an officer in the U.S. Air Force, an employee at a pulp mill, or a team member at a box manufacturing plant - Diversity -- Team composition and team diversity often go hand in hand. Teams whose members have complementary skills are often more successful, because members can see each other's blind spots. One team member's strengths can compensate for another's weaknesses. For example, consider the challenge that companies face when trying to forecast future sales of a given product. Workers who are educated as forecasters have the analytic skills needed for forecasting, but these workers often lack critical information about customers. Salespeople, in contrast, regularly communicate with customers, which means they're in the know about upcoming customer decisions. But salespeople often lack the analytic skills, discipline, or desire to enter this knowledge into spreadsheets and software that will help a company forecast future sales. Putting forecasters and salespeople together on a team tasked with determining the most accurate product forecast each quarter makes the best use of each member's skills and expertise -- Diversity in team composition can help teams come up with more creative and effective solutions. Research shows that teams that believe in the value of diversity performed better than teams that do not. The more diverse a team is in terms of expertise, gender, age, and background, the more ability the group has to avoid the problems of groupthink.For example, different educational levels for team members were related to more creativity in R&D teams and faster time to market for new products. Members will be more inclined to make different kinds of mistakes, which means that they'll be able to catch and correct those mistakes.

Performance =

Ability X Motivation X Environment

EI(extraversion/introversion)

E: those who derive their energy from other people and objects I: those who derive their energy from inside

Competition

People exhibiting a competing style want to reach their goal or get their solution adopted regardless of what others say or how they feel. They are more interested in getting the outcome they want as opposed to keeping the other party happy, and they push for the deal they are interested in making. Competition may lead to poor relationships with others if one is always seeking to m aximize their own outcomes at the expense of others' well-being. This approach may be effective if one has strong moral objections to the alternatives or if the alternatives one is opposing are unethical or harmful

Avoidance

The avoiding style is uncooperative and unassertive. People exhibiting this style seek to avoid conflict altogether by denying that it is there. They are prone to postponing any decisions in which a conflict may arise. People using this style may say things such as, "I don't really care if w e work this out," or "I don't think there's any problem. I feel fine about how things are." Conflict avoidance may be habitual to some people because of personality traits such as the need for affiliation. While conflict avoidance may not be a significant problem if the issue at hand is trivial, it becomes a problem when individuals avoid confronting important issues because of a dislike for conflict or a perceived inability to handle the other party's reactions

Expectancy Theory

- 3 parts, 3 links - wonderful theory and useful - working hard, succeeding, and getting a reward (three things in work life) - Effort -- expectancy (about job fit) --- a sense that if you try harder you will succeed and thats based upon if you are in the right job --- For example, do you believe that the effort you put forth in class is related to performing well in that class? if you do, you are more likely to put forth effort - Performance -- instrumentality (about fairness) --- won't be motivated if you aren't going to get the price -- promotion, raise, etc. --- is the degree to which the person believes that performance is related to subsequent outcomes, such as rewards --- For example, do you believe that getting a good grade in the class is related to rewards such as getting a better job, or gaining approval from your instructor, or from your friends or parents? If you do, you are more likely to put forth effort - Outcome -- valence ('do you value the prize') --- smart way to increase the valence is to have what we call cafeteria concentration --- pick what award you want within limits but we don't give you money (cash, etc.) --- individuals are also concerned about the value of the rewards awaiting them as a result of performance --- For example, do you value getting a better job, or gaining approval from your instructor, friends, or parents? If these outcomes are desirable to you, your expectancy and instrumentality is high, and you are more likely to put forth effort - 3 links -- expectancy -- instrumentality -- valence - if links are working, people are motivated - if not, you know what to look at and analyze to fix things-- maybe not in the right job, etc. - Based on Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. - According to expectancy theory, individual motivation to put forth more or less effort is determined by a rational calculation in which individuals evaluate their situation. - According to this theory, individuals ask themselves three questions (photo) - Expectancy: Can I do it? If I try harder, can I really achieve this number? Is there a link between how hard I try and whether I reach this goal or not? If you feel that you can achieve this number if you try, you have high expectancy - Instrumentality: What is in it for me? What is going to happen if I reach 300? What are the outcomes that will follow? Are they going to give me a 2% pay raise? Am I going to be named the salesperson of the month? Am I going to receive verbal praise from my manager? If you believe that performing well is related to certain outcomes, instrumentality is high - Valence: How do I feel about the outcomes in question? Do I feel that a 2% pay raise is desirable? Do I find being named the salesperson of the month attractive? Do I think that being praised by my manager is desirable? If your answers are yes, valence is positive. In contrast, if you find the outcomes undesirable (you definitely do not want to be named the salesperson of the month because your friends would make fun of you), valence is negative

Solved by

- Exploiting differences - Change the structure - Change the composition of the team - Create a common opposing force - Consider majority rule - Problem solve

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

- Flow = total absorption in activity - Work seen as puzzles, surprises, challenges -- challenge = reachable but requires a stretch -- meaningfulness = worthwhile or important -- competence = uses skills that you have -- choice = you have some say in it - basically saying the same thing as the job characteristics model - "In large organizations the dilution of information as it passes up and down the hierarchy, and horizontally across departments, can undermine the effort to focus on common goals."

stereotypes

- Gender -- earnings, ceiling-- women may experience in the workplace -- earnings gap: one possible explanation is they take time off to have children and another explanation possible is that women are less likely to pursue high-paying occupations such as engineering and business, differences in negotiating etc. -- glass ceiling: While women may be represented in lower level positions, they are less likely to be seen in higher management and executive suites of companies. In fact, while women constitute close to one-half of the workforce, men are four times more likely to reach the highest levels of organizations. - Race -- system designed by hegemony <--(leadership or predominant influence exercised by one nation over others, as in a confederation) -- Ethnic minorities experience both an earnings gap and a glass ceiling - Age -- values by age and time -- Despite their positive workplace behaviors, employees who are older often have to deal with age-related stereotypes at work -- Age diversity within a t eam can actually lead to higher team performance. In a simulation, teams with higher age diversity were able to think of different possibilities and diverse actions, leading to higher performance for the teams. -- At the same time, managing a team with age diversity may be challenging because different age groups seem to have different opinions about what is fair treatment, leading to different perceptions of organizational justice - Religion -- strongly held -- employees are required to make reasonable accommodations to ensure that employees can practice their beliefs unless doing so provides an unreasonable hardship on the employer. - Ability -- be reasonable -- prohibits discrimination in employment against individuals with physical as well as mental disabilities if these individuals are otherwise qualified to do their jobs with or without reasonable accommodation -- One legal requirement is that, when an employee brings up a disability, the organization should consider reasonable accommodations. This may include modifying the employee's schedule and reassigning some nonessential job functions - Orientation -- sexual orientation -- Research shows that one of the most important issues relating to sexual orientation is the disclosure of sexual identity in the workplace. -- those employees who fear that full disclosure would lead to negative reactions experience lower job satisfaction, reduced organizational commitment, and higher intentions to leave their jobs - An important challenge of managing a diverse workforce is the possibility that stereotypes about different groups could lead to unfair decision making - Stereotypes are generalizations about a particular group of people - The assumption that women are more relationship oriented, while men are more assertive, is an example of a stereotype - The problem with stereotypes is that people often use them to make decisions about a particular individual without actually verifying whether the assumption holds for the person in question

Diversity

- Harvest it, do not manage it -- assess manager (on achieving it) -- sensitivity training (cultural intelligence)--if any diverse people show up you will be trained how to respond -- wise recruiting (without tokens)--way to do it -- get over "treated equally"

Culture and Context

- High context (content less important)= doesn't matter what you say that much - Low context (content more important) = matters what you say

Organizational Behavior

- How people behave in organizations - Psychology, social psychology, anthropology, sociology, politics, economics, et cetera -- when we review topics such as personality and motivation, we will review studies from the psychology field -- the topic of team processes relies heavily on the field of sociology -- in the chapter relating to decision making, you will come across the influence of economics -- when we study power and influence in organizations, we borrow heavily from political sciences -- even medical science contributes to the field of organizational behavior, particularly to the study of stress and its effect on individuals - delivering performance and satisfaction - Research methods -- sample surveys -- field studies -- laboratory studies -- case study -- meta-analysis - finance maximizes shareholder wealth - marketing makes sales superfluous - O.B. balances two different goals (performance and satisfaction) - look at three levels -- the individual -- groups/teams -- organizations - O.B. takes perspective of the manager Industrial/organizational psychology -- add dyads (two person relationships) -- look @ individuals and then look at tight relationship between two people (extremely important kind of relationship) -- add the perspectives of workers and others

distributive justice

- If can't have distributive justice, will settle with procedural justice, don't have either? last resort is interactional justice - Equity theory deals with outcome fairness, and therefore it is con sidered to be a distributive justice theory - Distributive justice refers to the degree to which the outcomes received from the organization are perceived to be fair

Justice

- Let's assume that you just found out you are getting a promotion. Clearly, this is an exciting outcome and comes with a pay raise, increased responsibilities, and prestige. If you feel you deserve to be promoted, you would perceive high distributive justic e (your getting the promotion is fair). However, you later found out upper management picked your name out of a hat! What would you feel? You might still like the outcome but feel that the decision making process was unfair. If so, you are describing feeli ngs of procedural justice. - Now let's imagine the moment your boss told you that you are getting a promotion. Your manager's exact words were, "Yes, we are giving you the promotion. The job is so simple that we thought even you can handle it." Now what is your reaction? The feeling of unfairness you may now feel is explained by interactional justice.

Metaphors for organizations

- Mechanistic -- post office -- people aren't that important to this organization -- highly formalized and centralized -- often rigid and resist change -- has advantage when environment is stable -- main advantage is efficiency - Organic -- google -- community like -- flexible, decentralized, low levels of formalization -- related to higher levels of job satisfaction - Learning organization -- consultants - Psychic Prison -- government - Social movement .. most current -- how most organizations think of themselves -- civil rights movement

Non-Verbal

- Non-veral importance-- if touched when saying good job or something, some people get freaked out and feel harassed - What you say is a vital part of any communication. Surprisingly, what you don't say can be even more important. Research shows that nonverbal cues can also affect whether or not you get a job offer. Judges examining videotapes of actual applicants were able to assess the social skills of job candidates with the sound turned off. They watched the rate of gesturing, time spent talking, and formality of dress to determine which candidates would be the most socially successful on the job - Tone of voice -- Verbal impression management includes your tone of voice, rate of speech, what you choose to say and how you say it. We know that 38% of the comprehension of verbal communication comes from these cues. Managing how you project yourself in this way can alter the impression that others have of you. For example, if your voice has a high pitch and it is shaky, others may assume that you are nervous or unsure of yourself - Body language -- a simple rule of thumb is that simplicity, directness, and warmth conveys sincerity. Sincerity is vital for effective communication. In some cultures, a firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake might convey a lack of trustworthiness. Gnawing one's lip conveys uncertainty. A direct smile conveys confidence - Eye contact -- In business, the style and duration of eye contact varies greatly across cultures. In the United States, looking someone in the eye (for about a second) is considered a sign of trustworthiness - Facial expression -- The human face can produce thousands of different expressions. These expressions have been decoded by experts as corresponding to hundreds of different emotional states. Our faces convey basic information to the outside world. Happiness is associated with an upturned mouth and slightly closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare. Shifty eyes and pursed lips convey a lack of trustworthiness. The impact of facial expressions in conversation is instantaneous. Our brains may register them as "a feeling" about someone's character. For this reason, it is important to consider how we appear in business as well as what we say. The muscles of our faces convey our emotions. We can send a silent message without saying a word. A change in facial expression can change our emotional state. Before an interview, for example, if we focus on feeling confident, our face will convey that confidence to an interviewer. Adopting a smile (even if we're feeling stressed) can reduce the body's stress levels - Posture -- The position of our body relative to a chair or other person is another powerful silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism, or lack thereof. Head up, back straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character. In interview situations, experts advise mirroring an interviewer's tendency to lean in and settle back in a seat. The subtle repetition of the other person's posture conveys that we are listening and responding - Touch -- The meaning of a simple touch differs between individuals, genders, and cultures. In Mexico, when doing business, men may find themselves being grasped on the arm by another man. To pull away is seen as rude. In ndonesia, to touch anyone on the head or to touch anything with one's foot is considered highly offensive. In the Far East and some parts of Asia, according to business etiquette writer Nazir Daud, "It is considered impolite for a woman to shake a man's hand." Americans, as we have noted above, place great value in a firm handshake. But handshaking as a competitive sport ("the bone-crusher") can come off as needlessly aggressive both at home and abroad - Proximity (space) -- Anthropologist Edward T. Hall coined the term proxemics to denote the different kinds of distance that occur between people. These distances vary among cultures. The chart below outlines the basic proxemics of everyday life and their associated meaning -- Standing too far away from a colleague (public speaking distance) or too close to a colleague (intimate distance for embracing) can thwart an effective verbal communication in business - Channel -- the channel, or medium, used to communicate a message affects how accurately the message will be received. Channels vary in their "information-richness." Information-rich channels convey more nonverbal information. Research shows that effective managers tend to use more information-rich communication channels than less eff ective managers. The figure below illustrates the information richness of different channels -- Information Channel --- Face-to-face conversation (high) --- videoconferencing (high) --- telephone conversation (high) --- E-mails (medium) --- Handheld devices (medium) --- blogs (medium) --- written letters and memos (medium) --- formal written documents (low) --- spreadsheets (low)

laboratory studies

- OB researchers are often interested in basic research questions such as "Can we show that goal setting increases performance on a simple task?" - This is how research on goal setting started, and it is also how we can establish the conditions under which it works more or less effectively - Again, to address this, researchers may conduct a lab study in which one group is assigned one condition and the other group is assigned the control condition (generally the control condition involves no change at all). - One of the most important concepts to understand with lab studies is that they give the researcher a great deal of control over the environment they are studying but do so in a less "realistic" way, since they are not studying real employees in real work settings - For example, in a lab study, a researcher could simulate hiring and firing employees to see if firing some employees affected the goal setting behavior of the remaining employees. While this wouldn't be legal or ethical to do in a real organization, it could be a compelling lab study. At the same time, however, firing someone in a lab setting does not necessarily carry the same consequences as it would in real life. - get the controls

Emotional Intelligence

- One way to manage the effects of emotional labor is by increasing your awareness of the gaps between real emotions and emotions that are required by your professional persona. "What am I feeling? And what do others feel?" These questions form the heart of emotional intelligence - Emotional intelligence looks at how people can understand each other more completely by developing an increased awareness of their own and others' emotions -In the workplace, emotional intelligence can be used to form harmonious teams by taking advantage of the talents of every member. To accomplish this, colleagues well versed in emotional intelligence can look for opportunities to motivate themselves and inspire others to work together. Chief among the emotions that helped create a successful team, Goleman learned, was empathy-the ability to put oneself in another's shoes, whether that individual has achieved a major triumph or fallen short of personal goals. Those high in emotional intelligence have been found to have higher self-efficacy in coping with adversity, perceive situations as challenges rather than threats, and have higher life satisfaction, which can all help lower stress levels

Equity theory

- Picture in slide 8 on Motivation powerpoint - process theories-- how we manipulate people to do the things we want them to do Person side: - not about numbers, its the ratio - i'm on the person side and get paid less than the referent other but i am not jealous because the other has a lot more responsibilities and duties to do, they work harder - nurse is on the person side, doctors on the referent other, and nurses have the ability to provide medicine so they feel like they have the same responsibilities as a doctor but aren't getting paid as much so they get mad - the key is to whom you're comparing yourself - equity is determined by comparing one's input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of a referent other-- when the two ratios are equal, equity exists - According to this theory, individuals are motivated by a sense of fairness in their interactions - Specifically, we compare our inputs and outcomes with other people's inputs and outcomes. We perceive fairness if we believe that the input to outcome ratio we are bringing into the situation is similar to the input to outcome ratio of a comparison person, or a referent. Perceptions of inequity create tension within us and drive us to action that will reduce perceived inequity. - Inputs and Outcomes -- Inputs are the contributions people feel they are making to the environment. -- In the previous example, the person's hard work; loyalty to the organization; amount of time with the organization; and level of education, training, and skills may have been relevant inputs -- Outcomes are the perceived rewards someone can receive from the situation -- For the hourly wage employee in our example, the $10 an hour pay rate was a core outcome. There may also be other, more peripheral outcomes, such as acknowledgment or preferential treatment from a manager. -- We should emphasize that equity perceptions develop as a result of a subjective process. Different people may look at the same situation and perceive different levels of equity. - Who is the referent -- ay be a specific person as well as a category of people. Referents should be comparable to us — otherwise the comparison is not mea ningful. It would be pointless for a student worker to compare himself to the CEO of the company, given the differences in the nature of inputs and outcomes. Instead, individuals may compare themselves to someone performing similar tasks within the same or ganization or, in the case of a CEO, a different organization. - Based on Adams, J. S.

Operant Conditioning

- Positive reinforcement - Negative reinforcement - Punishment - Extinction - Pavlov -- reflex action--no choice 'that we like babies' = classical conditioning - Operant (B. F. Skinner): -- wait for someone to do something first -- if you want more of ^ that behavior you'll choose from the top row -- if choose from top row you can expect that behavior to be repeated - Bottom row -- choose this if you don't want behaviors repeated - Right column -- what you should almost always do - Left column -- what you should almost never do - training people like a rat to sit and beg to get a reward (positive enforcement) and that should almost never be done

procedural justice

- Procedural justice refers to the degree to which fair decision making procedures are used to arrive at a decision - Why do employees care about procedural justice? There are three potential reasons. First, people tend to believe that fairness is an end in itself and it is the right thing to do. Second, fair processes guarantee future rewards. If your name was picked out of a hat, you have no control over the process, and there is no guarantee that you will get future promotions. If the procedures are fair, you are more likely to believe that things will work out in the future. Third, fairness communicates that the organization values its employees and cares about their well-being.

Direction Cont.

- Requests are just one kind of communication in business. Other communications, either verbal or written, may seek, give, or exchange information. Research shows that frequent communicat ions with one's supervisor is related to better job performance ratings and overall organizational performance. Research also shows that lateral communication done between peers can influence important organizational outcomes such as turnover

Lateral

- Research also shows that lateral communication done between peers can influence important organizational outcomes such as turnover

Roles

- Task -- Five roles make up the task portion of the typology. The contractor role includes behaviors that serve to organize the team's work, including creating team timelines, production schedules, and task sequencing. The creator role deals more with changes in the team's task process structure. For example, reframing the team goals and looking at the context of goals would fall under this role. The contributor role is important, because it brings information and expertise to the team. T his role is characterized by sharing knowledge and training with those who have less expertise to strengthen the team. Research shows that teams with highly intelligent members and evenly distributed workloads are more effective than those with uneven work loads. The completer role is also important, as it transforms ideas into action. Behaviors associated with this role include following up on tasks, such as gathering needed background information or summarizing the team's ideas into reports. Finally, the critic role includes "devil's advocate" behaviors that go against the assumptions being made by the team -- Social roles serve to keep the team operating effectively. When the social roles are filled, team members feel more cohesive, and th e group is less prone to suffer process losses or biases such as social loafing, groupthink, or a lack of participation from all members -- three roles fall under the umbrella of social roles. The cooperator role includes supporting those with expertise toward the team's goals. This is a proactive role. The communicator role includes behaviors that are targeted at collaboration, such as practicing good listening skills and appropriately using humor to diffuse tense situations. Having a good communicator helps the team to feel more open to sharing ideas. The calibrator role is an important one that serves to keep the team on track in terms of suggesting any needed changes to the team's process. This role includes initiating discussions about potential team prob lems such as power struggles or other tensions. Similarly, this role may involve settling disagreements or pointing out what is working and what is not in terms of team process - Maintenance -- - Boundary Spanning -- The final two goals are related to activities outside the team that help to connect the team to the larger organization. Teams that engage in a greater level of boundary-spanning behaviors increase their team effectiveness. The consul role includes gathering information from the larger organization and informing those within the organization about team activities, goals, and successes. Often the consul role is filled by team managers or leaders. The coordinator role includes interfacing with others within the organization so that the team's efforts are in line with other individuals and teams within the organization

Direction

- The organizational status of the sender can impact the receiver's attentiveness to the message. For example, consider the following: A senior manager sends a memo to a production supervisor. The supervisor, who has a lower status within the organization, is likely to pay close attention to the message. The same information conveyed in the opposite direction, however, might not get the attention it deserves. The message would be fil tered by the senior manager's perception of priorities and urgencies

4 building blocks in developing a high level of emotional intelligence

- There are four building blocks involved in developing a high level of emotional intelligence. Self-awareness exists when you are able to accurately perceive, evaluate, and display appropriate emotions. Self-management exists when you are able to direct your emotions in a positive way when needed. Social awareness exists when you are able to understand how others feel. Relationship management exists when you are able to help others manage their own emotions and truly establish supportive relationships with others

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

- This method entails presenting research subjects an ambiguous picture asking them to write a story based on it - Take a look at the following picture. Who is this person? What is she doing? Why is she doing it? The story you tell about the woman in the picture would then be analyzed by trained experts. The idea is that the stories the photo evokes would reflect how the mind works and what motivates the person. - If the story you come up with contains themes of success, meeting deadlines, or coming up with brilliant ideas, you may be high in need for achievement. Those who have high need for achievement have a strong need to be successful - If the story you created in relation to the picture you are analyzing contains elements of making plans to be with friends or family, you may have a high need for affiliation. - f your story contains elements of getting work done by influencing other people o r desiring to make an impact on the organization, you may have a high need for power My notes: - psychologists don't like anymore because they are always dark with dark themes - now a days they are full of color with cartoons and more, but it's not as effective - need to be dark because it reveals the real truths and what you're feeling - broke the violin an knows he's going to be in trouble (picture in slide) - very scientific

Overcoming resistance

- Uncertainty (educate) -- Change inevitably brings feelings of uncertainty. You have jus t heard that your company is merging with another. What would be your reaction? Such change is often turbulent, and it is often unclear what is going to happen to each individual. Some positions may be eliminated. Some people may see a change in their job duties. Things can get better — or they may get worse. The feeling that the future is unclear is enough to create stress for people, because it leads to a sense of lost control. - Power loss (counsel) -- One other reason why people may resist change is that change may affect their power and influence in the organization. Imagine that your company moved to a more team - based structure, turning supervisors into team leaders. In the old structure, supervisors were in charge of hiring and firing all those reporting to them. Under the new system, this power is given to the team itself. Instead of monitoring the progress the team is making toward goals, the job of a team leader is to provide support and mentoring to the team in general and ensure that the team has access to all resources to be effective. Given the loss in prestige and status in the new structure, some supervisors may resist the proposed changes even if it is better for the organization to operate around teams. - Disruption (consult) -- People often resist change for the simple reason that change disrupts our habits. Do you think about how you are driving when you drive? Most of the time probably not, because driving generally becomes an automated activity after a while. You may sometimes even realize that you have reached your destination without noticing the roads you used or having consciously thought about any of your body movements. Now imagine you drive for a living, and even though you are used to driving an automatic car, you are n ow forced to use a stick shift. You can most likely figure out how to drive a stick, but it will take time, and until you figure it out, you cannot drive on auto pilot. You will have to reconfigure your body movements and practice shifting until you become good at it. You may find that for this simple reason, people sometimes are surprisingly outspoken when confronted with simple changes such as u pdating to a newer version of a particular software or a change in their voice mail system. - Personality (move) -- Some people are more resistant to change than others. Research shows that people who have a positive self - concept are better at coping with change, probably because those who have high self - esteem may feel that whatever the changes are, they are likely to adjus t to it well and be successful in the new system. People with a more positive self - concept and those who are more optimistic may also view change as an opportunity to shine as opposed to a threat that is overwhelming. Finally, risk tolerance is another pre dictor of how resistant someone will be to stress. For people who are risk avoidant, the possibility of a change in technology or structure may be more threatening

Norms

- Usually develop on own - Norms are shared expectations about how things operate within a group or team. Just as new employees learn to understand and share the assumptions, norms, and values that are part of an organization's culture, they also must learn the norms of their immediate team. This understanding helps teams be more cohesive and perform better. Norms are a powerful way of ensuring coordination within a team. For example,is it acceptable to be late to meetings? How prepared are you supposed to be at the meetings? Is it acceptable to criticize someone else's work? These norms are shaped early during the life of a team and affect whether the team is productive, cohesive, and successful - enforced fiercely - can be forced with contract -- Scientific research, as well as experience working with thousands of teams, show that teams that are able to articulate and agree on established ground rules, goals, and roles and develop a team contract around these standards are better equipped to face challenges that may arise within the team. Having a team contract does not necessarily mean that the team will be successful, but it can serve as a road map when the team veers off course. The following questions can help to create a meaningful team contract -- Team values and goals -- Team roles and leadership -- Team decision making -- Team communication -- Team performance - "Meetings" -- Anyone who has been involved in a team knows it involves team meetings. While few individuals relish the idea of team meetings, they serve an important function in terms of information sharing and decision making. They also serve an important social function and can help to build team cohesion and a task function in terms of coordination. Unfortunately, we've all attended meetings that were a waste of time and little happened that couldn't have been accomplished by reading an e-mail in 5 minutes. To run effective meetings, it helps to think of meetings in terms of three sequential steps -- Before the meeting --- is a meeting needed --- create and distribute an agenda --- send a reminder prior to the meeting -- During the meeting --- start on time --- follow agenda --- manage group dynamics for full participation --- end meeting on time -- After meeting --- follow up on action items

Verbal (words) oral or written

- Verbal communication involves listening to a person to understand the meaning of a message -- verbal communications in business take place over the phone or in person. The medium of the message is oral. Let's return to our printer cartridge example. This time, the message is being conveyed from the sender (the manager) to the receiver (an employee named Bill) by telephone. We've already seen how the manager's request to Bill ("Buy more printer toner cartridges!") can go awry. Now let's look at how the same message can travel successfully from sender to receiver -- Storytelling has been shown to be an effective form of verbal communication that serves an important organizational function by helping to construct common meanings for individuals within the organization. Stories can help clarify key values and also help demonstrate how certain tasks are performed within an organization. -- try to use and instead of but - Written communication in which a message is read -- written business communications are printed messages -- Examples of written communications include memos, proposals, e-mails, letters, training manuals, and operating policies. They may be printed on paper or appear on the screen. Written communication is often asynchronous. That is, the sender can write a message that the receiver can read at any time, unlike a conversation that is carried on in real time. A written communication can also be read by many people (such as all employees in a department or all customers). It's a "one-to-many" communication, as opposed to a one-to- one conversation. There are exceptions, of course: A voice mail is an oral message that is asynchronous. Conference calls and speeches are oral one- to-many communications, and e-mails can have only one recipient or many. Normally, a verbal communication takes place in real time. Written communication, by contrast, can be constructed over a longer period of time - As you can see, oral communication is the most often used form of communication, but it is also an inherently flawed medium for conveying specific facts

Consensus is best

- Vote YES - Vote No way! - Vote "Whatever, man" - While consensus tends to require more time, it may make sense when support is needed to enact the plan. The process works by discussing the issues at hand, generating a proposal, calling for consensus, and discussing any concerns. If concerns still exist, the proposal is modified to accommodate them. These steps are repeated until consensus is reached

terminal values

- a comfortable life - an exciting life - world at peace - family security - inner harmony - self respect -- refer to end states people desire in life, such as leading a prosperous life a nd a world at peace -- what kind of thing you want to achieve

instrumental values

- ambitious - broad-minded - capable - clean - forgiving - imaginative - obedient -- deal with views on acceptable modes of conduct, such as being honest and ethical, and being ambitious -- about how you want to get there and what type of person you want to be

case study

- are in depth descriptions of a single industry or company - Case writers typically employ a systematic approach to gathering data and explaining an event or situation in great detail. - benefits: -- provide rich information for drawing conclusions about the circumstances and people involved in the topics studied - downside: -- it is sometimes difficult to generalize what worked in a single situation at a single organization to other situations and organizations - study the heck out of something

agreeableness

- being affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm - likely to get along with others - help other at work consistently no matter what their mood is - less likely to retaliate when people treat them unfairly - could be effective leaders - people who are not agreeable are shown to quit their jobs unexpectedly - agreeable people are less likely to engage in constructive and change-orientated communication - when hiring lawyers, you obviously want someone with low agreeableness - avoid conflict which is not always good

neuroticism

- being anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody - tendency to have emotional adjustment problems and experience stress and depression on a habitual basis - experience a number of problems at work -- tend to be unhappy and report high intentions to leave - lower level of career success - if they achieve managerial jobs, they tend to create an unfair climate at work

openness

- being curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas -- People high in openness seem to thrive in situations that require being flexible and learning new things. They are highly motivated to learn new skills, and they do well in training settings -- they also have an advantage when they enter into a new organization. Their open-mindedness leads them to seek a lot of information and feedback about how they are doing and to build relationships, which leads to quicker adjustment to the new job -- when supported, they tend to be creative -- highly adaptable to change - compared to people in low openness, they are also more likely to start their own business

conscientiousness

- being organized, systematic, punctual, achievement orientated, and dependable - is the one personality trait that uniformly predicts how high a person's performance will be, across a variety of occupations and jobs - is the trait most desired by recruiters and results in the most success in interviews - higher levels of motivation to perform, lower levels of turnover, lower levels of absenteeism, and higher levels of safety performance at work - related to being satisfied with one's career over time - good trait to have for entrepreneurs - highly conscientious people are more likely to start their own business compared to those who are not and their firms have longer survival rates

extraversion

- being outgoing, talkative, sociable, and enjoying social situations - tend to be effective in jobs involving sales - tend to be effective as managers and they demonstrate leadership behaviors - do well in social situations and tend to be effective in job interviews - likely to use their social networks - better at adjusting to new jobs - actively seek information and feedback - found to be happier at work - do not perform well in jobs depriving them of social interaction - tend to have higher levels of absenteeism at work

Self-efficacy (personality)

- belief that one can perform a specific task successfully - related to job performance - if you believe you can do it, the more likely you are to actually be able to - whether you feel that you're effective - learned helplessness is complete opposite of self-efficacy - confidence to try --> self-efficacy

hygiene factors

- company policy - supervision and relationships - working conditions - salary - security on the job - Imagine that you are working in an unpleasant work environment. Your office is too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. You are being harassed and mistreated. You would certainly be miserable in such a work environment. However, if these problems were solved (your office temperature is just right and you are not harassed at all), would you be motivated? Most likely.

ethnocentrism

- comparing other cultures against your own - means when you look at another culture you compare it to your own - is NOT the belief that your culture is superior (euro-centrism) but that is exactly how it looks -- putting our religion at the center of all other religions

Lewin versus Kotter

- create a sense of urgency when introducing the change effort -- People are more likely to accept change if they feel that there is a need for it. If employees feel their company is doing well, the perceived need for change will be smaller. Those who plan the change will need to make the case that there is an external or internal threat to the organization's competitiveness, reputation, or sometimes even its survival, and failure to act will have dire conseque nces. For example, Lou Gerstner, the former CEO of IBM, executed a successful transformation of the company. In his biography Elephants Can Dance , he highlights how he achieved cooperation as follows: "Our greatest ally in shaking loose the past was IBM's eminent collapse. Rather than go with the usual impulse to put on a happy face, I decided to keep the crisis front and center. I didn't want to lose the sense of urgency - build a coalition -- In order to convince people that change is needed, the change leader does not necessarily have to convince every person individually. In fact, people's opinions toward change are affected by opinion leaders, or those people who have a strong influence over the behaviors and attitudes of others. Instead of trying to get everyone on board at the same time, it may be more useful to convince and prepare the opinion leaders. Once these individuals agree that change is needed and will be useful, they will become helpful allies in ensuring that the rest of the or ganization is ready for change. [23] For example, Paul Pressler, after becoming the CEO of Gap Inc. in 2002, initiated a culture change effort in the hope of creating a sense of identity among the company's many brands such as Banana Republic, Old Navy, an d Gap. For this purpose, management segmented the employees into groups instead of trying to reach out to all employees at the same time. Gap Inc. started by training the 2,000 senior managers in Leadership Summits, who in turn were instrumental in ensurin g the cooperation of the remaining 150,000 employees of the company - create a vision for change and make change a part of the vision -- In successful change eff orts, the leader has an overall vision for the change. When this vision is exciting and paints a picture of a future that employees would be proud to be a part of, people are likely to be more committed to change. For example, Toyota is a master of ka izen , or continuous improvement. They also follow the philosophy of kakushin , or revolutionary change, as needed. Regardless of the nature of the particular change, there is an overall vision for the company that justifies and explains why change is necessary "to build the dream car of the future." - communicate a plan for change -- Do people know what the change entails, or are they hearing about the planned changes through the grapevine or office gossip? When employees know what is going to happen, and when and why, they may conquer their discomfort with change. Research shows that those who have more complete information about upcoming changes are more committed to a change effort - eliminate obstacles to change -- When th e change effort is in place, many obstacles may crop up along the way. There may be key people who publicly support the change effort while silently undermining the planned changes. There may be obstacles rooted in a company's structure, existing processes , or culture. It is the management's job to identify, understand, and remove these obstacles. Ideally, these obstacles would have been eliminated before implementing the change, but sometimes unexpected roadblocks emerge as change is underway - create small wins -- During a change effort, if the organization can create a history of small wins, change acceptance will be more likely. If the change is large in scope and the payoff is a long time away, employees may not realize change is occurring during the transformation p eriod. On the other hand, if people see changes, improvements, and successes along the way, they will be inspired and motivated to continue the change effort. For this reason, breaking up the proposed change into phases may be a good idea, because it creat es smaller targets. Small wins are also important for planners of change to make the point that their idea is on the right track. Early success gives change planners more credibility, while early failures may be a setback - build on change -- Once results start coming, it is important to benefit from the momentum created by these early successes by pushing for even more change. Following the philosophy of continuous improvement may be a good idea here. Instead of declaring victory early, the company is advised to make continuous improvements to how business is conducted - make change a part of culture -- if the change effort has been successful, change will have become a part of corporate culture. In other words, in addition to the changes in procedures, processes, or technology, the mindset of people will also have changed. If change occurs only in superficial elements, it would be misleading to declare change a success. For example, if a company institutes a wellness program emphasizing healthy habits, rewarding employees for adopting healthy choices and providing resources to maximize health, this change effort would be deemed a true success if valuing employee health and well - being also becomes a part of the organization's culture. Creating a Web site, and printing booklets and distributing them are all tools leading to this goal, but achieving the true goal also necessitates a change in ingrained assumptions of management and employees putting work before employee health and well-being

Locus of control (personality)

- deals with the degree to which people feel accountable for their own behaviors - high internal level = belief they can control their own destiny and what happens to them is their own doing - high external level = feel the things happen to them because of other people, luck, or a powerful being - where you see the events in your life-- whether you think you are the drive or the passenger - eternal locus of control--> didn't actually do anything (passenger)-less positive outlook--surrenders to life (probably right but they won't be able to do anything) - internal locus of control --> tells the same story but they are the driver, not the passenger-- more positive outlook-- "what can we do to fix or change it)

Increasing resilience

- diet -- Greasy foods often make a person feel tired. Why? Because it takes the body longer to digest fats, which means the body is diverting blood from the brain and making you feel sluggish. Eating big, heavy meals in the middle of the day may actually slow us down, because the body will be pumping blood to the stomach, away from the bra in. A better choice for lunch might be fish, such as wild salmon. Fish keeps you alert because of its effect on two important brain chemicals—dopamine and norepinephrine—which produce a feeling of alertness, increased concentration, and faster reaction times - exercise -- Exercise is another strategy for managing stress. The best kind of break to take may be a physically active one. Research has shown that physically active breaks lead to enhanced mental concentration and decreased mental fatigue. One study, conducted by Belgian researchers, examined the effect of breaks on workers in a large manufacturing company. One-half of the workers were told to rest during their breaks. The other half did mild calisthenics. Afterward, each group was given a batte ry of tests. The group who had done the mild calisthenics scored far better on all measures of memory, decision-making ability, eye- hand coordination, and fine motor control - sleep -- stress can make it hard to sleep -- Not sleeping makes it harder to focus on work in general, as well as on specific tasks. Tired folks are more likely to lose their temper, upping the stress level of others. American insomnia is a stress-related epidemic--one-third of adults claim to have trouble sleeping and 37% admit to actually having fallen asleep while driving in the past year - social support -- A consistent finding is that those individuals who have a strong social support network are less stressed than those who do not. Research finds that social support can buffer the effects of stress. Individuals can help build up social support by encouraging a team atmosphere in which coworkers support one another. Just being able to talk with and listen to others, either with coworkers at work or with friends and family at home, can help decrease stress levels. - time management -- Time management is defined as the development of tools or techniques that help to make us more productive when we work. Effective time management is a major factor in reducing stress, because it decreases much of the pressure we feel. With information and role overload it is easy to fall into bad habits of simply reacting to unexpected situations. Time management techniques include prioritizing, manageable organization, and keeping a schedule such as a paper or electronic organizing tool. Just like any new skill, developing time management takes conscious effort, but the gains might be worthwhile if your stress level is reduced

Storming

- expect: conflict, turf battles, increasing clarity of purpose - requires: coaching, listening, clarification, compromise -- Once group members feel sufficiently safe and included, they tend to enter the storming phase. Participants focus less on keeping their guard up as they shed social facades, becoming more authentic and more argumentative. Group members begin to explore their power and influence, and they often stake out their territory by differentiating them selves from the other group members rather than seeking common ground. Discussions can become heated as participants raise contending points of view and values, or argue over how tasks should be done and who is assigned to them. It is not unusual for group members to become defensive, competitive, or jealous. They may even take sides or begin to form cliques within the group. Questioning and resisting direction from the leader is also quite common. "Why should I have to do this? Who designed this project in the first place? Why do I have to listen to you?" Although little seems to get accomplished at this stage, group members are becoming more authentic as they express their deeper thoughts and feelings. What they are really exploring is "Can I truly be me, have power, and be accepted?" During this chaotic stage, a great deal of creative energy that was previously buried is released and available for use, but it takes skill to move the group from storming to norming. In many cases, the group gets stuck in the storming phase

Forming

- expect: confusion about purpose, little agreement, enthusiasm - requires: strong direction and guidance -- The members may already know each other or they may be total strangers. In either case, there is a level of formality, some anxiety, and a degree of guardedness as group members are not sure what is going to happen next. "Will I be accepted? What will my role be? Who has the power here?" These are some of the questions participants think about during this stage of group formation. Because of the large amount of uncertainty, members tend to be polite, conflict avoidant, and observant. They are trying to figure out the "rules of the game" without being too vulnerable

Norming

- expect: developing trust, efficiency, roles emerging - required: facilitation, feedback, review, training -- "We survived!" is the common sentiment at the norming stage. Group members often feel elated at this point, and they are much more committed to each other and the group's goal. Feeling energized by knowing they can handle the "tough stuff," group members are now ready to get to work. Finding themselves more cohesive and cooperative, participants find it easy to establish their own ground rules (or norms) and define their operating procedures and goals. The group tends to make big decisions, while subgroups or individuals handle the smaller decisions. Hopefully, at this point the group is more open and respectful toward each other, and members ask each other for both help and feedback. They may even begin to form friendships and share more personal information with each other. At this point, the leader should become more of a facilitator by stepping back and letting the group assume more responsibility for its goal. Since the group's energy is running high, this is an ideal time to host a social or team-building event

Performing

- expect: focus on goals, clear purpose, productive and efficient - required: delegation, future planning, recognition -- Galvanized by a sense of shared vision and a feeling of unity, the group is ready to go into high gear. Members are more inter dependent, individuality and differences are respected, and group members feel themselves to be part of a greater entity. At the performing stage, participants are not only getting the work done, but they also pay greater attention to how they are doing it. They ask questions like, "Do our operating procedures best support productivity and quality assurance? Do we have suitable means for addressing differences that arise so we can preempt destructive conflicts? Are we relating to and communicating with each other in ways that enhance group dynamics and help us achieve our goals? How can I further develop as a person to become more effective?" By now, the group has matured, becoming more competent,autonomous, and insightful. Group leaders can finally move into coaching roles and help members grow in skill and leadership.

Adjourning/Transforming

- expect: natural end or plan new project and goals - requires: review, recognition reward -- Just as groups form, so do they end. For example, many groups or teams formed in a business context are project oriented and therefore are temporary in nature. Alternatively, a working group may dissolve due to an organizational restructuring. Just as when we graduate from school or leave home for the first time, these endings can be bittersweet, with group members feeling a combination of victory, grief, and insecurity about what is coming next. For those who like routine and bond closely with fellow group members, this transition can be particularly challenging. Group leaders and members alike should be sensitive to handling these endings respectfully and compassionately. An ideal way to close a group is to set aside time to debrief alike should be sensitive to handling these endings respectfully and compassionately. An ideal way to close a group is to set aside time to debrief ("How did it all go? What did we learn?"), acknowledge each other, and celebrate a job well done

Direction of communication within organizations

- external - upward - lateral - downward -- Information can move horizontally, from a sender to a receiver, as we've seen. It can also move vertically, down from top management, or up from the front line. Information can also move diagonally between and among levels of an organization, such as a message from a customer service rep to a manager in the manufacutring department or a message from the chief financial officer sent down to all department heads

Exernal

- has to be positive or you'll be in big trouble - External communications deliver specific businesses messages to individuals outside an organization. They may announce changes in staff or strategy, earnings, and more. The goal of an external communication is to create a specific message that the receiver will understand and share with others. Examples of external communications include the following -- Press releases --- Press releases try to convey a newsworthy message, real or manufactured. It may be constructed like a news item, inviting editors or reporters to reprint the message in part or as a whole, with or without acknowledgement of the sender's identity. Public relations campaigns create messages over time through contests, special events, trade shows, and media interviews in addition to press releases -- Ads --- Advertising places external business messages before target receivers through media buys. A media buy is a fee that is paid to a television network, Web site, magazine, and so on by an advertiser to insert an advertisement. The fee is based on the perceived value of the audience who watches, reads, listens to, or frequents the space where the ad will appear -- Web Pages --- A Web page's external communication can combine elements of public relations, advertising, and editorial content, reaching receivers on multiple levels and in multiple ways. Banner ads, blogs, and advertiser-driven "click-through" areas are just a few of the elements that allow a business to deliver a message to a receiver online. The perceived flexibility of online communications can impart a less formal (and therefore, more believable) quality to an external communication. -- Customer Communications --- customer communications can include letters, catalogs, direct mail, e-mails, text messages, and telemarketing messages. Some receivers automatically filter these types of bulk messages. Others will be receptive. The key to a successful external communication to customers is to convey a business

Need for affiliation

- horrible bosses - want to be popular and want everyone to like them-- not going to happen-- have to fire, criticize, etc. - want to be like and accepted by others

Social perception (perception)

- how we perceive other people in our environment is shaped by our values, emotions, feelings, and personality - how we perceive other will shape our behavior, which will shape the behavior or the person we are interacting with - stereotypes - what do you think about how you interact with other people

Self-perception (perception)

- human beings are prone to errors and biases when perceiving themselves - many people over-estimate their abilities - how you perceive yourself

Fred Herzberg's two-factor theory

- hygiene factors = dissatisfied workers - motivators = factors that are intrinsic to the job - discovered zero-- extremely important but his research is garbage - case that people an be motivated and demotivated and can be one or both at the same time - took a bunch of very happy and self-satisfied people and studied motivation (motivators) - went into jails and prisons and researched demotivation (hygiene factors) - if you screw this stuff up you'll be demotivated but if its fixed that doesn't mean you are motivated again, it means you are back to normal

meta-analysis

- is a technique used by researchers to summarize what other researchers have found on a given topic - This analysis is based on taking observed correlations from multiple studies, weighting them by the number of observations in each study, and finding out if, overall, the effect holds or not - gives more definitive answers to a question than a single study ever could - but, is only possible if sufficient research has been done on the topic in the question - take results form different kinds and mix them together-- fewer errors and somewhat more truth - by far the best thing

faultlines

- is an attribute along which a group is split into subgroups - Teams that are divided by faultlines experience a number of difficulties - Research shows that these types of teams make less effective decisions and are less creative - Faultlines are more likely to emerge in diverse teams, but not all diverse teams have faultlines - Research shows that even groups that have strong faultlines can perform well if they establish certain norms. When members of subgroups debate the decision topic among themselves before having a general group discussion, there seems to be less communication during the meeting on pros and cons of different alternatives. Having a norm stating that members should not discuss the issue under consideration before the actual meeting may be useful in increasing decision effectiveness

Attribution (perception)

- is the casual explanation we give for an observed behavior - For example, let's say your classmate Erin complained a lot when completing a finance assignment. If you think that she complained because she is a negative person, you are making an internal attribution. An external attribution is explaining someone's behavior by referring to the situation. If you believe that Erin complained because finance homework was difficult, you are making an external attribution. - kelly's model - when someone else does something we don't know why they did it but we assume they did it on purpose - attribute motives to other people - our attributes about other people are usually wrong

Selective perception (perception)

- means that we pay selective attention to parts of the environment while ignoring other parts - we see what we want to see and ignore information that may seem out of place - why stereotypes exist - can't help paying attention to information we like

McClelland's Acquired-Needs Theory

- need for power - need for affiliation - need for achievement - had more but boiled it down to the three most important - tend to be driven by one more than the others - greatest amount of support - according to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their experiences - all individuals possess a combination of these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive employee behavior - used a unique method called Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to assess the dominant need

Punishment

- negative behavior followed by negative consequences (manager demotes the employee) - punishment is almost never used except for extremely necessary cases (sexual harassment) - Punishment is another method of reducing the frequency of undesirable behaviors. Punishment involves presenting negative consequences following unwanted behaviors. Giving an employee a warning for consistently being late to work is an example of punishment

Extinction

- negative behavior followed by removal of positive consequences (manager ignores the behavior) - ignore the behavior - spend time yelling at kid proves to them that you give them attention and that's what the kid wants so they will do it again, but if you ignore it multiple times that behavior will become extinct - way you should always respond to negative behavior (extinction) - Extinction is used to decrease the frequency of negative behaviors. Extinction is the removal of rewards foll owing negative behavior

Impression management

- people are forming impressions of you -- whether you know it or not -- and whether you manage it or not - Isn't this all kind of fake? -- yes -- but nobody acts the same way with their mom -- as they do with their friends -- as they do with their boss, et cetera -- the trick i sot balance authenticity and credibility - means actively shaping the way you are perceived by others. You can do this through your choice of clothing, the avatars or photos you use to represent yourself online, the descriptions of yourself on a résumé or in an online profile, and so forth. By using impression management strategies, you control information that make others see you in the way you want to be seen. Consider when you are "being yourself" with your friends or with your family — you probably act differently around your best friend than around your mother - On the job, the most effective approach to impression management is to do two things at once — build credibility and maintain authenticity - But if you try to win social approval at work by being too different from your true self — contradicting your personal values — you might feel psychological distress. - Since people are forming these theories about you no matter what, you should take charge of managing their impressions of you. To do this, ask yourself how you want to be seen. What qualities or character traits do you want to convey? Perhaps it's a can - do attitude, an ability to mediate, an ability to make a decision, or an ability to dig into details to thoroughly understand and solve a problem - Nonverbal impression management includes the clothes you choose to wear and your demeanor. - Verbal impression management includes your tone of voice, rate of speech, what you choose to say and how you say it - Behavior impression management includes how you perform on the job and how you interact with others.

Need for power

- people who like power want to keep power - tend to use the power for good (advantage) - if you see that you are stepping on toes, you'll pull back a little bit (advantage) - want to influence other and control their environment

Positive Reinforcement

- positive behavior followed by positive consequences (manager praises the employee) - Positive reinforcement is a method of increasing the desired behavior

Negative Reinforcement

- positive behavior followed by removal of negative consequences (manager stops nagging the employee) - way you should always respond to positive behavior (negative reinforcement) - Negative reinforcement is also used to increase the desired behavior. Negative reinforcement involves removal of unpleasant outcomes once desired behavior is demonstrated

Proactive personality (personality)

- refers to a person's inclination to fix what is perceived as wrong, change the status quo, and use initiative to solve problems - take initiative and remove obstacles along the way - people like to step-up and do something about it (will be a perfect manager)

Self monitoring (personality)

- refers to the extent to which a person is capable of monitoring his or her actions and appearance in social situations - don't notice the effects they are having on people = low self-monitoring (doesn't mean he is selfish but dines't have much control) - notice the fact they are having on people = high self-monitoring --> essential in management but extremely high self-monitors are dangerous - people who are social monitors are social chameleons who understand what the situation demands and act accordingly, while low social monitors tend to act the way they feel - high self-monitors tend to be more successful in their careers - more likely to get cross-company promotions and are more likely to advance - rated as higher performers, emerge as leaders - when evaluating others they tend to be less accurate - experience higher levels of stress - may act happy even when they are not happy - tend to be less committed to their companies

Halo/Horns effect (perception)

- seeing someone in a worse or better manner than you usually would based off of something they previously did that now has nothing to do with the situation in the present - when you first meet someone and you like them you will have the halo effect, and it will take a while for that opinion to change - same thing with horn effect but opposite

eMotions

- short, intense feeling resulting from some event - some we rate positively -- desired events-- may include achieving a goal or receiving praise from a superior -- could cause you to feel fulfilled and satisfied - some we rate negatively -- undesired events -- not having opinions heard, lack of control over your day-to-day environment, unpleasant interactions with coworkers, etc. - Emotional contagion (yawn) -- both positive and negative emotions can be contagious, with the spillover of negative emotions lasting longer than positive emotions -- anger, fear, and suspicion are intentionally unpleasant messages urging us to take action immediately. And to make sure we get the message, these emotions stick around -- research shows that some people are more susceptible to emotional contagion than others. But in general, when the boss is happy, the staff is happy - emotional labor -- next slide - practice changing your emotions - emotional labor is most likely to be asked about *

The challenges of diversity

- social categorization - faultlines - stereotypes -- gender (earnings, ceiling) -- race (system designed by hegemony) -- age (values by age and time) -- religion (strongly held) -- ability (be reasonable) -- orientation (sexual orientation) - ethnocentrism -- comparing other cultures against your own -- means when you look at another culture you compare it to your own - procedural justice - interactional justice - distributive justice

Self-esteem (personality)

- the degree to which a person has overall positive feelings about him or herself - important - how do you estimate yourself-are you worth while, worth having? net plus or net negative - low self-esteem causes damage to work places and to themselves-- it will end in sucicide period if you don't fix it - Dali Llama has high self-esteem - whether you care what other people think about you is a great way to measure self-esteem

social categorization

- the process by which people are placed into groups based on characteristics like race, gender, or ethnicity

field studies

- there are survey field studies like the one above, but more compelling evidence comes from field studies that employ an experimental design - here you would assign half the employees at your company to the goal setting condition and the other half to the control group condition. the control group wouldn't get any information on goal setting but the treatment group would. if you found that the treatment group was more effective than the control group you could tell your boss that goal setting works - study out in the field

Job enrichment

- vertical -- Doing own job plus someone else's - taking on job above or below you -- is a job redesign technique that allows workers more control over how they perform their own tasks. This approach allows employees to take on more responsibility. As an alternative to job specialization, companies using job enrichment may experience positive out comes, such as reduced turnover, increased productivity, and reduced absences

psychological contract

- when people have an understanding of their responsibilities and rights after accepting job and come to work with a set of expectations - an unwritten understanding about what the employee will bring to the work environment and what the company will provide in exchange

sample surveys

--- open ended (might work if you have small organization, but are time consuming and hard to interpret at a glance) --- close ended --- Regardless of the method you choose to collect your information, the next step is to look at the average of the responses to the questions and see how the responses stack up. But this still wouldn't really answer the question your boss asked, which is whether using goal setting would help employees be more effective on the job. To do this, you would want to conduct a field study. - aren't very good for us - all you get is their opinion - useless if you want to actually know whats going on

Conflict Cont.

-Accommodation - Avoidance - Compromise - Collaboration - Competition - Like much of organizational behavior, there is no one "right way" to deal with conflict. Much of the time it will depend on the situation. However, the collaborative style has the potential to be highly effective in many different situations

Kotter's 8 stage process for change

1. Create a sense of urgency when introducing the ch ange effort. 2. Build a coalition. 3. Create a vision for change and make change a part of the vision. 4. Communicate a plan for change 5. Eliminate obstacles to change 6. Create small wins 7. Build on change 8. Make change a part of culture

refreeze

After the change is implemented, the long - term success of a change effort depends on whether change becomes part of the company's culture. In other words, the revised ways of thinking, behaving, and performing should become routine. For this reason, there are a number of things management can do - publicize success - build on prior change - reward change adoption - make change a part of organizational culture

Closure (5)

Closure is an important part of negotiations. At the close of a negotiation, you and the other party have either come to an agreement on the terms, or one party has decided that the final offer is unacceptable and therefore must be walked away from. Most negotiato rs assume that if their best offer has been rejected, there's nothing left to do. You made your best offer and that's the best you can do. The savviest of negotiators, however, see the rejection as an opportunity to learn. "What would it have taken for us to reach an agreement?" Recently, a CEO had been in negotiations with a customer. After learning the customer decided to go with the competition, the CEO decided to inquire as to why negotiations had fallen through. With nothing left to lose, the CEO placed a call to the prospect's vice president and asked why the offer had been rejected, explaining that the answer would help improve future offerings. Surprisingly, the VP explained the deal was given to the competitor because, despite charging more, th e competitor offered after - sales service on the product. The CEO was taken by surprise, originally assuming that the VP was most interested in obtaining the lowest price possible. In order accommodate a very low price, various extras such as after - sales se rvice had been cut from the offer. Having learned that the VP was seeking service, not the lowest cost, the CEO said, "Knowing what I know now, I'm confident that I could have beaten the competitor's bid. Would you accept a revised offer?" The VP agreed, a nd a week later the CEO had a signed contract Sometimes at the end of negotiations, it's clear why a deal was not reached. But if you're confused about why a deal did not happen, consider making a follow-up call. Even though you may not win the deal back in the end, you might learn something that's useful for future negotiations. What's more, the other party may be more willing to disclose the information if they don't think you're in a "selling" mode

Departmentalization

Departmentalization - functional = old school + most common - division by customer, benefits, market ... - matrix is a compromise -- with all the plus and minus factors - Aslo, degree of hierarchy - Organizational structures differ in terms of departmentalization. Organizations using functional structures group jobs based on similarity in functions. Such structures may have departments such as marketing, manufacturing, finance, accounting, human resources, and information technology. In these st ructures, each person serves a specialized role and handles large volumes of transactions. For example, a marketing employee working in a functional structure may serve as an event planner, planning promotional events for all the products of the company. I n organizations using divisional structures , departments represent the unique products, services, customers, or geographic locations the company is serving. In other words, each unique product or service the company is producing will have its own department . Within each department, functions such as marketing, manufacturing, and other roles are replicated. In these structures, employees act like generalists as opposed to specialists. Instead of performing specialized tasks, employees will be in charge of per forming many different tasks in the service of the product. For example, a marketing employee working in this structure may be in charge of planning promotions, coordinating relations with advertising agencies, and planning and conducting marketing research - In reality, many structures are a hybrid of functional and divisional forms. For example, if the company has multiple product lines, departmentalizing by product may increase innovativeness and reduce response times. Each of these departments may have dedicated marketing, manufacturing, and customer service employees serving the specific product, yet the company may also find that centralizing some operations and retaining the functional structure makes sense and is more cost effective for roles such as human resources management and information technology. The same organization may also create geographic departments, if it is serving different countries - Functional structures tend to be effective when an organization does not have a large number of products and services requiring special attention. When a company has a diverse product line, each product will have unique demands, deeming traditional structures less us eful for promptly addressing customer demands and anticipating market changes. Functional structures are also more effective in stable environments that are slower to change. In contrast, organizations using product departments are more agile and can perfo rm better in turbulent environments. The type of employee who will succeed under each structure is also different. Research shows that when employees work in product departments in turbulent environments, because activities are diverse and complex, their p erformance depends on their general mental abilities

Distributive/Integrative Negotiation

Distributive Approach: -- The distributive view of negotiation is the traditional fixed - pie approach. That is, negotiators see the situation as a pie that they have to divide between them. Each tries to get more of the pie and "win." For example, managers may compete over shares of a budget. If marketing g ets a 10% increase in its budget, another department such as R&D will need to decrease its budget by 10% to offset the marketing increase. Focusing on a fixed pie is a common mistake in negotiation, because this view limits the creative solutions possible Integrative Approach: -- A newer, more creative approach to negotiation is called the integrative approach . In this approach, both parties look for ways to integrate their goals under a larger umbrella. That is, they look for ways to expand the pie, so that each party gets more. This is also called a win - win approach. The first step of the integrative approach is to enter the negotiation from a cooperative rather than an adversarial stance. The second step is all about listening. Listening develops trust as e ach party learns what the other wants and everyone involved arrives at a mutual understanding. Then, all parties can explore ways to achieve the individual goals. The general idea is, "If we put our heads together, we can find a solution that addresses eve rybody's needs." Unfortunately, integrative outcomes are not the norm. A summary of 32 experiments on negotiations found that although they could have resulted in integrated outcomes, only 20% did so. One key factor related to finding integrated solutions is the experience of the negotiators who were able to reach them

Why change?

Ideally from inside, .. but.. - Demographics -- Organizations may realize that as the workforce gets older the types of benefits they prefer may change - Technology -- motivated by rapid developments in technology - Global competition -- Organizations are finding that it is often cheaper to produce goods and deliver services in some countries compared to others. This led many companies to utiliz e manufacturing facilities overseas, with China as a popular destination - Market -- Changes in the market conditions may also create changes as companies struggle to adjust. For example, as of this writing, the airline indus try in the United States is undergoing serious changes. Demand for air travel was affected after the September 11 terrorist attacks. - Economy -- - Failure -- In fact, poorly performing companies often find it easier to change compared to successful companies - Growth -- It is natural for once small start-up companies to grow if they are successful

JP(judgment/perception)

J: those who are organized, systematic, and would like to have clarity and closure P: those who are curious, open minded, and prefer to have some ambiguity

MPS (motivating potential score) =

MPS= ((skill variety + task identity + task significance) / 3) X autonomy X feedback -- According to this formula, autonomy and feedback are the more important elements in deciding motivating potential compared to skill variety, task identity, or task significanc e. Moreover, note how the job characteristics interact with each other in this model. If someone's job is completely lacking in autonomy (or feedback), regardless of levels of variety, identity, and significance, the motivating potential score will be verylow.

unfreeze

Many change efforts fail because people are insufficiently prepared for change. When employees are not prepared, they are more likely to resist the change effort and less likely to effectively function under the new system. What can organizations do prior to change to prepare employees? There are a number of things that are important at this stage - create vision for change - communicating a plan for change - develop a sense of urgency - building a coalition - provide support - allow employees to participate

Bases of Power/Office politics

Office politics - goldilocks and the golden mean.. again - easier to apologize than wait for permission - employees report "too political" when unhappy - ambiguity begets political maneuvering - internal locus of control - success investment - (forget social networks) - Recall sources of power? -- Legitimate power --- is power that comes from one's organizational role or position -- Reward power --- the ability to grant a reward, such as an increase in pay, a perk, or an attractive job assignment -- Coercive power --- the ability to take something away or punish someone for noncompliance -- Expert power --- comes from knowledge and skill. Steve Jobs has expert power from his ability to know what customers want —even before they can articulate it -- Information power --- is similar to expert power but differs in its source. Experts tend to have a vast amount of knowledge or skill, whereas information power is distinguished by access to specific information -- Referent power --- stems from the personal characteristics of the person such as the degree to which we like, respect, and want to be like them. Referent power is often called charisma —the ability to attract others, win their admiration, and hold them spellbound. - What is power? -- power is simply the ability to get things done the way one wants them to be done - Dependency of A on B = power -- the resources you control must be --scarce/important/unique -- Dependency is directly related to power. The more that a person or unit is dependent on you, the more power you have. The strategic contingencies model provides a good description of how dependency works. According to the model, dependency is power that a person or unit gains from their ability to handle actual or potential problems facing th e organization. You know how dependent you are on someone when you answer three key questions that are addressed in the following sections. - Notes that this is petty - It will backfire

Personality + Perception

Personality: - self-esteem - self-efficacy - locus of control - self-monitoring - proactive personality Perception - self-perception - social perception - selective perception - halo/horns effect - attribution - psychological contract - our perceptions are not correct; other people perceptions are different than ours but theirs are still wrong as well. most important part about perception

TF (thinking/feeling)

T: those who use their logic to arrive at solutions F: those who use their values and ideas about what is right and wrong to arrive at solutions - Judgment = good @ this

Investigation (1)

The first step in negotiation is the investigation , or information gathering stage. This is a key stage that is often ignored. Surprisingly, the first place to begin is with yourself: What are your goals for the negotiation? What do you want to achieve? What would you concede? What would you absolutely not concede? Leigh Steinberg, the most powerful agent in sports (he was the rol e model for Tom Cruise's character in Jerry Maguire ), puts it this way: "You need the clearest possible view of your goals. And you need to be brutally honest with yourself about your priorities." [1] During the negotiation, you'll inevitably be faced with making choices. It's best to know what you want, so that in the heat of the moment you're able to make the best decision. For example, if you'll be negotiating for a new job, ask yourself, "What do I value most? Is it the salary level? Working with coworkers whom I like? Working at a prestigious company? Working in a certain geographic area? Do I want a company that will groom me for future positions or do I want to change jobs often in pursuit of new challenges?"

change

The second stage of Lewin's three - step change model is executing change. At this stage, the organization implements the planned changes on technology, structure, culture, or procedures. The specifics of how change should be executed will depend on the type of change. However, there are some tips that may facilitate the success of a change effort - continue to provide support - create small wins - eliminate obstacles

Presentation (3)

The third phase of negotiation is presentation . In this phase, you assemble the information you've gathered in a way that supports your position. In a job hiring or salary negotiation situation, for instance, you can present facts that show what you've contributed to the organization in the past (or in a previous position), which in turn demonstrates your value. Perhaps you created a blog that brought attention to your company or got donations or funding for a char ity. Perhaps you're a team player who brings out the best in a group

Initiated by

- Structure -- Conflict tends to take different forms, depending upon the organizational structure. For example, if a company uses a matrix structure as its organizational form, it will have decisional conflict built in, because the structure specifies that each manager report to two bosses. For example, global company ABB Inc. is organized around a matrix structure based on the dimensions of country and industry. This structure can lead to confusion as the company is divided geographically into 1,200 different units and by industry into 50 different units - Limited Resources -- Resources such as money, time, and equipment are often scarce. Competition among people or departments for limi ted resources is a frequent cause for conflict. For example, cutting-edge laptops and gadgets such as a BlackBerry or iPhone are expensive resources that may be allocated to employees on a need-to-have basis in some companies. When a group of employees have access to such resources while others do not, conflict may arise among employees or between employees and management. While technical employees may feel that these devices are crucial to their productivity, employees with customer contact such as sales representatives may make the point that these devices are important for them to make a good impression to clients. Because important resources are often limited, this is one source of conflict many companies have to live with - Task interdependence -- when accomplishment of your goal requires reliance on others to perform their tasks. For example, if you're tasked with creating advertising for your product, you're dependent on the creative team to desi gn the words and layout, the photographer or videographer to create the visuals, the media buyer to purchase the advertising space, and so on. The completion of your goal (airing or publishing your ad) is dependent on others - Incompatible goals -- Sometimes conflict arises when two parties think that their goals are mutually exclusive. Within an organization, incompatible goals often arise because of the different ways department managers are compensated. For example, a sales manager's bonus may be tied to how many sales are made for the company. As a result, the individual might be tempted to offer customers "freebies" such as expedited delivery in order to make the sale. In contrast, a transportation manager's compensation may be based on how much money the company saves on transit. In this case, the goal might be to eliminate expedited delivery because it adds expense. The two will butt heads until the company resolves the conflict by changing the compensation scheme. For example, if the company assigns the bonus based on profitability of a sale, not just the dollar amount, the cost of the expediting would be subtracted from the value of the sale. It might still make sense to expedite the order if the sale is large enough, in which case both parties would support it. On the other hand, if the expediting negates the value of the sale, neither party would be in favor of the added expense - Personality clashes -- Personality differences among coworkers are common. By understanding some fundamental differences a mong the way people think and act, we can better understand how others see the world. Knowing that these differences are natural and normal lets us anticipate and mitigate interpersonal conflict — it's often not about "you" but simply a different way of seei ng and behaving. For example, Type A individuals have been found to have more conflicts with their coworkers than Type B individuals. - Poor communication -- Sometimes conflict arises simply out of a small, unintentional communication problem, such as lost e-mails or dealing with people who don't return phone calls. Giving feedback is also a case in which the best intentions can quickly escalate into a conflict situation. When communicating, be sure to focus on behavior and its effects, not on the person. For example, say that Jeff always arrives late to all your meetings. You think he has a bad attitude, but you don't really know what Jeff's attitude is. You do know, however, the effect that Jeff's behavior has on you. You could say, "Jeff, when you come late to the meeting, I feel like my time is wasted." Jeff can't argue with that statement, because it is a fact of the impact of his behavior on you. It's indisputable, because it is your reality. What Jeff can say is that he did not intend such an effect, and then you can have a discussion regarding the behavior

Meyers-Briggs

Aside from the Big Five personality traits, perhaps the most well-known and most often used personality assessment is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - measures types - classifies people as one of 16 types - grouped using four dimensions - survey is criticized because it relies on types as opposed to traits, but organizations who use the survey find it very useful for training and team-building purposes - One distinguishing characteristic of this test is that it is explicitly designed for learning, not for employee selection purposes. - EI - SN - TF - JP

emotional labor

- Negative emotions are common among workers in service industries. Individuals who work in manufacturing rarely meet their customers face-to-face. If they're in a bad mood, the customer would not know. Service jobs are just the opposite. Part of a service employee's job is appearing a certain way in the eyes of the public. Individuals in service industries are professional helpers. As such, they are expected to be upbeat, friendly, and polite at all times, which can be exhausting to accomplish in the long run - Emotional labor refers to the regulation of feelings and expressions for organizational purposes. Three major levels of emotional labor have been identified - Surface Acting -- requires an individual to exhibit physical signs, such as smiling, that reflect emotions customers want to experience. A children's hairdresser cutting the hair of a crying toddler may smile and act sympathetic without actually feeling so. In this case, the person is engaged in surface acting - Deep Acting -- takes surface acting one step further. This time, instead of faking an emotion th at a customer may want to see, an employee will actively try to experience the emotion they are displaying. This genuine attempt at empathy helps align the emotions one is experiencing with the emotions one is displaying. The children's hairdresser may empathize with the toddler by imagining how stressful it must be for one so little to be constrained in a chair and be in an unfamiliar environment, and the hairdresser may genuinely begin to feel sad for the child - Genuine Acting -- occurs when individuals are asked to display emotions that are aligned with their own. If a job requires genuine acting, less emotional labor is required because the actions are consistent with true feelings - Research shows that surface acting is related to higher levels of stress and fewer felt positive emotions, while deep acting may lead to less stress.Emotional labor is particularly common in service industries that are also characterized by relatively low pay, which creates the added potentials for stress and feelings of being treated unfairly. In a study of 285 hotel employees, researchers found that emotional labor was vital because so many employee-customer interactions involve individuals dealing with emotionally charged issues. Emotional laborers are required to display specific emotions as part of their jobs. Sometimes, these are emotions that the worker already feels. In that case, the strain of the emotional labor is minimal. For example, a funeral director is generally expected to display sympathy for a family's loss, and in the case of a family member suffering an untimely death, this emotion may be genuine. But for people whose jobs require them to be professionally polite and cheerful, such as flight attendants, or to be serious and authoritative, such as police officers, the work of wearing one's "game face" can have effects that outlast the working day. To combat this, taking breaks can help surface actors to cope more effectively. In addition, researchers have found that greater autonomy is related to less strain for service workers in the United States as well as France

Conflict

-Intrapersonal -- arises within a person. For example, when you're uncertain about what is expected or wanted, or you have a sense of being inadequate to perform a task, you are experiencing intrapersonal conflict. Intrapersonal conflict can arise because of differences in roles. A manager may want to oversee a subordinate's work, believing that such oversight is a ne cessary part of the job. The subordinate, on the other hand, may consider such extensive oversight to be micromanagement or evidence of a lack of trust. Role conflict, another type of intrapersonal conflict, includes having two different job descriptions t hat seem mutually exclusive. This type of conflict can arise if you're the head of one team but also a member of another team. A third type of intrapersonal conflict involves role ambiguity. Perhaps you've been given the task of finding a trainer for a com pany's business writing training program. You may feel unsure about what kind of person to hire —a well- known but expensive trainer or a local, unknown but low-priced trainer. If you haven't been given guidelines about what's expected, you may be wrestling with several options - Intergroup -- is conflict that takes place among different groups. Types of groups may include different departments or divisions in a company, and employee union and management, or competing companies that supply the same customers. Departments may conflict over budget allocations; unions and management may disagree over work rules; suppliers may conflict with each other on the quality of parts. Merging two groups together can lead to friction between the groups—especially if there are scarce resources to be divided amo ng the group. For example, in what has been called "the most difficult and hard-fought labor issue in an airline merger," Canadian Air and Air Canada pilots were locked into years of personal and legal conflict when the two airlines' seniority lists were c ombined following the merger. Seniority is a valuable and scarce resource for pilots, because it helps to determine who flies the newest and biggest planes, who receives the best flight routes, and who is paid the most. In response to the loss of seniority, former Canadian Air pilots picketed at shareholder meetings, threatened to call in sick, and had ongoing conflicts with pilots from Air Canada. The conflicts with pilots continue to this day. The history of past conflicts among organizations and emp loyees makes new deals challenging -Interpersonal -- is among individuals such as coworkers, a manager and an employee, or CEOs and their staff. For example, in 2006 the CEO of Airbus S.A.S., Christian Streiff, resigned because of his confl ict with the board of directors over issues such as how to restructure the company. This example may reflect a well-known trend among CEOs. According to one estimate, 31.9% of CEOs resigned from their jobs because they had conflict with the board of directors. CEOs of competing companies might also have public conflicts. In 1997, Michael Dell was asked what he would do about Apple Computer. "What would I do? I'd shut it down and give the money back to shareholders." Ten years later, Steve Jobs, th e CEO of Apple Inc., indicated he had clearly held a grudge as he shot back at Dell in an e-mail to his employees, stating, "Team, it turned out Michael Dell wasn't perfect in predicting the future. Based on today's stock market close, Apple is worth more than Dell."In part, their long-time disagreements stem from their differences. Interpersonal conflict often arises because of competition, as the Dell/Apple example shows, or because of personality or values differences. For example, one person's style may be to "go with the gut" on decisions, while another person wants to make decisions based on facts. Those differences will lead to conflict if the individuals reach different conclusions. Many companies suffer because of interpersonal conflicts. Keepi ng conflicts centered around ideas rather than individual differences is important in avoiding a conflict escalation - Most people are uncomfortable with conflict, but is conflict always bad? Conflict can be dysfunctional if it paralyzes an organization, leads to less than optimal performance, or, in the worst ca se, leads to workplace violence. Surprisingly, a moderate amount of conflict can actually be a healthy (and necessary) part of organizational life. To understand how to get to a positive level of conflict, we need to understand its root causes, consequ ences, and tools to help manage it. The impact of too much or too little conflict can disrupt performance. If conflict is too low, then performance is low. If conflict is too high, then performance also tends to be low. The goal is to hold conflict levels in the middle of this range. While it might seem strange to want a particular level of conflict, a medium level of task-related conflict is often viewed as optimal, because it represents a situation in which a healthy debate of ideas takes place - Task conflict can be good in certain circumstance, such as in the early stages of decision making, because it stimulates creativity. However, it can interfere with complex tasks in the l ong run. Personal conflicts, such as personal attacks, are never healthy because they cause stress and distress, which undermines performance. The worst cases of personal conflicts can lead to workplace bullying. At Intel Corporation, all new employees go through a 4-hour training module to learn "constructive confrontation." The content of the training program includes dealing with others in a positive manner, using facts rather than opinion to persuade others, and focusing on the problem at hand rathe r than the people involved. "We don't spend time being defensive or taking things personally. We cut through all of that and get to the issues," notes a trainer from Intel University. The success of the training remains unclear, but the presence of thi s program indicates that Intel understands the potentially positive effect of a moderate level of conflict. Research focusing on effective teams across time found that they were characterized by low but increasing levels of process conflict (how do we get things done?), low levels of relationship conflict with a rise toward the end of the project (personal disagreements among team members), and moderate levels of task conflict in the middle of the task time line

interactional justice

Interactional justice refers to the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions. We expect to be treated with dignity by our peers, supervisors, and customers. When the opposite happens, we feel angry. Even when faced with negative outcomes such as a pay cut, being treated with dignity and respect serves as a buffer and alleviates our stress

Accommodation

The accommodating style is cooperative and unassertive. In this style, the person gives in to what the other side wants, even if it means giving up one's personal goals. People who use this style may fear speaking up for themselves or they may place a higher value on the relationshi p, believing that disagreeing with an idea might be hurtful to the other person. They will say things such as, "Let's do it your way" or "If it's important to you, I can go along with it." Accommodation may be an effective strategy if the issue at hand is more important to others compared to oneself. However, if a person perpetually uses this style, that individual may start to see that personal interests and well-being are neglected

Collaboration

The collaborating style i s high on both assertiveness and cooperation. This is a strategy to use for achieving the best outcome from conflict — both sides argue for their position, supporting it with facts and rationale while listening attentively to the other side. The objective is to find a win - win solution to the problem in which both parties get what they want. They'll challenge points but not each other. They'll emphasize problem solving and integration of each other's goals. For example, an employee who wants to complete an MBA program may have a conflict with management when he wants to reduce his work hours. Instead of taking opposing positions in which the employee defends his need to pursue his career goals while the manager emphasizes the company's need for the employee, bo th parties may review alternatives to find an integrative solution. In the end, the employee may decide to pursue the degree while taking online classes, and the company may realize that paying for the employee's tuition is a worthwhile investment. This ma y be a win-win solution to the problem in which no one gives up what is personally important, and every party gains something from the exchange

Compromise

The compromising style is a middle-ground style, in which ind ividuals have some desire to express their own concerns and get their way but still respect the other person's goals. The compromiser may say things such as, "Perhaps I ought to reconsider my initial position" or "Maybe we can both agree to give in a littl e." In a compromise, each person sacrifices something valuable to them. For example, in 2005 the luxurious Lanesborough Hotel in London advertised incorrect nightly rates for £35, as opposed to £350. When the hotel received a large number of online booking s at this rate, the initial reaction was to insist that customers cancel their reservations and book at the correct rate. The situation was about to lead to a public relations crisis. As a result, they agreed to book the rooms at the advertised price for a maximum of three nights, thereby limiting the damage to the hotel's bottom line as well as its reputation.